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What do we mean when we say:

“She has a wonderful personality” “ He has no personality” “He seems to have a personality conflict” “It’s just her personality” “ She has her mother personality”

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“Personality” comes from Latin word persona. Persona means ‘mask’. The study of personality can be understood

as the study of ‘mask’ that people wear. Personality are the personas that people

project and display. Personality also includes the inner parts of

psychological experiences which we collectively call our “self” (I)

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Personality is “I” When you say “I” you are in fact summing up everything about yourself:◦Your likes◦Your dislikes◦Your fears and virtues◦Your strengths & weaknesses

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The entire organization of a human being at any stage of development.

The integrations of those systems or habits that represent an individuals’s characteristic adjustments to the environment.

The way in which a person does such things as remembering, thinking or loving.

The various enduring and distinctive patterns of behavior and thought that are characteristics of a particular person.

Patterns of behavior, thoughts and emotions unique to an individual, & the way they interact to help or hinder the adjustment of a person to other people and situation.

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Personality is not an existing substantive entity to be searched for but a complex construct to be developed and defined by the observer [Smith & Vetter, 1982]

Personality usually refers to the distinctive patterns of behavior (including thoughts & emotions) that characterize each individual’s adaptation to the situations of his or her life [Mischel, 1976]

Personality is a dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create a person’s characteristic pattern of behavior, thoughts and feelings. [Carver & Scheier, 2000] 6

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Dynamic Organization◦ Suggest on going readjustments, adaptation to

experience, continual upgrading and maintaining of self.

◦ Personality doesn’t just lie there but has process and it’s organized.

Inside the person◦ Suggests internal storage of patterns, supporting the

notion that personality influences behaviors, etc. Psychophysical System

◦ The physical is “who we are” Characteristics Patterns

◦ Implies that consistency/continuity which are unique to each individual.

Behavior, Thoughts & Feelings◦ Indicate that personality includes a wide range of

psychological experience/ manifestation, ie. Personality is displayed MANY ways.

Self is the collections of beliefs that we hold about ourselves◦E.g. What are our important characteristics? ◦What are we good at? ◦What do we do poorly at? ◦What kind of situations do we prefer or

avoid? Self have 2 distinct meaning:

◦Self as an object◦Self as a process

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Attitude about our self. A picture of the way we look and act. The impact we make on others. Our traits, abilities, weakness or strengths.

Our feelings, perceptions and evaluations.◦E.g. I am handsome, I am cute, I am friendly,

◦I am bad, I am ugly Thus Self Concept is the collection of beliefs we hold about who we are. 9

Relates to psychological process process by which we manages and copes, thinks, remembers, perceives and plans

The evaluation we make of ourselves (the value that people place on themselves, whether they are fundamentally good or bad people, talented or not).◦E.g. I think I am very good in mathematic I’m sure I have lots of friends I feel I do not have much to be proud of

High self esteem people have a clear sense of what their personal qualities are, think well of themselves, set appropriate goals and cope successfully with difficult situations.

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Each individual is unique. It is commonly observed that individuals differ in Personality, motivations and emotions

Studies on individual Differences examine HOW and WHY individual differs?

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One cool September morning, Mark Wellman, a paraplegic, & his friend Mike Corbett began to climb a nearly vertical slope of Half Dome, rising over 2,200 ft from the ground. For this climb Mark trained everyday. Some years ago, while on a different climb, he fell 50 feet to the ground, hurt his back & now paralyzed from waist down. In this climb, Mike takes the lead and sets supports. Because Mark’s leg are paralyzed, he climbs by using supports to pull himself up inch by inch. By end of day seven, Mark & Mike were very exhausted. They had to sleep hanging in sleeping bags anchored to the sheer granite wall. Finally, on day 13, Mark pulled himself up the last six inches and over the top of Half Dome.

What is Mark doing? Why did he do it?

Motivation comes from the same root as motion ◦ i.e. something that “moves” a person.

According to Morris & Maisto (1999), Motive is an inner directing force a specific need or want that arouses the organism and directs its behavior towards a goal.

All motives are triggered by stimulus, such as:-◦A bodily need

E.g. hunger, thirst◦A cue in the environment

E.g. Saw a McDonald advertisement feels hungry◦A feelings

Eg. Loneliness, guilt, anger

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When one or more stimulus create a motive, the result is Goal- directed behavior.

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STIMULUS MOTIVE BEHAVIOR

Instincts – innate factors Needs & Drives Incentives Beliefs & expectations

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Instinct is a specific, inborn behavior patterns that determine the behavior of a being.

Instinct is a goal-directed behavior that is the characteristic of entire species.

Sigmund Freud & Konrad Lorenz (1950)◦Viewed motivated behaviors as outlets for

instinctive energies◦Belief that specific energies accumulated in

the nervous system & had to be released in one way or another.

William James (1890’s) types of instincts: ◦hunting, fear, rivalry, curiosity, shyness, love,

shame, resentment. In1920’s psychologist proposed over 6,000

instincts to encompass every kind of human motivation. 18

But by 1930’s, instinct theory became unpopular in explaining human motivation behavior.

Reasons:◦Most significant human behavior is not inborn, but learned thru’ experiences.

◦Human behavior is not rigid, but flexible and always changing.

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Needs◦A biological state in which the organism

lacks something essential for survival.◦E.g. Food, water, oxygen.

The NEED produces a DRIVES which is a state of arousal (or state of tension) during which the organism engages in behaviors to reduce the need.

Once Need is satisfied the body returns to and remain in a more balanced state which is call HOMEOSTSIS.

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Needs + Drive + Homeostasis = Drive-Reduction Theory

A Drive-Reduction Theory is when:◦A need results in a drive which in turn

arouses the organism to engage in behaviors to reduce the need and return the body to homeostasis.

Behavior is directed towards reducing a state of bodily tension or arousal.

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Sometimes Drive reduction theory doesn’t explain all motivated behavior.

Situations: How to explain this?a.Sometimes when we are bored, we tend to seek out activities that heighten tension & arousal.

b.We just had our lunch but the sight & smell of a cheese cake makes us hungry.

Some psychologist belief that our behavior is motivated by unconscious drives.

Thus, sometimes object in the environment, called INCENTIVES can also motivate behavior. 22

Incentives◦External stimulus that prompts goal-directed behavior

◦Reinforces, goals or rewards that may be positive or negative and that motivates ones behavior.

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Need & Drive occur inside the body. Incentives occur outside the body (external

rewards) According to incentives perspectives

◦We are motivated to perform a certain act or behavior because we wish to obtain the incentives (praise, recognition, reward).

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WHY MARK CLIMB THE MOUNTAIN? DOES MARK CLIMB TO OBTAIN INCENTIVES?

◦May be to obtain recognition in the form of national press coverage, invitations for speaking, donations from corporate sponsors.

But incentives alone is unlikely to explain Marks’s motivation to engage in a life threatening behavior?◦So what other factor influence him?◦What motivate him/us to continue performing the

same behavior after our need is already met?

Extrinsic motivation◦Influences us to perform behaviors to

reduce biological needs or obtain various incentives.

Intrinsic motivation◦ Influences us to perform behaviors because the

behavior themselves are personally rewarding or because we are following our personal goals, belief or expectations.

◦ Emphasize on self-determination, which combines the feelings that we are behaving according to our chosen expectations and goals with the belief that we are in control of the situation.

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WHY DOES MARK CLIMB THE MOUNTAIN?

DID MARK CLIMB BECAUSE OF PERSONAL SATISFACTION?◦May be Marks belief that: climbing itself is rewarding climbing allow him to be in control of the

situation climbing is a way for him to fulfill his own

personal goals and expectations

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Primary motivations◦Such as desire for food and water serve obvious biological needs

Secondary motivations◦Serve biological needs indirectly ie. To satisfy primary motivation

◦Develop as a result of specific learning experiences

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We learn secondary motivation (SM) because they help us to satisfy primary motivation (PM) ◦We learn desire for money (SM), because it

help us to obtain food, water, clothing, shelter (P.M).

Sometimes, SM develops due to own reasons/goals (independent from PM)◦Collect coins/stamps hope to make profit

or because the collections leads to praise from other coin/stamps ethuziasts.

Human may have unlimited number of SM but a limited number of PM (because the biological needs of the body is limited).

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Emotion refers to the experience of such feelings as fear, joy, surprise or anger.

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Cognitive component ◦(conscious/subjective experience)◦E.g. Thinking what to do

Physiological arousal◦Increase heart rate & rush of adrenaline

Overt behavior◦Action than can be observed

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Emotions also activate & Affect behavior but it is more difficult to predict the kind of behavior that a particular emotion will prompt:-

- If a man is hungry he will seek food.◦If he experience joy/happiness he will cry,

shout, jump, laugh? (difficult to predict his action)

Emotions are intertwined with and give rise to motivations.

Both motives & emotions push us to take some kind of action.

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Basic Emotions are emotions that are either recognize in most cultures or help the species survive my motivating behaviors or signaling physiological needs and physiological moods (Ortony & Turner)

Hierarchy of Basic Emotion Pleasant Unpleasant

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Love

JoySurprise Ange

rSadness

fear

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Reasons:◦Help explain our complex emotional experiences

◦Researchers agree that emotion are important to the physical & psychological well being on the individual & the survival of our species.

Peripheral theories

◦That emphasize on changes in the body.

◦James-Lange theory (proposed by William James & Carl Lang separately in the 1800s)

◦Facial Feedback theory

Cognitive theories

◦That emphasize on cognitive factors

So, What causes an emotion such as fear?36

According to James-Lange theory:-◦Emotions result from specific physiological

changes in our bodies, and each emotion has a different physiological basis.

◦Pattern of physiological arousal as the major cause of emotions.

3 steps in James-Lang Theory:◦ We perceive stimulus (dog) in our environment

affect the autonomic nervous system. ◦ The autonomic nervous system causes a specific

physiological arousal increase heart beat, blood pressure, breathing different pattern of physiological for each emotion.

◦ Brain then interpret each pattern of physiological arousal as different emotion.

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Sensation or feedback from the movement of facial muscles and skin are interpreted by our brain and result in an emotion.

Originated from Charles Darwin who believe that each emotion has its own innate pattern of facial muscle movement.

3 steps:◦ We perceive a stimulus as a dog in our

environment the perception results in movement of the muscles and skin of the face.

◦ Specific feedback from muscles and skin of the face is interpreted by the brain and give rise to emotional experience.

◦ Each different pattern of facial movement is interpreted by the brain ad different emotion.

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Consider a situation:◦ “Tony won a million dollar lottery. As he showed every

one his winning ticket, he smiled and laughed and felt his heart pounding. He couldn’t stop thinking about all the things his millions would buy”

How did Tony feel when he won the lottery?

Emotion and motivation are closely link. Tony is motivated to show his tickets to all his friends

and plan how to use the money Thinking about or appraising a situation can greatly

influence an emotional experience.◦ Thinking about buying a car increases Tony’s happiness.◦ Thinking about a large chunk of his winning going to

taxes might make him a little unhappy

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Emotions help us adapt and survive

Emotions Motivate and arouse

Emotions express social signals

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Crying alert others that we may be in pain/discomfort

Showing disgust may signal the presence of poisonous or rotten food

Feeling angry/afraid help us survive a dangerous situation – escape

Feeling happy motivate social activities, bring peace of mind, and provide a chance to relax and enjoy life

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Emotions motivate new behavior but it can also disrupt behavior

There is a relationship between physiological arousal that accompany an emotion, with our performance on tasks Yerkes-Dodson Law

Yerkes-Dodson Law Performance on a task depends on the amount of physiological arousal and the difficulty of the task.

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◦Facial expression that accompany emotions serve as social signals that communicate physiological needs and psychological moods.

◦Facial expression of happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise are recognize as emotional expressions by many cultures.

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AABB

CC

DD EE

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Images show the appropriate raising of the lip corners (smile), but lack the degree of narrowing of the eyelid and crows-feet wrinkling that unite with the smile to indicate an actual happy emotion .

From infancy to old age, smiling is atable indicatorof a happy emotion in the image above. Each happyexpression shows signs of actual joy.

The images above also show the narrowing of the eyelids, crows-feet wrinklingat the corners of the eyes, and raising of the outer, upper area of the cheeks, indicating actual happiness.

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The crying baby face shows elements of thesad expression: narrowed eyes & raised cheeks,eyebrows pulledtogether, lip corners pulled down, chin bosspushed up, but also includes lateral lip stretching and has noraising of the eye bows in the center of the forehead

A suffering child showsa typical sad expresson with narrowed eyes and raised cheeks,eyebrows pulled together & raisedin the center of foreheadforming wrinkles in theglabella, and a slightly pushed up chin boss. The lips may be slightly pulled laterally & downwards.

This depiction of sadnessshows the down turned lipcorners and pushed up chin boss consistent with a sad expression. Also, the eyes are narrowed, but any actions in the brow area are obscured. Her posture, gaze direction, and head orientation help convey the overall sad expression.

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Lowered eyebrows, that are pulled together to form wrinkles in the skin of the forehead (glabella); tensed & straightened lower eyelids, & tension in lips&mouthcharacterize the angerexpression. The boyabove has pressed lipswith a slight pushing up

of the chin boss.

The man above shows the open mouth form of an anger expression. His lips are tensed & thinned. Like the other anger expressions, his lower eyelids are tensed and straightened, the eyebrows pulled down and together. The upper eyelid is raised causing a glaring look.

The woman above shows the closed mouth form of an anger expression, with lipspressed together, aided by a pushing up of the chin boss.Like the other expressions, her brows are pulled together, though slightly, and herlower eyelids are tensed and straightened. The uppereyelids are raised.

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This man is looking down at rat that is climbing his chest, so the typical actions of fear in the eyelids, raisedupper lids and tensed lowerlids, are obscured by his gaze direction. The eyebrows arepulled up, but do not show much of the pulling together that would indicate a fear expression in the brow. The mouth is stretched laterally, and the neck muscles pulled. Though containing elements of a fear expression, this person is probably not very afraid.

This woman portrays the elements of a surpriseexpression: eyebrows raised straight up, uppereyelids raised up, jawdropped and mouth open.However, because of theextreme drop of the jaw,the lateral pull on the lip corners causing the lipsto stretch, and the extremeopening of the eyes, anda tensed lower eyelid, ablend with a fear expressionis created. Blends of a fearexpression and a surpriseexpression are common .

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This portrayal captures the essential actions of onekind of disgust expression: -

A wrinkled nose with the eyebrows pulled down and the upper lip drawn up, the lower eyelid is tensed and the eye opening narrowed.

The pressing of the lips and raising of the upper eyelids are relevant to an anger expression; whereas the mouth would be open and the upper eyelids relaxed in the typical disgust expression. Her turn of the head to the left is consistent with a disgust expression, and with avoiding something

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"a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals" (Myers, 2005, p. 520) ◦ex: conflict between nations; conflict in marriage

While conflict may lead to aggression, it does not always do so.

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A perceived incompatibility of goals between two or more parties (Smith & Mackie, 2000, p. 504).

Conflicts can be defined as social facts incorporating at least two parties (single persons, groups, states, etc.) that go back to differences in social living

Conditions and/or to differences in the conflict parties‘ interests.

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International (war) Societal (sexism) Intergroup (relationship between East- and West- Germans)

Interpersonal (interpersonal aggression) Intrapersonal (cognitive dissonance)

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Manifest Latent

Based on vertical Horizontal stratification

Material Identity related

Divisible Undivisible

Destructive Constructive

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Social Dilemma◦Individual decisions to promote individual

well-being lead to adverse social outcomes for all

Competition◦Game competition increases aggressive

behavior. Perceived injustice

◦Perception may be biased, as we overvalue our own inputs and devalue those of others.

Misperception◦of others' motives and goals◦exaggerated sense of incompatibility

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Conflict regulation ◦Pragmatic, avoidance of violence (e.g. peace

corps) Conflict solution

◦ focussing on the causes of conflicts Conflict transformation

◦expanding the spectrum of acceptable outcomes

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A defence mechanism is an unconscious way to protect the personality from unpleasant thoughts which may cause anxiety.

However, a defence mechanism can also lead to a neurosis if it causes a person to adopt ineffectual or inappropriate coping strategies.

Types of Defence Mechanism◦ Displacement ◦ Introjection ◦ Projection ◦ Rationalisation ◦ Reaction Formation ◦ Regression◦ Repression◦ Sublimation

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Displacement. ◦ Redirecting emotion from a 'dangerous' object to a

'safe' object. For example punching a cushion when angry at your partner.

Introjection.◦ When an individual internalises the values or

characteristics of another person, usually someone who is significant to the individual in some way.

Projection. ◦ The opposite of introjection. Attributing one's own

emotions or desires to an external object or person. For example saying others hate you when it's you who hates the others.

Rationalisation. ◦ Inventing a logical reason after an emotional act is

made.

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Reaction formation.◦ A feeling is converted into its opposite, for

example turning hate into love. Regression.

◦Behaviour reverts to a previous age. Repression.

◦Thoughts unacceptable to the Ego are moved into the unconscious where they cannot be easily accessed.

Sublimation. ◦A 'healthy' form of displacem60ent, for

example playing sport to relieve stress or anger.

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