1 dnt 200 nutrition for health sciences water & minerals

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DNT 200NUTRITION FOR HEALTH

SCIENCES

WATER & MINERALS

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WATER & MINERALS

The cows are our friends, they give food, they give strength, they likewise give a good complexion and happiness

Gautama Buddha, 500 B.C.

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WATER & MINERALS

Water and Body Fluids

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WATER & MINERALSWater

• Physiological Functions– Is an essential nutrient (must be consumed from exogenous

sources to satisfy metabolic demand)– Constitutes about 60% of adult body weight– Catalyst for a majority of metabolic reactions including

those involves with• Nutrient digestion

• Absorption

• Transport

• Metabolism

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• Physiological Functions (con’t)

– Required for facilitation of excretion of metabolic waste

by the kidneys

– Inadequate intake compromises cell functioning by

contributing to

• Electrolyte imbalances

• Concentration of plasma volume

• Inability to regulate body temperature

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• Groups vulnerable to dehydration -- are either not

able to adequately express thirst sensations or to

detect them– Infants

– Elderly adults

– Athletes

• With extreme heat and excessive perspiration, thirst may lag behind actual water requirements

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Overhydration• Can result in hyponatremia (because of too much water)

– Less common but more dangerous than dehydration– Sports drinks -- contain some sodium but not enough to make

a difference– Women at greater risk because they are smaller– International Marathon Medical Directors Association

advises drinking no more than about 12 - 25 oz fluid per hour

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WATER & MINERALSWater and Body Fluids

Water Intake

• Sources– Water you drink– Nearly all foods

contain water

• Normal intake -- 2.5 liters per day

PERCENTAGE OF WATER IN SELECTED FOODS

• 100% -- Water; diet sodas• 90-99% -- Nonfat milk, strawberries,

watermelon, lettuce, cabbage, celery, spinach, broccoli

• 80-89% -- Fruit juice, yogurt, apples, grapes, oranges, carrots

• 70-79% -- Shrimp, bananas, corn, potatoes, avocados, cottage cheese, ricotta cheese

• 60-69% -- Pasta, legumes, salmon, ice cream, chicken breast

• 50-59% -- Ground beef, hot dogs, feta cheese• 40-49% -- Pizza• 30-39% -- Cheddar cheese, bagels, bread• 20-29% -- Pepperoni sausage, cake, biscuits• 10-19% -- Butter, margarine, raisins• 1-9% -- Crackers, cereals, pretzels, taco shells,

peanut butter, nuts• 0% -- Oils

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• Percent of total water intake from beverages (including drinking water) and food– Males and females 19 and older

• 81% from beverages• 19% from foods

– Pregnant females• 77% from beverages• 22% from foods

– Lactating females• 82% from beverages• 18% from foods

NHANES III 1988-1994

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Water

DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE

• AI– Males 19 and over -- 0.7 L/day from food and 3.0 L/day from beverages– Females 19 and over -- 0.5 L/day from food and 2.2 L/day from

beverages– Pregnant women -- 0.7 L/day from food and 2.3 L/day from beverages– Lactating women -- 0.7 L/day from food and 3.1 L/day from beverages

2004 data

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Water Output• Body must excrete a certain

amount of water per day as urine (approx. 500ml)– Carries away waste products

of metabolism– Above this amount, the water

you excrete adjusts to balance your intake

– If you drink more than you need, the urine becomes more dilute

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Fluid & Electrolyte Balance

• 2/3 fluid found inside the cells

• 1/3 fluid found outside the cells

• Major minerals control the movement of

water -- they occur in salts that dissolve in

body fluids

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Fluid & Electrolyte Balance

• Ions– When mineral salts are dissolved in water (body

fluids) they separate (dissociate) into ions (cations and anions) that carry electricity

– Cations carry positive charges; anions carry negative charges

• Electrolytes are fluids that have ions dissolved in

them such that they have electrical properties

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Fluid & Electrolyte BalanceWater’s Attraction To Electrolytes

• Electrolyte solutions– They must have a balanced charge – Can conduct electricity

• Cells sort out the mineral ions– Outside the cells -- notably sodium and chloride ions– Inside the cells -- potassium, magnesium, phosphate,

and sulfate ions• When electrolytes move across membranes

water follows -- water follows salt

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Fluid & Electrolyte BalanceWater’s Attraction To Electrolytes

• Water moves to concentrated solutions• Osmosis -- the movement of water across a

membrane to area with more solutes --solutes refer to the number of molecules in a given volume of solution

• Examples of osmosis– Raisins plump in water– Vegetables sweat when salted

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Fluid & Electrolyte BalanceRegulation

• The amount of various salts in body must remain nearly constant

• If salts are lost, they must be replaced from external sources -- foods and beverages

• Proteins regulate the flow of fluids and ions– Cell membrane contains transport proteins that regulate the passage

of positive ions and other substances from one side of the membrane to the other

– Negative ions follow positive ions– Water flows toward the more concentrated solution

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Fluid & Electrolyte BalanceWhen someone hasn't consumedWhen someone hasn't consumed

enough fluid...enough fluid...

Hypothalamus responds to high salt concentrations inthe blood by stimulating the pituitary gland

Pituitary gland releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

ADH

Kidneys retain sodium and water, increasing blood volume

BRAINBRAIN

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Fluid & Electrolyte BalanceWhen someone hasn't consumed enoughWhen someone hasn't consumed enough

fluid...fluid...

Kidneys respond to reduced blood flow, releasing renin

Renin

In blood, renin initiates activation of a protein to angiotensin

AngiotensinAdrenal glands

secrete aldosteroneBlood vessels

constrict, raising bp

Aldosterone

Kidneys retain sodium and water, increasing blood volume

KIDNEYSKIDNEYS

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DehydrationSigns to watch for (adults)

– Consumption less than 6 cups per day– Dry mouth, cracked lips, sunken eyes, or dark urine– Needs help drinking– Has trouble swallowing– Vomiting, diarrhea, or fever– Confused or tired– Environmental factors (seasonal temperatures and room

temperatures)

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DehydrationWhat to do

– Report observations and warning signs– Check swallowing– Encourage drink

• Including other than at meal time• Caffeinated coffee and tea to be used with caution due to natural diuretic effect

– Record intake and output– Offer ice chips– Drink with client– Place light pitcher and cup near– Offer assistance

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WATER & MINERALS

Minerals

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WATER & MINERALSMineralsOverview

• Are inorganic elements– Always retain their chemical identity– Once they enter the body, they remain there until excreted

• Some are required in small amounts and therefore are essential nutrients– Bioavailability varies -- some foods contain binders that

combine chemically with minerals preventing absorption– Have varied roles

• Major minerals are present in the largest amounts (larger than 5 grams)

• Trace minerals -- found in amounts less than 5 grams

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WATER & MINERALSMineralsOverview

Minerals in a 60 Kilogram PersonMinerals in a 60 Kilogram Person

© 1996 West Publishing Company Slide 12-9

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WATER & MINERALSMinerals

Major Minerals

Calcium


• AI– Adults 19-50 -- 1000 mg NOTE: Values do not change with

pregnancy and lactation – Adults over 50 -- 1200 mg

• UL -- 2500 mg1998 data

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Major MineralsCalcium

• Is the most abundant mineral in the body

• Chief functions– With phosphorus, is the chief mineral of

the bones and teeth• 99% stored in bones• Bones act as a bank for calcium• Formulation and dissolution takes place

every minute, day and night• Blood calcium changes in response to

changed regulatory control, not diet -- bones are depleted by calcium deficiency

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Major Minerals

Calcium

• Chief functions (continued)

• Calcium balance

– Regulated by Vitamin D, calcitonin (from the

thyroid gland), and parathormone (from the

parathyroid glands)

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• Chief functions (continued)• Calcium balance

– If blood calcium is too high» Rising blood calcium signals the thyroid gland to secrete calcitonin,

which --Limits calcium absorption in the intestines --Inhibits the activation of Vitamin D --Stimulates calcium excretion in the kidneys --Inhibits osteoclast cells from breaking down bone, preventing a rise in

blood calcium» All of these actions lower blood calcium, which inhibits calcitonin

secretion

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• Chief functions (continued)• If blood calcium is too low

» Falling blood calcium signals the parathyroid glands to secrete parathormone

» Vitamin D enhances absorption in the intestines» Parathormone stimulates the activation of Vitamin D» Vitamin D and parathormone stimulate osteoclast

cells to break down bone, releasing calcium into the blood

» All of these actions raise blood calcium, which inhibits parathormone secretion

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• Chief functions (continued)– Aids in normal muscle contractions and relaxations --

maintains normal heart rhythm• Above normal blood levels causes calcium rigor -- muscles

contract resulting in hardness and stiffness• Below normal levels cause calcium tetany -- intermittent

spasm of the extremities• Not reflective of lack of dietary calcium

– Are caused by lack of Vitamin D or– Abnormal secretion of the regulatory hormones

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• Chief functions (continued)

– Blood pressure• Adequate calcium intake can lower blood pressure,

superceding the effects of a high sodium diet– Assists in nerve functioning– Is involved in blood clotting– Aids in immune defenses

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• Deficiency symptoms– Stunted growth in children– Osteoporosis (adult bone loss)

• Is a reduced density of the bones• Both genetic and environmental factors can contribute• Is 8 times more prevalent in women than men

– Women tend to consume less calcium than men– Women’s bone mass is lower than men (because of smaller body size)– Bone loss begins earlier in women than men accelerates after menopause

• Other nutrients also are involved in preventing osteoporosis– Magnesium– Fluoride– Vitamin A

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Major Minerals

Calcium

• Toxicity symptoms– Constipation

– Increased risk of urinary stone formation and kidney dysfunction

– Interference with absorption of other minerals

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Major Minerals

Calcium• Absorption

– Adults absorb about 30% of calcium consumed– Factors that enhance absorption

• Stomach acid -- helps to keep it soluble• Vitamin D -- helps the absorptive cells of the

intestine make the necessary calcium-binding protein• Lactose• Phosphorus when consumed in an equal amount as

calcium• Growth hormones

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Major Minerals

Calcium• Absorption

– Factors that inhibit absorption• Lack of stomach acid• Vitamin D deficiency• High phosphorus intake• High fiber diet• Phytates, a non-nutrient component of plant seeds

(in seeds, nuts, and grains)• Oxalates, a binder (in beets, rhubarb, and spinach)

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Significant Sources• Milk and milk products• Small Fish (with

bones)• Tofu (bean curd)• Greens (broccoli,

chard)• Legumes

Broccoli: 36mg per 1/2 cup cooked

Sardines: 324mg per 3 oz

Milk: 316mg per cup

Pork and beans: 77mg per 1/2 cup

Cheddar Cheese: 305mg per 1-1/2 oz

Almonds: 80mg per 2 Tbsp.

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Major Minerals

Phosphorus


• RDA– Adults over 19 -- 700 mg

• UL– 3000-4000 mg, depending on age, sex, pregnancy, or

lactation status1998 data

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Major Minerals

Phosphorus

• After Calcium, is the second-most abundant mineral in the body

• Approximately 85% is found as hydroxyapatite, the major calcium-containing crystal of the bones and teeth

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Major Minerals

Phosphorus

• Chief functions– A chief mineral of the bones and

teeth– Phosphates occur in all cells as

part of a major buffer system (phosphoric acid and its salts)

– Occurs as part of genetic material• DNA and RNA present in every cell• Therefore necessary for growth

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Major MineralsPhosphorus

• Chief functions (continued)– Assists in energy transfers during cellular metabolism

• Many enzymes and the B-vitamins become active only when a phosphate group is attached

• ATP, the energy carrier of the cells, uses three phosphate groups to do its work

– Part of phospholipids• Helps transport other lipids in the blood• Major structural components of cell membranes

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Major MineralsPhosphorus

• Deficiency symptoms– Weakness, bone pain

• Dietary deficiency rarely occurs• Some drugs can bind with phosphorus making it unavailable

resulting in bone loss that is characterized by weakness and pain– Diets that provide enough protein and calcium will provide

enough phosphorus

• Toxicity symptoms– Excess phosphorus may draw calcium out of the body in being

excreted

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Major Minerals

Phosphorus

• Significant sources– All animal tissues -- best sources– Phosphorus from additives in processed foods

can add significantly to people’s intakes– Vegetables and fruits are fair to poor sources

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Major MineralsMagnesium


• RDA– Males 19-30 -- 400 mg– Males 31 and over -- 420 mg– Females 19-30 -- 310 mg– Females 31 and over -- 320 mg

• UL– 350 mg, (as a pharmacological agent only -- not from food and water)

1998 data

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Major Minerals

Magnesium

• Bone magnesium is a

“reservoir” to make

sure some will be on

hand for vital reactions,

regardless of recent

dietary intake

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• Chief functions– Involved in bone mineralization -- over half of the body’s

magnesium is in the bones– Building of protein -- acts in all of the cells of the soft tissue– Enzyme action

• Is a catalyst in the reaction that adds the last phosphate to ATP– Normal muscle contraction

• Dynamic interaction with calcium (calcium promotes, magnesium inhibits)

– Nerve impulse transmission– Maintenance of teeth -- holds calcium in the tooth enamel– Supports functioning of the immune system

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• Deficiency symptoms– Rarely occur without disease -- may develop in

• Alcohol abuse• Protein malnutrition• Kidney or endocrine disorders• Prolonged vomiting or diarrhea

– Characterized by• Weakness• Confusion• If extreme

– Convulsions– Bizarre muscle movements– Hallucinations– Difficulty swallowing– Growth failure in children

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Major Minerals

Magnesium

• Toxicity symptoms -- unknown

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Significant Sources

• Nuts

• Legumes

• Whole Grains

• Dark Green Vegetables

• Seafood

• Chocolate

• Cocoa

Oysters: 93mg per 3 oz

Dried Figs: 33mg per 1/4 cup

Black Eyed Peas: 45mg per 1/2 cup cooked

Spinach: 78mg per 1/2 cup cooked

Baked Potato: 55mg per whole small potato

Sunflower Seeds(shelled): 21mg per 2 tbs.

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Major Minerals

Sodium


• AI– Men and women 19 - 50 -- 1500 mg daily– Men and women 51 - 70 -- 1300 mg daily– Men and women 70 and older -- 1200 mg daily

• UL– Men and women 19 and over 2,300 mg daily

• Typical consumption averages 3,300 mg2004 data

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Major MineralsSodium

• Chief functions– Is the principle electrolyte in the extracellular fluid and the primary

regulator of extracellular fluid volume• When blood sodium rises (as when a person eats salted foods) thirst

ensures that the person will drink until the appropriate sodium to water ratio is restored

– With chloride and potassium, maintains the cells normal fluid balance

– Maintains acid-base balance• Kidneys excrete hydrogen ions in exchange for sodium ions

– Nerve impulse transmission– Muscle contraction

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• Deficiency– Causes of depletion

• Overly strict use of low sodium diets • Vomiting• Diarrhea• Heavy sweating

– Symptoms• Muscle cramps• Mental apathy• Loss of appetite

– When blood sodium drops, both sodium and water must be replaced to restore balance

• Salt losses can be safely replaced with “regular foods”• Salt tablets are not recommended -- too much salt, especially with too little water can

incur dehydration

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Major Minerals

Sodium• Toxicity

– Prolonged excessive sodium intake , especially when the sodium is derived from salt, may be related to the development of hypertension in sensitive people

– Immediate symptoms• Edema• Hypertension• Typically not a problem as long as water needs are met

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• Sodium in foods– Table salt

• Is about 40% sodium• 1 tsp. of table salt contains about 2000 mg of sodium• 15% of the sodium in the U.S. diet comes from salt added

during cooking– Processed foods have the highest sodium contents

• 3/4 of the sodium in the U.S. diet comes from salt added to foods during processing and manufacturing

– Do not always taste salty -- may contain sodium without its chloride

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Major Minerals

SODIUM IN SELECTED FOODS

• 1 portion fruit -- 0 mg• 1 cup milk -- 100 mg• 3/4 cup corn flakes -- 172 mg • 1/2 cup instant vanilla pudding -- 372 mg• 1 cup cottage cheese -- 700 mg• Big Mac -- 890 mg• 1 Tbsp. Soy sauce -- 1,027 mg• 3 oz sausage -- 1,100 mg• 1 large pickle -- 1,450 mg• KFC 2-piece combo -- 1,801 mg

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Major Minerals

Chloride


• AI– Adults 19-50 -- 2.3 grams per day

• UL– Adults 19 and over -- 3.5 grams per day

• Typical consumption averages 3,300 mg daily2004 data

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Major MineralsChloride

• Chief functions

– Fluid and electrolyte balance

• Major anion of the extracellular fluids (occurs mostly in

association with sodium)

• Associates with potassium inside the cells -- Can move freely

across the cell membranes

– Part of the hydrochloric acid found in the stomach -- is

necessary for proper digestion

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Major MineralsChloride

• Deficiency– Does not occur under normal circumstances– Sodium depleting conditions such as heavy sweating, or chronic diarrhea

and vomiting also deplete chloride– Symptoms

• Growth failure in children• Muscle cramps• Mental apathy• Loss of appetite• Death (uncommon)

• Toxicity– Normally harmless– Only known cause is dehydration due to water deficiency– Symptomized by vomiting

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Major Minerals

Chloride

• Chloride in foods

– Table salt -- is about

60% chloride

– Large amounts in

processed foods

– Moderate quantities in

whole unprocessed foods

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Major Minerals

Potassium


• AI– Adults 18 and over --4.7 g/day

2004 data

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Major Minerals

Potassium

• Chief functions– Is the principle electrolyte in the intracellular fluid

– With chloride and sodium, maintains the cells normal fluid balance

– Supports cell integrity

– Nerve impulse transmission

– Muscle contraction -- is critical to maintaining the heartbeat

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Major MineralsPotassium

• Deficiency– Dietary deficiency unlikely but diets low in fresh fruits and vegetables

make it possible– Accompanies dehydration– Regular use of certain drugs

• Potassium depleting diuretics• Steroids• Strong laxatives

– Characterized by• Muscular weakness• Paralysis• Confusion• Death

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Major Minerals

Potassium• Toxicity

– Does not result from overeating foods high in potassium• Given more potassium than the body needs, the kidneys

accelerate their excretion• Vomiting reflex is triggered if ingestion exceeds the kidneys’

limit– Can result from overuse of potassium salt (salt substitutes)– Characterized by

• Muscular weakness• Vomiting

– If given into a vein, can stop the heart

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Major Minerals

Potassium

• Potassium in foods– All whole foods are good sources

• Meats

• Milk

• Fruits

• Vegetables

• Grains

• Legumes

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Major Minerals

Sulfur


• Sulfur -- None• Sulfate -- Requirements are met when intakes include

recommended levels of sulfur amino acids– Neither an EAR nor AI are established– Insufficient information is available to establish an UL

2004 data

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Major Minerals

Sulfur

• Body does not use sulfur by itself as a nutrient but

it occurs in essential nutrients that the body does

use

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Major MineralsSulfur

• Sulfate

– Inorganic sulfate (SO42-) required for the synthesis of 3’-

phosphoadenosine-5’-phosphosulfate (PAPS)(a sulfate carrier used to transfer sulfate groups to sulfatides, a component of the myelin sheath in the brain, and in the kidney, and retina)

– Significant levels are found in foods and various sources of drinking water

– Major source is from biodegradation due to body protein turnover of sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine

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Major MineralsSulfur

• Chief functions– Stabilizes the shape of some proteins

– Component of some amino acids• Methionine

• Cysteine

– Part of the vitamins biotin and thiamin

– Part of the hormone insulin

– Combines with toxic substances to form harmless compounds

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Major Minerals

Sulfur• Deficiency

– None known– Protein deficiency would occur first

• Toxicity– Would occur only if sulfur-containing amino acids were

eaten in excess (in animals, this depresses growth)

• Significant sources– All protein-containing foods

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Trace Minerals

Iodine


• RDA– 150 micrograms for males & females over 14

• UL– 1,100 micrograms– Toxic dose is thought to be over 2,000 micrograms for adults

2000 data

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Trace Minerals

Iodine

• Traces of the iodine ion (called iodide) are indispensable to life

• Any iodine that is ingested in foods is converted into iodide in the GI tract

• Therefore, iodine is the nutrient in food; iodide is how is used in the body

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Trace MineralsIodine

• Average consumption has increased over the last several decades and now approximates 200-500 micrograms, down from a high of 800 micrograms in 1974– Fast foods use iodized salt liberally– Iodates are present in dough conditioners used in the baking

industry– Milk produced by cows exposed to iodide containing

medications and disinfectants provide other sources

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• Roles in the body– Integral part of two thyroid hormones

• T-3 (triiodothyronine), the active form• T-4 (tetraiodothyronine), commonly known as thyroxin• Regulates

– Body temperature– Metabolic rate– Reproduction– Growth– The making of blood cells– Nerve and muscle function– The rate at which the body cells use oxygen

• Is required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones– Controls the rate at which energy is released from energy-yielding

nutrients

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• Deficiency– When deficient, thyroid hormone concentrations fall

• Body responds by increasing thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion in a futile attempt to stimulate iodine uptake by the thyroid gland

• If deficiency persists, thyroid cells enlarge so as to trap as many atoms of iodide as possible

• Simple goiter results when the gland becomes enlarged and visible because of iodine deficiency

• Toxic goiter results when people who over-consume foods containing Goitrogens (thyroid antagonists), antithyroid substances whose effect is not countered by dietary iodide

– These goitrogens include plants of the cabbage family– Toxic goiter represents 4% of the cases of goiter

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Trace Minerals

Iodine• Deficiency (continued)

– Symptoms• Sluggishness• Weight gain• May impair fetal development during pregnancy• Cretinism -- an iodine deficiency disease where, a maternal

deficiency results in mental and physical retardation in the child

• Goiter• Poor school performance

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Trace Minerals

Iodine

• Toxicity– Symptoms

• Goiter-like thyroid enlargement -- may block the airways in children and cause suffocation

• Depressed thyroid activity

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Trace Minerals

Iodine

• Significant sources– Iodized salt (first began in the 1930’s)– Seafood– Plants grown in most parts of the

country (where landmasses were once under the ocean)

– Animals that graze the above noted plants

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Trace MineralsIron


• RDA– Females under 50 -- 18mg– Females over 50 and males -- 8mg

• UL– 45mg

2001 data

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Trace Minerals

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Trace MineralsIron

Absorption

• Normally, only 10-15% of dietary iron is absorbed– Increases in response to

• Diminished supply• Increased need

– Absorption regulated by transferrin (a blood protein which captures iron from food and carries it to tissues throughout the body)

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Trace MineralsIronAbsorption

• Food factors– Heme (the non-protein component

of hemoglobin bound to the iron carrying proteins of meat, poultry and fish) iron is absorbed at a rate of about 23%

– Non-heme iron (found in vegetables, grains, eggs, meat, fish, and poultry) is absorbed at a rate of 2-20%

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Trace MineralsIron

Absorption• Food factors (con’t)

– Absorption enhancers• Meat, fish, and poultry contain MFP factor (a factor other

than heme) that promotes iron absorption -- even the iron from other foods eaten at the same time

• Vitamin C, eaten at the same meal, doubles or triples non-heme iron absorption

• Citric acid (in citrus fruits) and lactic acid (in milk) from foods

• HCl from the stomach• Sugars

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Trace MineralsIron

Absorption• Food factors (con’t)

– Absorption inhibitors• Tannic acid in tea and coffee interferes with iron

absorption• Phytates (a non-nutrient component of plant seeds) and

fibers in soy products• Whole grain cereals and nuts• Calcium and phosphorus in milk• Ethylenediamine tetra acetate ([EDTA], added in food

additives to retard crystal formation and promote color retention)

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Trace MineralsIron

• Chief Functions – Part of the protein hemoglobin which carries

oxygen to the blood

– Part of the protein myoglobin that makes oxygen available for muscle contraction

– Necessary for the utilization of energy• Works with several electron transport chain proteins

enabling the body to capture the energy from nutrients

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Trace MineralsIron

Most of the body’s iron is in the blood– Iron losses are

greatest when blood is lost

– Other sources of loss include urine, sweat, and shed skin

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Trace MineralsIron

– Worldwide, iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency

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Trace MineralsIron

• Deficiency Symptoms– Weakness, fatigue

• When iron stores are exhausted, the body cannot make enough hemoglobin to fill its new red blood cells

• They then can’t carry enough oxygen from the lungs to the tissues

• Consequently energy release is hindered

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Trace MineralsIron

• Deficiency Symptoms (con’t)– Pallor (abnormally pale skin)– Reduced resistance to infection

(lowered immunity)– Inability to concentrate– Lowered cold tolerance– Reduced learning ability– Itching

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Trace MineralsIron

• Deficiency Symptoms (con’t)– Impaired wound healing– Concave nails– Pale nail beds, eye membranes, and palm creases– Pica -- an appetite for ice, clay, paste, or other non-

nutritious substances• Seen in iron as well as zinc deficiencies

• Clears dramatically as soon as iron is added to the diet

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Trace MineralsIron

• Stages of iron deficiency– Iron stores diminish

• Measures of serum ferratin reflect iron stores

– Iron being transported within the body decreases• Serum iron falls• Iron carrying protein transferrin increases (an

adaptation that enhances iron absorption)• The more transferrin and the less iron in the blood, the

more advanced the deficiency is

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Trace MineralsIron

• Stages of iron deficiency (con’t)– Lack of iron limits hemoglobin production

• Erythrocyte protoporphryn (the hemoglobin precursor) begins to accumulate as hemoglobin (the globular protein of the red blood cells) and hematocrit (measurement of the volume of red blood cells packed by centrifuge in a given volume of blood) values decline

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Trace MineralsIron

• Iron deficiency and anemia– Iron deficiency -- refers to depleted body iron stores

without regard to the degree of depletion or the presence of anemia

– Iron deficiency anemia -- refers to the severe depletion of iron stores that results in low hemoglobin concentration and small, pale, red blood cells

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Trace MineralsIron

• Toxicity Symptoms– Infections -- bacteria thrive on iron-rich blood– Lethargy– Joint disease– Enlarged liver– Loss of hair– Death by accidental poisoning in children– Amenorrhea– Impotence

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Trace MineralsIron

• Toxicity Symptoms (con’t)– Iron overload -- known as hemochromatosis

• Usually caused by a genetic disorder that enhances iron absorption

• Other causes– Repeated blood transfusions– Massive doses of supplementary iron

– Hemosiderosis• Results from long-term over-consumption of iron• Characterized by large deposits of the iron storage protein

hemosiderin in the liver and other tissues

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Trace MineralsIron

Significant Sources• Red Meats• Fish• Poultry• Shellfish• Eggs• Legumes• Dried Fruits

Navy Beans: 2.2mg per 1/2 cup cooked

Dried Figs: 1.3mg per 1/4 cup

Swiss Chard: 2.0mg per 1/2 cup cooked

Clams: 25.2mg per 3 oz steamed

Sirloin Steak: 2.8 mg per 3 oz cooked

Tofu: 6.7mg per 1/2 cup

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Trace MineralsSelenium


• RDA -- 55 micrograms (men & women over 14)• UL

– 400 micrograms– Associated with the highest activity of enzymes

that guard against oxidants in the body2000 data

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• Chief functions in the body– Part of an antioxidant enzyme (glutathione

peroxidase)• Prevents free radical formation (molecules with

one or more unpaired electrons) by donating one of it’s electrons thus blocking the oxidative chain reaction before it starts

• Oxidative stress has been implicated in– The aging process– Development of cancer, arthritis, cataracts, heart disease

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• Chief functions in the body (con’t)– Works with Vitamin E -- if free radicals do form

and a chain reaction starts, vitamin E stops it– Works closely with the enzyme that converts

thyroid hormone to its active form

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• Deficiency symptoms– Predisposition to heart disease (cardiac tissue

becomes fibrous)– Keshan disease

• The heart disease associated with selenium deficiency• Characterized by heart enlargement and insufficiency

-- fibrous tissue replaces the muscle tissue that normally composes the middle layer of the walls of the heart

• Prevalent in regions of China and probably caused by a virus

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• Toxicity symptoms– Nausea– Vomiting– Diarrhea– Loss of hair and nails– Lesions of the skin and nervous system– Irritability

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• Significant Sources– Seafood– Meat– Grains, dependant on

soil conditions– Vegetables, dependant

on soil conditions

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Trace MineralsZinc


• RDA– Males over 14 -- 11 milligrams– Females over 19 -- 8 milligrams

• UL– 40 milligrams

2001 data

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Trace MineralsZinc

– Absorption rate ranges from 15 to 40% depending on a person’s zinc status -- if more is needed, more is absorbed

– Recommendations assume 20% of dietary zinc is absorbed

– Fiber and phytates bind zinc, limiting its bioavailability

– Zinc toothpaste reduces plaque

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Trace MineralsZinc

• Chief functions in the body– Part of the hormone insulin and many enzymes -- more than 70

enzymes require it as a co-factor– Involved with making genetic material and proteins– Immune reactions– Transport of Vitamin A– Taste perception– Wound healing– The making of sperm– Normal development of the fetus -- protects from heavy metal

poisoning (e.g. lead)

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Trace MineralsZinc

• Deficiency Symptoms -- so pervasive that generalized malnutrition and sickness are more likely to be diagnosed– Growth failure in children (even seen in mild deficiencies)– Sexual retardation– Poor sensitivity to taste of salt– Anorexia– Poor wound healing– Hindered digestion and absorption – Impaired immune response– Impairs vitamin A metabolism -- vitamin A deficiency

symptoms may appear

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Trace MineralsZinc

• Toxicity Symptoms– High doses appear to accelerate the development of

atherosclerosis– Noted in doses greater than 2 grams

• Vomiting• Diarrhea• Fever• Exhaustion• Muscular pain and incoordination

– Noted in doses just a few milligrams above the recommended intake (especially when taken regularly over time)

• Lowers the body’s copper content

106


Trace MineralsZinc

Significant Sources• Protein-containing

foods– Meat

– Fish

– Poultry

– Whole grains

– Vegetables

Black Beans: 1.0mg per 1/2 cup cooked

Crabmeat: 3.6mg per 3 oz steamed

Yogurt: 2.2mg per cup

Green Peas: 1.0mg per 1/2 cup

Sirloin Steak: 5.5mg per 3 oz cooked

Oysters: 154mg per 3 oz steamed

107


Trace MineralsOthers

• Copper


– RDA• 900 micrograms (male & female over 19)

– UL• 10,000 micrograms

2001 data

108


Trace MineralsOthers

• Copper– Is a part of several enzymes– Helps to make red blood cells– Involved in making collagen– Ensures proper utilization of iron– Deficiency is rare -- dietary factors such as phytates and high

intakes of vitamin C, zinc, and iron interfere with copper absorption– Zinc competes with copper for absorption, -- people taking over-the-

counter zinc pills may develop copper deficiency

– Best sources -- organ meats, seafood, nuts, seeds

109


Trace MineralsOthers (con’t)

• Manganese


– AI• Males over 19 -- 2.3 milligrams• Females over 19 -- 1.8 milligrams

– UL• 11 milligrams

2001 data

110



• Manganese– Cooperates with many enzymes helping to facilitate many of

the different metabolic processes– Widely distributed in foods -- deficiencies have not been

seen in humans– Toxicity may be severe

• Symptoms– Brain disease

– Abnormalities in appearance and behavior

111



• Fluoride


– AI• Males over 19 -- 3.8 mg• Females over 14 -- 3.1 mg

– UL• 10.0 mg

1998 data

112



• Fluoride– Aids in formation of tooth crystals that strongly resist

acid & inhibits the growth of bacteria

– Where diets are high in fluoride, tooth decay is reduced

– Drinking water is the most significant source -- water with 1 ppm fluoride offers the greatest protection with virtually no risk of toxicity

113



• Fluoride

– Excess fluoride during tooth development can cause fluorosis (discoloration and pitting of tooth enamel)

114



• Chromium


– AI• Males under 50 -- 35 micrograms• Males 50 and older -- 30 micrograms• Females under 50 -- 25 micrograms• Females 50 and older -- 20 micrograms

2001 data

115



• Chromium– Participates in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism– Works closely with insulin facilitating the uptake of glucose

into the cells– Deficiencies unlikely; toxicity unknown as a nutritional

disorder– Best sources -- unrefined foods

• Liver• Whole grains• Nuts• Brewer’s yeast• Cheeses

116



• Molybdenum


– RDA• 45 micrograms (Adults 19 and over)

– UL• 2,000 micrograms

2001 data

***** 117



• Molybdenum– Is a working part of many enzymes

– Deficiencies and toxicity unknown as nutritional disorders

– Sources are widespread to include• Legumes

• Breads & other grains

• Leafy green vegetables

• Milk

• Liver

**** 118


Trace Minerals

Others (con’t)• Nickel

– Deficiencies harm the liver and other organs


– UL• 1.0 milligram

2001 data

*** 119


Trace Minerals

Others (con’t)

• Silicon– Involved in bone calcification in animals


– UL• Not determined

2001 data

** 120



• Boron– May play a role in bone development and prevention of

osteoporosis


– UL• 20 milligrams

2001 data

* 121



• Vanadium– No biological function in humans has been identified


– UL• 1.8 milligrams (based on adverse effects on laboratory

animals)2001 data

122



• Cobalt

– Mineral in vitamin B-12

– Is not an essential nutrient

• Tin

– Necessary for growth in animals

1 dnt 200 nutrition for health sciences water & minerals

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