さいたま市教育家会ジャーナル

TheJournal of Saitama City Educators (JSCE)A さいたま市教育家会 (SCE) Publication

ISSN: 2185-7822

Volume 2, Issue 5December 2012

EditorsJohn Finucane and Matthew Shannon

Co-editorBrad Semans

TranslatorsBrad Semans and Naoki Otani

ProofreadingMatthew Shannon

Cover Design and Layout byCarl Bloomfield and John Finucane

JSCE and JSCE submission guidelines can be found online at:http://www.saitamacityeducators.org

Copyright and License

JSCE is an open access journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License

Foreword

• Helping teachers gain awareness of what is happening at all levels of English education, not just their own

• Supporting young teachers’ organizations that have proven dynamic and innovative in our field

• Improving relations and exchange opportunities between Japanese and foreign teachers of English

The Nakasendo Conference has three explicit goals: to improve our awareness of English education beyond our own horizons, to support young teacher's organizations, and to improve relations and exchange opportunities between Japanese and foreign teachers of English. It is in this issue that those goals have been wholly realized. You'll find the compelling work of Critically Minded, the critical-thinking podcast duo of David  Gann and Nicholas Bufton, who present the opportunities and concerns of podcasting in a way all of us may learn from and appreciate. Leander Hughes, a personal mentor and creator of the LLEX program, continues to pursue a world where computer-assisted learning is practical, free, and directly correlates to our concerns as teachers.  Katrina Harata, Vice President of Filipino English Teachers in Japan (FETJ), digests a door-busting lecture from the conference in this issue - I would like that everyone should have an audience as strong as hers. Finally, submissions from professionals in Japan (but not necessarily from Japan) who have returned to school in order that they may improve themselves and others: Teachers College Columbia University (Tokyo) students Ayako Kanamaru, Joël Laurier, Taron Plaza, Chie Shiramizu, and Ethan Taomae provide an excellent study in cooperative learning, while Caroline Pomietlarz-Yamasaki and Satchie Haga offer examples of pragmatics in beginner level classrooms that challenge conventions while opening doors to methods we can embrace today. 

Given the depth of the material, it is startling in its ease of reading. Share, practice, and respond to what you learn from these pages. Enjoy.

Matthew Shannon,Chair of the Nakasendo 2012

Contents

David A. Gann & Nicholas A. Bufton: A guide to producing, implementing and getting the most out of podcastingデェビド・ガン　と　ニコラス・ブートン: 効果を多く得たポッドキャストの作成と実行Page 1

Katrina Harata: Using English the ESA Way原田マリアカトリーナ: ESAの方法で英語を使うことPage 8

Leander S. Hughes: Gauging Online Extensive Reading Progress via Automatically Generated Comprehension Questions ヒューズ・リアンダー: 自動生成された読解力問題を用いたオンラインでの多読の進捗状況の計測Page 13

Ayako Kanamaru, Joël Laurier, Taron Plaza, Chie Shiramizu & Ethan Taomae: Cooperative Learning - creating more opportunities to show true student ability金丸 紋子, ジョエル・ロリエ, タロン・プラザ, 白水 千絵, イ-サン・タオマエ: 協同学習～生徒の能力を引き出すために～Page 22

Caroline Pomietlarz-Yamasaki & Satchie Haga: Pragmatics in Use: Enriching The Beginner Classroom Experience Through Pragmatic Focus ポミエトラズ・山﨑キャロライン & 芳賀 幸愛: 実用的なフォカスを通して初級者の見聞を広げるPage 31

A Guide to Producing, Implementing and Getting the Most Out of Podcasting効果を多く得たポッドキャストの作成と実行

David A. Gann & Nicholas A. Bufton: Critically Minded Podcast デェビド・ガン　と　ニコラス・ブートン : 批判的なポッドキャスト

About the Authors

Nicholas Bufton is Professor of Modern Languages in the Department of Education, Kyoei University. He is the Critical Thinking SIG Publications Officer. His academic interests are task-based learning, language testing and critical thinking.

David Gann is an Adjunct Professor at five universities in Gunma and Saitama including Gunma Prefectural Women’s University and Takasaki University of Economics. He is the Critical Thinking SIG Program Chair. His interests include reading strategies, technology and language learning and critical thinking instruction.

Abstract

This paper reports on the rationale for the use of and the development of a series of podcasts designed to support the teaching of critical thinking to undergraduates. It describes the teaching and learning context; the rationale and processes used in the podcast design; how the podcast scripts can be recycled for text reconstruction exercises; and how the podcasts were integrated as part of the blended learning delivery. In addition, to the positive aspects of podcasting some concerns are highlighted.

要約

大学生の批判的思考の指導の支援となるポッドキャストを開発する理論的根拠を本論文で報告します。学習環境、ポッドキャストの作成で使用した基本原則や方法、台本をリサイクルする方法や授業での取り組みを説明します。良い点と共に課題も明確します。

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Introduction

In the last few years the use of podcasts and blogs has become increasingly trendy. However, the validity of their use depends greatly on the pedagogical basis for which they are being implemented. It would be an error to simply tack on a podcast as a supplement or as a novel accessory to one’s curriculum without considering how the shift from a traditional in-class approach to a blended learning style affects the class holistically. With this caveat in mind, in 2010 the authors began production of Critically Minded Podcast. The main reasons for this decision were class time constraints and the differing speeds at which students acquire an adequate working knowledge of the questions and issues related to the application of critical thinking skills. As too large a portion of class time was being taken up by teacher-fronted explanations and guidance, and not enough time was being used for the pedagogically more useful student to student exploration and discussion of the targeted issues, a more efficient use of everyone’s time was needed.

Balancing the goals of a syllabus with the class time available has always been a problem in education, and traditionally any imbalances have been resolved by setting homework which, until recently, usually took the form of reading or writing assignments. However, with the use of podcasting, educators are better able to facilitate learning by offering flexibility in how and when they engage in certain parts of their learning.

To this end, fourteen podcasts were produced covering the core components of critical thinking. The mp3 file for each episode includes an embedded script which not only supports the audio portion of the podcasts, but also forms the base of text reconstruction exercises the authors employ in the classroom.

Teaching Critical Thinking

Four possible approaches to teaching critical thinking have been proposed by Ennis (1992): Critical thinking can be (1) taught through the General approach whereby the focus of teaching critical thinking is separate from the subject matter; (2) infused into the subject-matter instruction; (3) immersed in the subject-matter instruction; or (4) taught through a Mixed approach – a combination of the General approach with the Infusion approach. The authors, in line with other proponents of the Mixed approach Ennis (1985,

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1992), Perkins and Solomon (1989), and Valanides (1990), take the Mixed approach due to their differing syllabuses and course demands.

This combination of a separate thread within a syllabus aimed at teaching general critical thinking principles and skills, in addition to subject-specific instruction, allows the authors to maintain a balance between the two threads. Inevitably, this leads to competing demands on class time between the teaching of explicit critical thinking principles and analysis, and the discussion and examination of the subject matter. Furthermore, in view of Schmidt’s findings that “control processing associated with novice behavior, cannot be carried out concurrently with other demanding tasks” (1990: 136), the authors recognized the need to mitigate dual cognitive load by separating critical thinking instruction and course content.

The solution to this dichotomy was to move part of the explicit teacher-fronted critical thinking content out of the classroom by transferring most of the metalanguage and theory to a podcast so students could work through this part of the syllabus at their own pace. Thus increasing the amount of time available in class for student to student discussions.

Why Podcasting?

Producing a podcast is not an endeavor to be begun on impulse and the authors considered the advantages and disadvantages before determining that the podcast format was appropriate for their students and for the delivery of core content. The main disadvantage is the initial teacher time investment, however, the authors feel the advantages clearly outweigh this concern. Some of the main advantages of using a podcast format are:

1. An increase in in-class student-student talk time.

2. The possibility of a more convenient and engaging listening experience.

3. Students may listen to or read the content more than once.

4. Scripted dialog provides more carefully worded explanations.

5. The ease with which students can reread the script and update their notes.

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First, in many classes students do not have enough time to discuss and debate ideas in English because a large portion of the available time is taken up by teacher-fronted explanations and guidance. For each minute of class-time spent with students passively absorbing content, a minute is lost that might be better allotted to student-student (SS) talk. Therefore, by relocating background reading and the understanding of critical thinking skills to a podcast, SS talk time is increased. These podcasted lead-ins also provide the means for shared experiences through a blended learning approach.

Secondly, the mobility of mp3 files allows students to listen to teacher-provided content in more comfortable and less distracting environments or at times when they are more receptive to study. As for the nature of podcasts, student feedback revealed that the dialogue format with its turn-taking, differing viewpoints, knowledge, personalities, accents and tones are more engaging than a monologue podcast.

Thirdly, students can listen to podcast episodes multiple times. During listening exercises in class we don’t normally expect students to understand all the content on the first play. Thus content is often replayed. While the opportunity for subsequent listening increases the opportunity for greater and deeper comprehension it may be a waste of time for more competent students.

Fourthly, the ability to carefully select and measure their vocabulary, phrases and idioms was an important factor in the authors’ decision to produce the podcast. The need to convey ideas succinctly, using vocabulary within their students’ reach also influenced the authors’ decision to produce a scripted podcast. While most scripted podcasts are short monologues and most unscripted ones are co-hosted, the authors found that the unscripted format didn’t work well for them. When they attempted to speak off-the-cuff or with loosely prepared notes in outline form the result was wooden and halting. Counter-intuitively, the attempt to sound casual and spontaneous produced a forced performance while practiced reading from a script produced an easy-going conversational tone.

Lastly, by accessing the script provided at our website, students can read the script to each episode. The script is also embedded in the mp3 file for each episode. Listeners using mp3 players may access the script by single-tapping on the screen in order to display the script which can be scrolled through as they listen to the podcast. The website also allows students to print the script or create an online copy in order to note any unfamiliar words and phrases. This also affords them the opportunity to more easily make notes regarding any questions or ideas they have while listening. This is

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especially useful as they are required to bring their notes and thoughts to class for discussion.

Some Points of Concern

Some points of concern also had to be weighed before deciding upon the podcast format. One of these was, naturally, the question of whether students would actually access and listen to the content. The authors worked toward producing engaging dialogue in the hope that it would catch and keep students’ attention. By drafting a slightly larger than life version of their normal mode of discourse, a bit of light tension was infused into the relationship of Nick and Dave with the intent of drawing students into the content.

A second concern was the difficulty of teaching students how to access the content. It was originally assumed that many students would subscribe to the podcasts through iTunes and that the content would be made available via alternate means to students without access to iTunes. Unfortunately, this was not always feasible as downloading the podcast on some campuses is either not permitted or exasperatingly slow. Thus, while the podcast is available on iTunes, students are encouraged to access each episode from the blog where they can also take advantage of printable scripts, and if they wish, contribute to the Forums and/or offer feedback.

A third concern was whether the students would be able to comprehend the material when listening to it on their own. Thus, students are tasked to listen to the podcasts, circle or highlight parts of the script that they don’t understand and make marginal notes for parts that make them think of a relevant example to offer during in-class small group discussions. The authors were cognizant of how formidable the length of some of the scripts might be for those students less fluent in English, and so a rough survey was done prior to producing the podcasts. The results of which confirm Chan and Lee’s (2005) findings that the optimal running time is between 9 and 10 minutes. Also in deference to student needs, the scripts were color-coded with the core concepts and essential examples in black and the less important passages in gray. Capable students are encouraged to read each script in its entirety while students who feel that the length is a barrier are advised to focus on the essential blocks.

Given the nature of the content, an effort was made to keep the vocabulary within the range of most students. While current second language reading research does not clearly indicate the optimal ratio of new vocabulary items

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to known vocabulary the authors decided that no more than three new words per fifty should be encountered. Though for practical reasons it is often necessary to relegate this to rule of thumb, especially in the early episodes as a certain amount of metalanguage and background information has to be introduced. However, the slow pacing from episode to episode, and the focused and repeated use of new vocabulary are considered effective methods for ameliorating the possibility of initial overload.

Summary and Conclusion

Using podcasts to move parts of a syllabus such as background reading out of the classroom can be an effective way of freeing up class-time for more important activities, providing the material is essential and worthwhile, and students feel it is an integral component of the class. The authors achieved this by (1) thoughtfully constructing podcasts whereby the content was disciplined and in line with the principles laid out above, (2) by not duplicating podcasted material exactly in any class handouts, and (3) by incorporating parts of the script into text reconstruction exercises. Incorporating podcast scripts into text reconstruction exercises actually turned out to be a very successful method of encouraging students to read and retain many of the core issues discussed in the podcasts. Additional, extrinsic motivation was supplied by encouraging students to bring their annotated podcast scripts to in-class small-group discussions.

Initially, not all students accessed the podcasts. A variety of reasons are given ranging from technical to the belief that they are optional. Once these misunderstandings have been overcome, the flexibility of this format means absenteeism is no longer a valid excuse for not coming to class adequately prepared.

After an initial period of settling in, the authors noticed that more in-class time was being used for small-group discussion, and that a sense of community was being cultivated through social connections. Also, as students became accustomed to this style of learning, more positive student feedback was received regarding the value of the podcasts in providing a roadmap/direction to upcoming topics and issues as well as reinforcement of key concepts recently covered.

While there are still one or two issues with the production and implementation of podcasts to be resolved, student feedback is encouraging especially with regards to the recycling of podcast scripts in text reconstruction exercises. Whether this is because they see these exercises as

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opportunities for revision and consolidation or because these exercises validate all the hard work they put into understanding them has not yet been fully established – food for thought, and more research.

References

Chan. A. & Lee. M. (2005) “An MP3 a day keeps the worries away: Exploring the use of podcasting to address preconceptions and alleviate pre-class anxiety amongst undergraduate information technology students,” in Spennemann, D. and Burr, L. (eds), Good Practice in Practice. Proceedings of the Student Experience Conference (Wagga Wagga, NSW, UK, Sept. 2005): Charles Stuart University, pp. 59-71.

Ennis. R. H. (1985). Critical thinking and the curriculum. National Forum, 65, 28-31. --. (1992). The degree to which critical thinking is subject specific: Clarification and needed research. In S. P. Norris (Ed.), The generalizability of critical thinking: Multiple perspectives on an educational ideal (pp. 21-37). New York: Teachers College.

Kennedy, M., Fisher, M. B., & Ennis, R.H. (1991).; Critical thinking: Literature review and needed research. In L. Idol & B. Fly Jones (Eds.) Educational values and cognitive instruction: Implications for reform (pp. 11-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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Using English the ESA WayESAの方法で英語を使うこと

Katrina Harata: Fujimi City Board of Education 原田マリアカトリーナ : 富士見市教育委員会

About the Author

Maria Katrina Harata currently works for the Fujimi City Board of Education and is involved with the development of Elementary School Foreign Language Activities Project. She is the Internal VP and one of the trainers of Filipino English Teachers in Japan (FETJ).

Abstract

In teaching ESL/EFL, teachers face a lot of problems in achieving the main goal of teaching the language. These problems are: students’ lack of motivation, lack of exposure to the target language and lack of opportunity to use the language. A lesson approach which can be applied to solve these issues is the Engage Study Activate (ESA) method. The Engage Study Activate (ESA) method benefits the teacher and the learner in a way that it gives the teacher a great deal of flexibility in the classroom and gives the student an opportunity to analyze and experiment with the language. This leads to successful learning.

要約

ESL/EFLでは、言語指導の中心とした目的を達成することにあたって先生方は複数の問題点 直視します。問題点は：やる気のない生徒、言葉との出会いや使う機会の不足など。この問題点を解決するためにESA方法を使うことできます。ESA方法は生徒にも、先生にも教室内の柔軟性の恩恵があります。生徒が言葉を分析する機会にもなります。このように、レッスンの成功につながります。

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Generally speaking, the goal of learning a second language is to achieve fluency for the benefit of effective communication. ESL/EFL teachers encounter a lot of difficulties in achieving this goal for so many reasons. These are mainly: students’ lack of motivation, lack of exposure to the target language and lack of opportunity to use the language. Various methods and approaches have been introduced and applied by ESL/EFL teachers to make lessons more effective, decrease difficulties and attain the goals of language learning. However, it is difficult to decide which way is the best to use. There is no clear answer as much will depend upon a teacher’s individual conditions. Different factors such as the teacher’s personality, environment, culture of the students and their individual needs all play a part in making this kind of decision. In reality, each method has its advantages and disadvantages, but I think certain conclusions can be drawn:

•Learning vocabulary or phrases is as important as learning grammar.•Teachers should focus on content and meaning.•Students need as much exposure to the language as possible.•Teachers need to explain as well as elicit ideas from the students (language

discovery).•Teachers must initiate a need for the students to learn the language.•Words of encouragement from the teacher contribute to effective language

learning.•Students’ low level anxiety and reduced amount of stress makes learning

successful.•Teaching methodologies that are used should suit the culture of the students.

Based on these conclusions, there are three important factors that must come into play in the classroom: students need to be motivated, be exposed to the language and have the opportunity to use it. The most effective method for this was put forward by a teacher, teacher trainer and an author named Jeremy Harmer. He called these elements “ESA”- Engage, Study and Activate. This methodology is easy to remember and understand and gives the teacher a great deal of flexibility in the classroom.

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ENGAGE

Harmer defines “engage” as the sequence in the lesson where the teacher captivates the students’ attention and interest and get them involved in the lesson. Once the students get involved, discipline problems are eliminated hence learning process made more successful.

Depending on the level of the students, the teacher should have appropriate activities and materials that aid in making lessons more motivating and fun in order to get them engaged and create a classroom that is more conducive to learning . Examples are: visual aids, games, music, songs and chants, stories, and course books.

Visual aids

Pictures are very effective materials which serve as prompts to enable the teacher to elicit ideas from the students, as well as review the language that the students have learned.

Games

Games can range from the simplest games that we know up to the most complicated ones that we play online. Teachers just need to vary them to adjust to the level of the students.

Songs and Chants

This is a very popular way to get young learners involved before a teacher starts the lesson. Children love to sing and move. With its rhythm and pattern, the students love to repeat them therefore it serves as an opportunity for the teacher to practice students’ fluency.

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Stories

Aside from telling short stories that come from books, personal stories can also be used to captivate the students’ attention and empower their imagination to recognize the language.

If students are engaged in the learning process, I think fluency is achieved.

STUDY

These are activities which focus on the introduction of the language and its construction. According to the Model Action Talk (MAT) method which was developed by Ritsuko Nakata, when introducing a language, teachers must start from teaching the vocabulary first, then build up the vocabulary into sentence and then construct the sentence into a question form ( i.e. “on weekends” è ”I play tennis on weekends” è ” What do you do on weekends?” ). These activities could range from the practice of the language/texts/sounds to the analysis of a passage or the language itself. There is the consideration of the subject- verb agreement. In this stage, students must be aware of pronunciation, spelling, meaning, and word order.

At this stage, the teacher explains the subject matter, gives many examples and the students analyze. But the teacher must remember that not all explanations should be provided by him/her. He/she should also elicit ideas from the students to show understanding of the language.

ACTIVATE

After the study stage has been executed effectively, activate stage comes next. It is in the activate stage where students can experiment with any or all of the language that they have learned. They can use their newly learned words together with other words that they know. The focus of the activate stage is much more on fluency because the students use the language as freely and as communicatively as possible. Some ways on how to do the activate stage are role plays, communication games, discussions and story writing.

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Role play

This is an activity where students act out as realistically as possible in a dialogue between two or more people

Communication games

This is an activity where students practice the target language through conversation. This can also be done as many times as they can in a given time.

Discussions

Discussions give the students the opportunity to exchange ideas with each other.

Story writing

Students can either work alone or with a group which shall showcase their ability to think uniquely.

These ESA elements need to be included in most lessons to provide a balanced range of activities for the students. In summary, the “engage” stage should motivate the students fully, the “study” stage should provide controlled practice to see that students have internalized the language and construct it in an accurate, controlled way, and the “activate” stage should give the students a chance to use the language fluently along with the rest of their language knowledge.

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Gauging Online Extensive Reading Progress via Automatically Generated Comprehension Questions

自動生成された読解力問題を用いたオンラインでの多読の進捗状況の計測

Leander S. Hughes: Saitama University, Assistant Professor ヒューズ・リアンダー : 埼玉大学, 助教

About the Author

Leander Hughes is an Assistant Professor at the Saitama University Center for English Education and Development. He is interested in quantitative language research methods, extensive reading, and computer assisted language learning. Other interests include learner autonomy and applying principles of social psychology to the language-teaching context.

Abstract

Though much evidence exists indicating the effectiveness of extensive reading in promoting foreign language acquisition, a number of roadblocks continue to prevent the widespread implementation of extensive reading programs. This paper introduces an experimental online application that may help educators overcome these barriers by making zero-cost, online extensive reading a more viable option. The technology allows learners to read whatever online texts fit their interest and level and quickly demonstrate to their teachers that they have read and understood those texts. After describing the current version of this technology, an agenda for further research and development is proposed.

要約

多読の効果によって外国語学習が促進されることを示す証拠は多いが、多読プログラムを広範囲に実施するには様々な障壁がある。本論文では、費用のかからないオンラインでの多読を、現実的な選択肢とすることで、教師がこの障害を克服する手助けとなる実験的なオンライン・プログラムを紹介する。この技術によって、学習者は自らの興味やレベルに合ったオンラインのテキストを読むことができるようになり、教師に対しては、彼らがそれらのテキストを読んで理解したことをすぐに示すことができる。本論文では、本プログラムの現在のバージョンについて説明した後で、今後の研究と発展の計画を提示する。

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Extensive reading is the voluntary reading of a large number of self-chosen texts for pleasure. The body of evidence that extensive reading (ER) effectively promotes foreign language acquisition continues to grow (e.g. Elley & Mungubhai, 1983; Hsu & Lee, 2005; Mason, 2006; Sims, 1996; Smith, 2007). However, for optimal acquisition to occur with ER, 98 to 99 percent of the words in a text should be comprehensible to learners (Laufer, 1989; Nation, 2001), which severely limits the number of materials available to beginner and intermediate-level learners. Educators with sufficient resources and support from their institutions may respond to this problem by supplying their learners with graded readers, linguistically simplified texts often based on popular authentic novels or works of non-fiction. Such educators, however, represent a privileged few in our field.

Increasingly though, an alternative, or at least supplemental, approach to graded-reader-based ER has materialized in the form of free ESL/EFL oriented reading material via the Internet. Browne and Waring (2012) list several sites offering a wide variety of free simplified reading materials for a range of levels (some of the better ones include: www.literacyworks.org/learningresources, www.cdlponline.org, www.beeoasis.com, and http://learningenglish.voanews.com). However, even if teachers find an appropriate selection of ER materials for their learners free via the Internet, a second roadblock remains; namely, how to determine whether learners are actually reading the materials they claim to be reading. This second hurdle applies to the graded reader approach as well, and various solutions have been tried, including having learners write reports and take quizzes on readings. Some educators have even resolved to take it on good faith that learners have read the texts they claimed to have read.

Each of the above three approaches carries with it inherent flaws. Reports require substantial effort on the part of learners, which may sabotage the “for pleasure” component of ER, while creating or locating appropriately leveled quizzes for materials selected by learners requires a great deal of time and effort on the part of the teacher. Finally, few educators and institutions are willing to simply ask learners what they have read and leave it at that. There is now, however, a fourth approach to checking learners’ online ER progress in the form of a new experimental technology called Jist.

Jist derives from the word gist and is an online game that automatically generates comprehension questions for any inputted digital text of 10 sentences or

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more in length. The following discusses what Jist does, how it works, and how it can be further developed.

Playing Jist

This section describes a hypothetical player’s session with a beta version of Jist available at the time of writing at www.leanderhughes.com/jist (because Jist is foremost a game played for fun in conjunction with extensive reading, users are henceforth referred to as “players”).

First, our player finds a reading online that is both comprehensible and interesting to her and copies it. She then goes to the Jist homepage (Figure 1), fills in her login information, pastes the text in, and clicks Start Reading! Next, the player sees the Jist reading interface (Figure 2) with her reading on the left half of the screen and information about her reading progress at the top right of the screen.

Figure 1. Homepage

Figure 2. Reading Interface

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At the halfway point as she scrolls through her reading, a star appears flashing in the box on the right (Figure 3). When she clicks it, the first comprehension question called “Progress Check” (Figure 4) appears asking her about the first half of her text, and a timer above the question displays how long she has to answer it (see the next section for details on the question types and how they are generated). If our player answers the question correctly she receives 200 hundred tokens for use in a mini-game at the end of her session. Having answered correctly, she may move on to the second half of her reading. If she answers incorrectly, she must review the text for a set period of time, and then the star reappears allowing her to try answering the question again. She will notice, however, that for every new chance she gets to answer the question, the number of tokens she wins for her answer decreases (down to 50 where they remain until the question is answered). Furthermore, though the question itself remains the same with every new attempt, the content of the answer choices changes.

Figure 3. Question Queued

Figure 4. Progress Check

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Upon reaching the end of her text, the player is faced with a second, more challenging question (the “Ordering Question” shown in Figure 5), which though different in style is similar to the first in that the player must answer it correctly before she can move on and receives as many tries as it takes to do so, while the content of the answer choices again changes with each subsequent try.

Figure 5. Ordering Question

In addition to receiving tokens for correctly answering questions, the player also gains them for moving through the reading at an efficient speed, specifically at between 120 and 250 words per minute. The minimum speed in this range was determined through an estimate of the minimum reading speed required to read every word in the reading section of the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) within the time given to complete it. The maximum speed is based on Bailey’s (1996) estimated minimum average American reading speed for prose. If the player reads within this range, she receives the maximum tokens possible for her rate of reading (200). Otherwise she receives fewer tokens based on how much slower or faster she reads outside of this range (the reason why there is an upper limit to reading speed is to discourage learners from just skimming through the text without really reading it).

Once our player demonstrates her completion of the reading by successfully answering the questions, she has an opportunity to use the tokens she has earned to play a slot-machine game to win bonus points for her class (Figure 6). After finishing the game, the player clicks Finish and her Jist performance data is sent via email to both her and her teacher. The emailed results include the players’ estimated reading speed, her article’s word count, reading comprehension score (in terms of tries it took her to answer the questions correctly), and bonus points won, as well as the actual text she read in its entirety.

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Figure 6. Slot Game

Question Types and Generation

Jist currently generates two types of questions- a phrase question (“Progress Check”) and an ordering question. These questions are intended to provide enough measure of reading comprehension to indicate that the reader has read and understood their text at a basic level. This section describes in general terms what each respective question requires the player to do and how the questions are generated.

The phrase question displays four phrases between four and seven words long, three of which are from the text and one that is not from the text. The player must decide within one minute which phrase is not from the text. As mentioned, if the player chooses the wrong phrase, she will have another chance to answer the question but the four choices will have changed. To generate this question, Jist uses a set of complex algorithms which sift the text for key phrases, randomly selects three of them, and then compares those three to others from outside of the text stored in a bank within the program to find a distracter phrase that is difficult to distinguish from the others without actually having read the text. The four choices are then displayed in random order on the screen. If the player chooses the incorrect answer, Jist indicates the correct answer and then, after 30 seconds of review time, goes through the phrase selection process again to generate new choices.

The ordering question is generated in the same way as the phrase question only using key sentences and sentence fragments up to 15 words in length. For this question, not only must the player find the choice that is not from the text, but she

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must also order the three remaining choices all within two minutes. If the player makes a mistake, Jist displays the correct order and then, after one minute of review time, regenerates the question using different key sentences and a new sentence from outside of the text.

Having read the above, some readers may be skeptical about Jist’s ability to truly measure whether players have read and comprehended a text or not. To a degree this skepticism is warranted, (particularly in the case of shorter texts) but the time limits given for the questions and the fact that it is very difficult even in an L1 to memorize multiple sentences in a text word-for-word make it unlikely that players could successfully answer the questions merely by hunting through the text for each sentence/phrase in the answer choices or by attempting to memorize the text word-for-word without actually comprehending those words. Still, the validity and reliability of Jist’s measures require empirical testing. The next section describes how this may be done and also provides some ideas for modifications to improve Jist.

Directions for Further Development

Two main methods exist for testing the validity and reliability of Jist’s measures. Both involve giving a large sample of players of a wide range of levels a variety of texts to read using the program. For the first method, the researcher provides additional human-made comprehension questions for the texts given, and investigates for a significant correlation between subjects’ scores on those questions and their scores on their respective Jist questions. The second method investigates for a significant correlation between Jist scores and players’ scores on a standardized test of English reading proficiency. In both cases, significant correlations would provide evidence that Jist’s questions are a valid and reliable way to measure reading comprehension.

There are a number of ways in which Jist can be improved. First, to eliminate the possibility that players simply skim for the sentences or phrases featured in Jist questions, the interface should be changed so that the text is made invisible while questions are displayed. Second, Jist should be modified such that it is able to gauge players’ progress over multiple readings and display this progress to both players and their teachers when they log in. Then, based on its assessment of a player’s progress, Jist should be able to adjust the difficulty of its questions as well

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as warn players when they have chosen a text that is likely to be too easy or too hard from them. Beyond this, there are still countless ways in which Jist could be made more motivating for players. Thus, perhaps the wisest immediate modification to make would be to add a comment button, where teachers and players can send in their suggestions for how to further improve it.

Conclusion

There is still much work to be done in developing Jist, including foremost an empirical assessment of the validity and reliability of its questions, and there are many ways in which Jist could be modified to make it more motivating for players. Even in its present unpolished manifestation though, Jist marks a potential revolution in extensive reading as it frees students to read virtually any online text of interest for their classes and actually have fun providing proof to their teachers that they read it. Meanwhile, teachers may no longer have to worry about spending hour upon hour checking student reports on readings or obtaining suitable comprehension questions for various texts. In short, through expanding the number of reading materials available to learners while decreasing the time and effort needed to properly check learners’ reading progress, Jist may offer learners and teachers a more autonomous, cost-effective, and thus more widely implementable way to do extensive reading.

Acknowledgement

The researcher would like to thank Assistant Professor Naoki Otani at the Saitama University Center for English Education and Development for his assistance in translating the title and abstract of this paper into Japanese.

References

Bailey, B. (1996). Human performance engineering: Designing high quality, professional user interfaces for computer products, applications, and systems. Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

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Browne, C. & Waring, R. (2012). Graded reading online. What's out there? PowerPoint presentation given at the 5th Annual Extensive Reading Seminar, Nagoya. (Available at www.robwaring.org/presentations)

Elley, W. B., & Mangubhai, F. (1983). The impact of reading on second language reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 53-67.

Hsu, Y. Y., & Lee, S. Y. (2007). A three-year longitudinal study on in-class sustained silent reading with taiwanese vocational college students. Selected papers from the Sixteenth International Symposium on English Teaching, English Teachers’ Association—Republic of China. Taipei: Crane Publishing Company.

Laufer, B. (1989). What percentage of text-lexis is essential for comprehension? In: C. Lauren and M. Nordmann (Eds.). Special language: from humans thinking to thinking machines. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Mason, B. (2006). Free voluntary reading and autonomy in second language acquisition: Improving TOEFL Scores from Reading Alone. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 2(1), 2-5.

Nation, P. (2001). Teaching vocabulary in another language. Cambridge University Press.

Sims, J. (1996). A comparative study of improvements in reading comprehension of skill-based instruction and extensive reading for pleasure with Taiwanese freshman university students. Doctoral Dissertation. Florida State University: College of Education.

Smith, K. (2006). A comparison of “pure extensive reading with intensive reading and extensive reading with supplemental activities. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching. 2(2), 12-15.

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Cooperative Learning - creating more opportunities to show true student ability

協同学習～生徒の能力を引き出すために～

Ayako Kanamaru, Joël Laurier, Taron Plaza, Chie Shiramizu & Ethan Taomae: Teachers College Columbia University Japan Campus

金丸 紋子, ジョエル・ロリエ, タロン・プラザ, 白水 千絵, イ-サン・タオマエ :コロンビア大学ティーチャーズカレッジ日本校

About the Authors

Joël Laurier is a teacher at Gunma Kokusai Academy. While his research interests include bilingualism, language in education policy, curriculum development and assessment, he is best known for his teacher training in Cooperative Learning. He is an MA in TESOL candidate at Teachers College, Columbia University. <waldolaurier@gmail.com>

Ethan Taomae  teaches oral communication at Tokyo Metropolitan University and ESP courses at Japan College of Foreign Languages. His research interests include Cooperative Learning, language teacher development, and social identity. He is an MA in TESOL graduate from Teachers College, Columbia University. <etaomae@gmail.com>

Taron Plaza has been teaching oral communication for over ten years at Nakamura and Innokuchi Elementary Schools in Nakai-machi.  His research interests include Cooperative Learning, teacher training, and young learner development.  He is an MA in TESOL candidate at Teachers College, Columbia University. <taronplaza@gmail.com>

Ayako Kanamaru is a junior and senior high school English teacher working for Caritas Junior and Senior High School. Her research interests include Cooperative Learning, English pronunciation teaching, and teacher development. She is an MA in TESOL graduate at Teachers College, Columbia University.<ayakana81@gmail.com>

Chie Shiramizu teaches at Kyoei University in Saitama. Her research interests include Cooperative Learning, teacher development and teaching young learners. She is an MA in TESOL graduate from Teachers College, Columbia University. <standby_chie@yahoo.co.jp>

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Abstract

Critics of the education system in Japan claim students have knowledge of English but can’t use it.  This may be the result of a lack of opportunity (e.g. teacher-centered classrooms) or a lack of confidence. Both concerns point to an unrealistic picture of our students’ linguistic output. Cooperative Learning (CL) structures present an effective way of addressing these issues. This workshop will demonstrate CL in a variety of contexts. It will also show how CL structures can help teachers deliver their lesson content effectively while creating and managing a supportive language learning environment, increasing student engagement, and ultimately facilitating active language use. Attendees will be presented with tools that can be readily employed in their teaching contexts to help them get their students to show what they can do.

要約

近年、日本の英語教育において、「日本人学生は英語の知識はあるが、それを使うことができない」ことが懸念されている。その原因の一つとして、従来の教師中心型の学習環境では、学習者の発話機会が少ないことが挙げられる。そこで我々は、この実情を解決する効果的な方法として「協同学習」に注目している。協同学習を採用することで、学習者の発話機会を増やし、授業への主体的参加を促すため、効果的な学習が見込める。この参加型ワークショップでは、まず協同学習の理論や技法を、学習者の英語能力や年齢に応じて紹介する。その後、これらの理論や技法を発展させたアクティビティーを提案し、聴講者に体験してもらう。また、従来の教師中心型学習環境に、どのように協同学習を取り入れることができるか、また学習者が学んだ知識をどうしたら最大限に生かすことができるかを議論する。

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Introduction

This paper summarizes the hands on Cooperative Learning (CL) workshop we gave at the 2012 Nakasendo Conference. The workshop demonstrated CL through a variety of teaching contexts.  

We showed how CL structures can help teachers deliver their lesson content effectively while creating and managing a supportive language learning environment, increasing student engagement, and ultimately facilitating active language use. The entire workshop was conducted using CL structures, many of which came from Kagan and Kagan (2009).

This workshop was divided into three parts. The first part of the workshop served as an introduction to Kagan’s principles of CL. After doing a brief team-building exercise, participants engaged in a series of cooperative activities which provided the opportunity for them to discover what constitutes a CL task.  In the second part, CL structures were demonstrated in three different teaching contexts using three different aspects of language learning - young learners (introduction of vocabulary), junior and high school (grammar drills) and university and adult learners (meaningful input/output). Finally, in the third part, participants reflected on how they could apply CL to their own teaching contexts.

Part 1

Team-Building

CL is based on students working together to complete tasks and through that process learning from one another. In order to get students to want to work together and help each other learn, they need to develop social relationships with one another. One way to do this is through the use of class- and team-building activities.

Participants in the workshop were seated in teams of four. Each member had one shoulder partner (the person next to them) and one face partner (the person across from them). Each group member was assigned a letter (A, B, C, or D). In order to enable participants to feel more comfortable with their teammates, they

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were led in a team-building task using the CL structure Round Robin (Kagan & Kagan, 2009). In Round Robin, starting with A, for example,  participants go around the table and share their answer. At first, each participant was given 30 seconds to introduce themselves. The next set of tasks asked participants to complete four sentences which were as follows: 1) My favorite place in Japan is… 2) The most interesting thing I did this year was… 3) I think CL is… 4) I am hoping CL will…

Introduction to CL

To introduce the principles of CL, a structure called Running Dictation was used. In this structure, students work in pairs collaboratively to get necessary information. First, two questions were given: 1) what is Cooperative Learning? 2) What are the characteristics of Cooperative Learning?  The answers for these questions were put up on the wall randomly. One student in each pair ran to the wall to find the answer for Question 1, while the opposite partner sat and waited for him/her at their desk or table. The running student searched for the answer, memorized as much of it as possible and returned to tell their partner what was written on the wall, word for word. Running students were allowed to go back and forth between the wall and their partners as many times as they needed to. The waiting partner wrote down exactly what the running partner said. Three minutes were given for each question. For Question 2, the runner and the writer switched roles. The answers for these two questions are given below:

1)  What is Cooperative Learning?

Answer: Cooperative Learning is a teaching strategy in which students work in pairs or small teams to complete tasks and further their understanding of a subject.

2)  What are the characteristics of Cooperative Learning tasks?

Answer: Cooperative Learning tasks are highly structured and promote what Kagan & Kagan(2009) call positive interdependence (P), individual accountability (I) , equal participation (E), and simultaneous interaction (S)  which work to facilitate cognitive processing. These four

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characteristics are collectively called the “PIES” principles. (Kagan & Kagan, 2009)

Myth busters

The next activity in the workshop was called Myth busters and it asked participants to take the knowledge they acquired about CL in the running dictation task and apply it to a set of statements and determine whether they were true or false. Participants worked individually at first then alternated in sharing their thoughts with their partners. This led to a discussion targeting some of the misconceptions and worries of implementing CL in language classrooms. The statements are listed below.

1. Group work is Cooperative Learning.2. Cooperative Learning cannot be used to teach grammar.3. Cooperative Learning is difficult to use because it takes a lot of time.4. Some students do all the work when doing Cooperative Learning.5. Cooperative Learning creates more opportunities for student output.6. Cooperative Learning creates a better atmosphere.7. Strong students can finish Cooperative Learning tasks by themselves.8. Cooperative Learning won’t work in lecture halls where seats can’t be

moved.9. Cooperative Learning should be used all the time.

Part 2

The next part of the workshop presented CL structures in three different teaching contexts with the goal of giving concrete examples of CL in action.

Young Learners

The first three activities of Part 2 were aimed at young learners with the intent of providing cooperative ways of working with new vocabulary.

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Activity 1:

This activity was designed for students learning vocabulary for the first time.  Participants sat in groups of four and were designated A, B, C, and D, as previously mentioned. Each group was given a set of vocabulary cards with various food items on them.  The presenter would then show one of the new vocabulary cards and call out the word, for example, “cabbage”.  Starting with A, the participants went around in alphabetical order saying the new word with the last participant grabbing the card from their group’s card set and standing up as they said the word.  The activity then repeated, with participant B starting the next round, then C, and so on until all the new words had been covered.

Activity 2:

This was a vocabulary reinforcement exercise.  Sitting in the same groups and keeping the same cards as in Activity 1, participants were shown a vocabulary card and given five seconds to consult together as to how to say the word.  The presenter would then call out a letter, either A, B, C, or D, chosen at random from a set of four cards and then participants with that letter stood up and said the word.  This activity was repeated for all the new words, each time with one of the four participants in each group being chosen at random to stand up and say the word.

Activity 3:

This was a relay game and served as another fun and cooperative way of practicing new vocabulary involving a team-teaching scenario. Participants formed two lines and at one end of the lines were balls to be picked up and thrown at a wall where all the vocabulary cards were displayed. Participants from the other end of the lines would go over to Presenter 1 who would whisper a vocabulary word into their ear.  They would then go back to their lines and after Presenter 2 called out “go!” they would whisper the word into the ear of the person next to them and so on down the line.  Once the participant at the end of the line had the word whispered into their ear, they would pick up the ball and throw it at the correct card.  Presenter 2 stood by the board and monitored to make

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sure they hit the correct card.  Participants would keep throwing the ball until they were successful, at which point, they would then move to the other end of the line.

Junior and Senior High School

The next activity was a grammar drill for junior high and senior high school learners aimed at building competence in using uncountable nouns.  The assumption of this activity is that students have been introduced to the language items in a previous lesson. The targeted expressions were 1) a head of lettuce, 2) a jar of peanut butter, 3) a carton of milk and 4) a bottle of orange juice. Each group of four was given a model conversation handout and four food item picture cards with an expression of how to count the specific item on the back side. For example, one card had a picture of lettuce on one side and an expression “a head of” on the back side. The model conversation on the handout was:          "

Student 1: What do we need?Student 2: Let’s get ________.Student 1: OK.

First, participants in groups of four were assigned letters as in previous activities. In round one, Participant A picked up a card and  showed the card to the other members.  Participants B and C played the roles of Students 1 and 2, respectively. Participant D was responsible for checking the accuracy of the conversation by referring to the model conversation on the handout. Participant A had the additional responsibility of checking if the targeted uncountable noun was used properly. In subsequent rounds, roles were rotated with each participant having the opportunity to play each role.

The structure of this activity can be used with more difficult vocabulary choices and/or more complicated conversation patterns.

University and Adult Learners

The final activity of Part 2 was aimed at the university and adult learner context and focused on meaningful input and output with the goal of having students

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choose a restaurant to eat at. The activity was task-based and integrated reading with listening and speaking. Participants were given a description of one of two restaurants and had to fill out the appropriate information about their restaurant (i.e. name, type of restaurant, food, atmosphere, and good points) in a graphic organizer. Working in pairs, participants then used their notes to describe their restaurant to a partner. Partners listened and filled in the appropriate information into their graphic organizer. Using the information from the two restaurants, participants negotiated and agreed on a place to eat dinner.

As a follow-up task, participants were paired with a new partner and shared with that partner which restaurant they chose and the reasoning for it.

Part 3

Reflection

Participants were given the opportunity to reflect upon their workshop experience using a timed, Think-Pair-Share (Kagan and Kagan, 2009) with a partner. They were asked, “What did you see today that you can implement in your teaching context?”  Each participant was given one minute to think about their answers and then two minutes to share with their partners, after which the other partner was given two minutes to share their ideas.

Conclusion

This hands on workshop introduced the principles of cooperative learning and provided participants with concrete examples of CL structures in action. The structures presented are adaptable to multiple teaching contexts and can be used at various stages of the language learning process. These structures also can be of great benefit in setting up a supportive and engaging language learning environment.  Through the demonstration of these CL structures, we hope to have provided participants with effective tools that they can import into their individual teaching contexts.

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References

Kagan, S., & Kagan, M. (2009). Kagan Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing.

Appendix: Restaurant Graphic Organizer

My Restaurant My Partner’s Restaurant

Name

Type of Restaurant

Food/ Dishes

Atmosphere

Good Points

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Pragmatics in Use: Enriching The Beginner Classroom Experience Through Pragmatic Focus

実用的なフォカスを通して初級者の見聞を広げる

Caroline Pomietlarz-Yamasaki: Senzoku Gakuen High School &Satchie Haga: Teachers College Columbia University

ポミエトラズ・山﨑キャロライン : 洗足学園中学高等学校 &芳賀 幸愛 : ティチァーズコレッジコロンビア大学

About the Authors

Caroline Pomietlarz-Yamasaki has been teaching for over ten years, six of which have been in Japan. She currently teaches at Senzoku Gakuen High School, and is a masters candidate at Teachers College, Columbia University. Her interests are in pragmatics, language ideologies and policies, and cognition.

Satchie Haga has been teaching English in Japan for over five years. She is an MA in TESOL candidate at Teachers College, Columbia University. Her research interests include pragmatics, minority language maintenance and educational leadership.

Abstract:

In many curricula, pragmatics is marginalized to the background, either because form is prioritized over use, or because pragmatics is considered too advanced or too specialized to be introduced to lower-level learners. Through a lesson plan aimed at high beginners, we will demonstrate how pragmatics can take center stage in a classroom of any level. We aim to highlight how teaching a lesson focused on pragmatics serves to not only heighten learners’ cultural sensitivity, but also provides a much deeper and more grounded sense of meaning and discourse in realistic contexts. The lesson plan focuses on phrase acquisition in indirect complaints (IC), the function of IC, the pragmatic appropriateness of IC use, response strategies to extend conversations, and ways to build rapport with one’s interlocutor. Authentic discourse and a clear pragmatic context are introduced in order for students to increase their repertoire of pragmatically appropriate language.

要約:

使うことより文法が優先順位で認められてますことや生徒にはできない難しいさがあることが理由として語用論は主流からはずされます。初級の授業計画を通して、幅の広状況で語用論を使われることを示します。語用論の指導の上に生徒の文化に対する感受性や根拠をもった会話の能力が高めることを明確にすることを目的にします。授業計画の狙いは間接的なクレーム(IC)の取得を通してICの語用論的な適切さ、応答の技術と相手と関係を作る能力を付けることです。本物の会話•議論と語用論の文脈をすることで生徒の語用論的のレパートリーを上げます。

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Pragmatics for beginners: Introduction

Pragmatic competence is defined by Thomas (1983) as “the ability to use language effectively in order to achieve a specific purpose and to understand language in context” (p. 92). As such, the study of pragmatics can be thought of as the study of the communicative aspect of language (Lo Castro, 2012). Without sufficient pragmatic awareness, even with perfect grammar and vocabulary, a language learner may encounter pragmatic failure, whereby their intention is not received by the interlocutor in terms of the meaning or impact intended (Thomas, 1983). Learners in EFL settings may be particularly susceptible to pragmatic failure. Because they have limited access to native speakers of the target language, pragmatic awareness may not necessarily follow linguistic competence (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998). Yet despite the importance of pragmatic competence for effective communication, in Japan, it is often overlooked in favor of linguistic ability with the emphasis of most classes placed on grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. This is particularly manifest in Japanese junior and senior high schools where the focus of most study is to prepare for university entrance examinations which do not assess pragmatic competence.

Although it may seem more appropriate for pragmatics to be brought into focus in the L2 classroom at higher levels of proficiency, the most fundamental tenets of pragmatics can be understood by everyone, regardless of linguistic background, or of second language proficiency. The relationship aspects of status, distance, and intensity (SDI) (Ishihara & Cohen, 2010), are easily relatable phenomena with which learners of any proficiency can conceptualize aspects of pragmatics and engage in conversational interchanges. At the beginner level when learners can acquire chunks of language in order to quickly increase their meaning-focused input and output (Nation & Newton, 2009), the layering of SDI onto beginners' practice of these chunks of language can facilitate a deeper and more well-rounded conceptualization of the phrases themselves. While learners are attending to form and meaning, the addition of SDI potentially adds depth to use, as richer associations can be made in terms of developing awareness of interlocutors and appropriateness. Furthermore, though certainly some aspects of pragmatic awareness are nuanced and complex, introducing SDI into beginner lessons allows for consciousness-raising about pragmatics, and primes learners for the more complex issues they will face as they become more proficient.

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The authors conducted action research in an after school class for second year junior high school students with upper beginner proficiency in order to assess the effectiveness of teaching pragmatics to beginners. The principle purposes of the lesson were to have students differentiate direct and indirect complaints and their functions, to raise the students’ awareness about the significance of indirect complaints in English, and to teach them how to build rapport and extend meaningful interactions through responses to indirect complaints. The findings of the study demonstrated that learners at lower levels can also benefit from pragmatic study. Moreover, the study of pragmatics need not take away from the study of linguistic features. Lessons integrating meaningful activities that emphasize communication, pragmatic and cross-cultural awareness can also serve to enhance learners’ understanding, accuracy and fluency of linguistic features.

A sample lesson: The pragmatic significance of responding to indirect complaints

There are two kinds of complaints: a direct complaint in which the recipient is somewhat held accountable for a feeling of disapproval or dissatisfaction; and an indirect complaint defined by Boxer (1993) as, “the expression of dissatisfaction to an addressee about oneself or someone/something that is not present” (p. 280). The key distinction between the two patterns is that while a direct complaint is a face threatening act, an indirect complaint can be used to enhance solidarity between interlocutors (Boxer, 1993). Although indirect complaints are frequently used in English, it is very rarely taught in ESL/EFL classrooms (Boxer & Pickering, 1995).

This is of particular importance for the Japanese learner who may be the recipient of an indirect complaint but may not know how to respond to indirect complaints in a pragmatically appropriate way. Indirect complaints do exist in Japanese; however, they usually occur among people who have already established a degree of friendship. In English, indirect complaints are used not only to enhance existing relationships, but also to create new friendships, sometimes with a complete stranger. Moreover, Japanese learners are at risk for negative L1 transfer when responding to indirect complaints in English. In Japanese, an acceptable solidarity-enhancing response is made with aizuchi (e.g., “un, un, un,” “eeee”, “sodayo neeee” , etc.). Aizuchi share a similar functional purpose as “back-channels”. In English “back-channels” exist as points in

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conversations where the listener passes on an opportunity to speak (e.g., uh huh, yeah, oh, etc.) (Kita & Ide, 2007; 1243). In Japanese although azuchi function as a sign for the speaker to continue, the critical distinction from “back-channels” is that it also carries the nuance of a signal of agreement. As such, for Japanese, use of aizuchi is one way of demonstrating commiseration. However English interlocutors may interpret the aizuchi to be a back-channel devoid of any commiseration. Thus, the Japanese L1 speaker responding with what he believes to be rapport enhancing aizuchi may in fact result in a socio-pragmatic failure (Thomas, 1983).

Results

The lesson was conducted in one 90 minute session. Inductive and deductive opportunities were utilized to encourage students to distinguish indirect from direct complaints, and determine the different response types. Response types were learned through chunk phrase acquisition and situated within a SDI framework, and meaningful production activities enabled practice using the various responses to people of various status relationships. The students were given a test before and after the lesson to determine the effectiveness of the lesson. It was found that the students were able to use more varied and pragmatically appropriate response types that were explicitly taught in the lesson. The results demonstrate that pragmatics can be effectively taught to beginners.

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References

Bardovi-Harlig, K. & Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Do language learners recognize pragmatic violations? Pragmatic versus grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 32, pp. 233-262.

Boxer, D. (1993). Complaints as positive strategies: What learners need to know. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 277-299

Boxer, D & Pickering, L. (1995). Problems in the presentation of speech acts in ELT materials: the case of complaints. ELT Journal, 49, 44–58.

Ishihara, N. & Cohen, A. (2010) Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and culture meet. Harlow, England: Longman.

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Appendix A: Sample indirect complaints used in the lesson

The exam was so hard!Our vacation was so short!We have so much math homework!I forgot my keys today!My friend is always late.My mom never lets me go out.The weather’s so bad lately!My teacher is so strict!

Appendix B: Sample response statements taught in the lesson

Commiserations QuestionsI'm so sorry to hear that. What are you going to do?That's horrible! Is there something I can do?I can't believe that happened! Did you have a fight?Oh, no! Why? What happened?I feel the same way. Have you talked to her?I hate when that happens.That's the worst!I totally agree with you.

Notes

Examples of other responses generated by learners include “I will ask your math teacher to make a [sic] easy redo math test” and “You can do it. I believe you" [sic]. From the pre-lesson discourse completion task (DCT) to the post-lesson DCT, there was a significant decrease in the use of the expression “That’s too bad”, which has implications of pragmatic failure. Additionally, learners increased their use of expressions of commiseration and support, indicating acquisition of the phrases taught in the lesson and enhanced pragmatic awareness.

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