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ImplementingEffectiveYouthMentoringRelationshipsforHighSchoolStudents
CindySturtevantBorden
ThispaperwaspreparedfortheU.S.DepartmentofEducation(ED),OfficeofElementaryandSecondaryEducation,SmallerLearningCommunitiesProgramunderContractNumberED‐07‐CO‐0106withEDJAssociates,Inc.inHerndon,VA.TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationdonotnecessarilyrepresentthepositionsorpoliciesofED,nordoreferencestotradenames,commercialproducts,services,ororganizationsimplyendorsementbytheU.S.government.
TABLEOFCONTENTSIntroduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Background/SummaryofResearch...................................................................................................... 2
LessonsLearned .................................................................................................................................... 4
ObstaclestoSuccessfulImplementation............................................................................................. 7
Obstacle:InsufficientResources...................................................................................................... 8
Recommendation:DevelopaRealisticProgramBudget........................................................... 9
KeyQuestionstoConsider........................................................................................................... 9
Obstacle:InsufficientResources—Mentors ................................................................................. 10
Recommendation:CreateaMentorRecruitmentStrategyandPlan .................................... 10
KeyQuestionstoConsider......................................................................................................... 11
Obstacle:InadequateInfrastructure ............................................................................................. 11
Recommendation:BuildProgram/OrganizationCapacity ...................................................... 12
KeyQuestionstoConsider......................................................................................................... 13
Obstacle:LackofSupport............................................................................................................... 13
Recommendation:InvolveStakeholders.................................................................................. 13
KeyQuestionstoConsider......................................................................................................... 14
Obstacle:LimitedKnowledgeofMentoring ................................................................................. 14
Recommendation:LearnAboutMentoringBestPractices..................................................... 15
Recommendation:SeekOutExpertise ..................................................................................... 17
KeyQuestionstoConsider......................................................................................................... 17
Obstacle:UnclearorUnrealisticExpectations.............................................................................. 18
Recommendation:EstablishRealisticProgramExpectations ................................................. 18
KeyQuestionstoConsider......................................................................................................... 19
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................... 20
References ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Appendix1:AdditionalResources ..................................................................................................... 24
Appendix2:SampleAnnualBudgetforaSchool‐BasedMentoringProgram................................ 26
Appendix3:SampleMentorRecruitmentPlan................................................................................. 29
Appendix4:MentoringProgramOutline .......................................................................................... 31
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IntroductionFornearlytwodecades,educatorsandpolicymakershaverecognizedthatpersonalizinglarge,facelesshighschoolscanplayanimportantroleinimprovingstudentachievementandsuccess,particularlyforyoungpeoplewhoenterhighschoolwithoutasolidacademicfoundation.Breakingdownlargehighschoolsintofreshmanacademies,careeracademies,andothertypesofsmallerlearningcommunitieshasbecomeacommonreformstrategy.
Thesestructuralchangesareoftencomplementedbytheimplementationofotherpersonalizationstrategiessuchasteacheradvisoriesandfamilyadvocates(Quintetal.,2008).Manyoftheseschoolsarealsointroducingprogramssuchastutoringandinternshipsthatconnectindividualstudentswithspecificadults.Studentmentoringprograms,inparticular,arebecominganincreasinglypopularpersonalizationstrategy.
Researchhasshowntheimportanceofcaringadultsinthelivesofchildrenandyouth.ThesupportandguidanceofcaringadultsisthecornerstoneoftheFivePromises—keydevelopmentalresourcesthatyoungpeopleneedtosucceed—identifiedbyAmerica’sPromiseAlliance,anonprofitfocusedonimprovingthelivesofchildren(America’sPromiseAlliance,n.d.).ThepresenceofpositiveadultrolemodelsandthesupportofatleastthreenonrelatedadultsarepartofthenonprofitSearchInstitute’sDevelopmentalAssets—whattheyconsidertobethebuildingblocksforhealthydevelopment(SearchInstitute,n.d.).
Mentoringprovidesanalternativeforyouthwhoseparentsareunabletofulfillamentoringroleandservesasanadditionalresourceforyouthwhoseparentsareengagedintheirlives.Researchhasshownmentoringtobeparticularlyeffectiveforyouthwhofaceenvironmentalriskfactorssuchaspoverty(RhodesandDuBois,2006).Inthiscontext,mentoringshouldbeexploredasonecomponentoftheoverallremedytothehighschooldropoutcrisis.
Althoughmentoringhastraditionallybeenaninterventiongearedmoretowardyoungerstudents(i.e.,elementaryandearlymiddleschoolstudents)(Bernsteinetal.,2009;Herreraetal.,2007),itholdsunrealizedpotentialinservinghighschoolstudents.Amentorcouldbeuniquelypositionedtohelpayoungpersonnavigatetheprocessoftransitioningfromhighschooltopostsecondaryeducation,work,orcareertraining—thatis,ifthementoringisdonewell.
Withthatinmind,thispaperwillexplorethefundamentalsofeffectiveyouthmentoring.Becausethevastmajorityofmentoringliteraturefocusesoncommunity‐basedmentoring(CBM),wewillpayparticularattentiontoschool‐basedmentoring(SBM),especiallySBMdirectedtohighschoolstudents.Creatingandsustainingmentoringrelationshipsthatleadtodesiredoutcomesrequiresseveralkeyelements:
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• resources;
• infrastructure;
• support;
• knowledgeofeffectivementoring;and
• realisticexpectationsaboutthebenefitsandchallengesofmentoring.
Background/SummaryofResearchOurmodernunderstandingofmentoringhasbeenshapedbytheBigBrothersBigSisters(BBBS)program.BBBSbeganmatchingyoungpeoplewithcaringadultmentorsinCBMmorethan100yearsagoinanefforttoprovidesupporttoyouthcomingthroughthejuvenilecourtsystem(BBBS,n.d.).Recently,mentoringeffortshavegrownexponentially,fueledbysupportfrombothpoliticalparties(RhodesandDuBois,2006).Thisexplosioninyouthmentoringhascreatedanumberofnewmentoringmodelswithdifferentcontexts(e.g.,settings),structures(e.g.,peer,group)andgoals(Karcheretal.,2006).
Itseemsimportant,therefore,toestablishadefinitionofyouthmentoring.AccordingtotheElementsofEffectivePractice,responsiblementoringisastructuredone‐to‐one(otherstructuresarepermitted)relationshipthatfocusesontheneedsofmenteesandencouragesthemtomeettheirpotential(MENTOR,2009).Giventhisdefinition,itseemsbothlogicalandintuitivethatmentoringshouldwork.Butdoesit?
Althoughtheconceptofmentoringisnotnew,researchonandevaluationofmentoringprogramsisfairlyrecent.Thefirstcomprehensiveevaluationoftheimpactsofyouthmentoringwaspublishedin1995byPublic/PrivateVentures.ThisstudyfoundanumberofpositiveoutcomesforyouthinBBBSprograms,includingimprovedschoolattendanceandperformance,betterparentalandpeerrelationships,andreducedinitiationofdrugandalcoholuse(TierneyandGrossman,1995).Subsequentresearchhassuggestedthatmentoringcanresultinpositiveoutcomesforyouthinanumberofareas,includingeducation,healthandsafety,andsocialandbehavioralinteraction(Jekieleketal.,2002).Specifically,afterparticipatinginmentoringprograms,someyouthhavereportedimprovementsinself‐esteem;betterparentalandpeerrelationships;greaterconnectednesstoschool;improvedacademicperformance;andreductionsinsubstanceuse,violence,andotherriskybehaviors(Cavelletal.,2009).
Theeffectivenessofmentoring,however,dependsonthequalityofthementoringrelationship.Researchsuggestsastrongconnectionbetweenthebenefitsthatyouthexperiencefrommentoringandtheclosenessofthementor/menteerelationship.Trust,empathy,authenticity,andcommoninterestsareimportantcomponentsofcloserelationships.
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Intheirseminalpaperonmentoringrelationships,MorrowandStyles(1995)foundthatmentoringrelationshipsthataredevelopmentalinnature—inwhichthementorfocusesonbuildingtherelationship—aremoresatisfyingforbothmenteesandmentors.Theserelationshipsfocusontheindividualneedsoftheyouth,involveyouthindecision‐making,andplaceahighpriorityonhavingfun(MorrowandStyles,1995).Incontrast,prescriptivementoringrelationshipsemphasizetransformingtheyouthbyachievingcertaingoalsestablishedbythementor.MorrowandStyles(1995)foundthesetypesofrelationshipstobelesssatisfyingforbothmentorsandmentees.Thisdoesnotmeanthateffectivementorsaresimplyadultfriendsthatofferyouthunconditionalsupport.Infact,themostbeneficialrelationshipsseemtobethoseinwhichmentorsoffermoderatelevelsofsupport,structure,andactivities(Rhodes,2007).
Anotherkeyelementofeffectivementoringrelationshipsistheirduration.Onestudyfoundthatpositiveoutcomeswerethegreatestwhenrelationshipslasted12monthsorlonger,andthatpositiveoutcomesdecreasedforrelationshipslasting6to12monthsand3to6months(GrossmanandRhodes,2002).Notably,youthinrelationshipsthatlastedlessthan3monthsregressedinsomeareas(GrossmanandRhodes,2002).Thatis,theyouthwereworseoffaftertheirmentoringexperiencethanyouthwhohadneverhadamentor.Subsequentresearchhassuggestedthatfewerthan6monthsofmentoringmaybedetrimentaltoyouth,butthatmeetingthementee’sexpectationsforthedurationoftherelationshipseemstobethemostimportantcriteriainpreventingharmfuleffects(RhodesandDuBois,2006).
Mentoringprogramscanhelpfosterclose,effectiverelationshipsandincreasethelikelihoodoftherelationship’ssuccessbyfollowingcertainevidence‐based“bestpractices.”Theseincludeensuringrigorousscreeningandtrainingformentors,providingongoingsupporttomentors,offeringstructuredactivities,involvingparents,andmonitoringtheprogramtomakeimprovements(Cavelletal.,2009;DuBois,2002).Foracompletelistofresearch‐supportedbestpractices,seethesectiontitledRecommendation:LearnaboutMentoringBestPractices.
Untilrecently,mostoftheexistingbodyofresearchfocusedonthetraditionalmodelofmatchingoneadultmentorwithonechildinaCBMsetting.InCBM,mentor/menteepairsmeetatavarietyoflocationsinthecommunity,andtheyoungpersonisusuallyreferredtotheprogrambyaparentorguardian.Theminimumexpecteddurationoftherelationshipvariesbyprogrambutisoften1fullyear.Incontrast,SBMpairsmeetalmostexclusivelyonschoolgrounds(someprogramsoffergroupfieldtrips)andrelyprimarilyonteachersandotherschoolstaffforreferrals.SBMrelationshipstraditionallybeginwheneveramatchoccursandlastuntiltheendoftheschoolyear.
In2007,astudyoftheimpactoftheBBBSSBMprogramwasreleased.Thestudycitedanumberofpositiveimpactsresultingfromtheprogram,includingincreasesinoverallacademicperformance(specifically,thequalityofclassworkandthenumberofassignmentsturnedin)andscholasticefficacy,anddecreasesinseriousschool
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infractionsandskippingschool(Herreraetal.,2007).Notably,incontrasttofindingsfromCBMstudies,Herreraetal.(2007)foundnoimpactsinout‐of‐schoolareassuchasself‐esteem,parentalorpeerrelationships,ordrugandalcoholuse.ThisfindingsuggeststhatthepotentialimpactsofSBMaredistinctfromthoseofCBM.OthersmallerstudieshavealsofoundpositiveoutcomesresultingfromSBM,mostnotablyincreasesinschoolconnectedness(Portwoodetal.,2005;Karcher,2008),acriticalcomponentofretention,participation,andachievementinschool.
TheBBBSSBMstudylookedattheimpactofhavingamentorinisolation—thatis,itcomparedyouthwhohadamentorwiththosewhodidnot.Anotherstudylookedatmentoringinthecontextofothersupports.TheStudyofMentoringintheLearningEnvironment(SMILE)examinedparticipantsinamulticomponentprogram,CommunitiesinSchool–SanAntonio(CIS‐SA),whoreceivedanumberofsupportservices(Karcher,2008).Thestudycomparedthosestudentswhoreceivedjustthestandardserviceswiththosewhoreceivedthestandardservicesplusmentoring.Studentswhoreceivedmentoringreportedincreasesinself‐esteem,connectednesstopeers,andsocialsupportfromfriends,despitetherelativelyshortdurationofthematches.Thisfindingsuggeststhatthereisan“additive”effectwhenmentoringiscombinedwithotherinterventions(Karcher,2008).
LessonsLearnedThereismuchtobelearnedfromunsuccessfulmentoringattempts,bothattherelationshipandtheprogrammaticlevel.Inherresearchonwhymentoringrelationshipsfail,Spencer(2007)identifiessixthemesthatcontributetoearlymatchtermination:
• mentorormenteeabandonment;
• perceivedlackofmenteemotivation;
• unfulfilledexpectations;
• deficienciesinmentorrelationalskills,includingtheabilitytobridgeculturaldivides;
• familyinterference;and
• inadequateagencysupport.
Byunderstandingthesecommoncausesofprematuretermination,mentoringprogramshaveatremendousopportunitytobuildsolutionstothesechallengesintotheirprogramdesignandimplementation.Althoughtheseinsightsmayimprovethelikelihoodofsuccessforindividualmentoringrelationships,thereareotherlessonstobelearnedaboutprogramimplementationfrombroadermentoringinitiatives.
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TheimpactevaluationsofthreemajorSBMinitiatives—theU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sStudentMentoringProgram(SMP),BBBSSBM,andCIS‐SA—offervaluableinsights(Bernsteinetal.,2009;Herreraetal.,2007;Karcher,2008).Allthreeevaluationsfoundthattheaveragementoringrelationshipslastedlessthan6months,whichcould,inpart,accountfortherelationships’limitedimpacts.Interestingly,however,thereisasignificantdisparityinthefindingsfromthethreestudies.
• TheSMPevaluationfoundnostatisticallysignificantoutcomesfrommentoring(Bernsteinetal.,2009).
• TheBBBSSBMstudyfoundimprovementsinanumberofschool‐relatedoutcomes,asdiscussedearlier(Herreraetal.,2007).
• TheCIS‐SAstudyfoundimprovementsinafewoutcomesbutsuggesteddifferencesinimpactbasedonageandgender(Karcher,2008).
Thispaperexamineseachoftheseevaluationsindividuallybeforeattemptingtoexplaintheirseeminglyinconsistentfindings.
LookingattheSMPstudyrevealsthattheprogramhadthreeintendedoutcomes:improvedinterpersonalrelationships,personalresponsibility,andcommunityinvolvement;improvedschoolengagementandacademicachievement;andreducedhigh‐riskordelinquentbehaviors.Theevaluationfoundnostatisticallysignificantoutcomesinanyoftheseareas.Asdiscussedearlier,SBMasastandaloneinterventionhasnotproventobeeffectiveonnon–school‐relatedoutcomes,whichmayexplainthelackofimpactsinthefirstandthirdintendedoutcomes.Anotherpossibleexplanationforthelackofimpactonoutcomesistherelativelyhighpercentageoftreatmentgroupyouth(i.e.,youthwhowouldreceivementors)intheSMPstudywhowerenotactuallymatchedwithmentors(17percent),comparedtotheBBBSSBMstudy(7percent)andtheCIS‐SAstudy(10percent)(Wheeleretal.,2010).
Withrespecttothesecondintendedoutcome,thatofschool‐relatedimpacts,theissuemaysimplybeoneoftiming.Studentsurveysintendedtodetermineimpactwereadministeredinthefall,beforematchingtookplace,andagaininthespring.However,manymenteeswerenotmatchedwithamentoruntilafewmonthsintotheschoolyear,meaningthattheyhadbeenwiththeirmentorsforonlyafewmonthswhenthesecondsurveyswerecompleted.Eventhosematchesthatbeganimmediatelyfollowingtheinitialsurveyhadbeenmatchedforlessthan6monthswhenthefollow‐upsurveywasgiven.Theevaluationmayhavelookedforoutcomestoosoon,beforethementoringwasabletohaveanimpact.BoththecontentofthedesiredoutcomesandthetimelineforachievingthemsuggestthatexpectationsfortheSMP,althoughadmirable,mayhavebeenunrealistic.Itishopedthatthefailureofthisinitiativetoachieveitsgoalswillleadtoimprovementsinprogramdesignandimplementationinthefuture.
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TheBBBSSBMimpactstudy(Herreraetal.,2007)offersanumberofrecommendationsthatprovideinsightintohowSBMprogramscanbemademoreeffectiveforyoungpeople.Forexample,onlyoneoftheoutcomesmentionedearlier,thereducedlikelihoodofastudentstartingtoskipschool,wassustainedintothefollowingschoolyear.Thestudyalsofoundthatduetoavarietyoffactors(e.g.,latestart‐up,schoolvacations),theaveragementoringrelationshiplastedonlyabout5months,andthatlongermatchesandcloserrelationshipswereassociatedwithstrongerimpacts.Herreraandcolleagues(2007)offeranumberofsuggestionstoimprovethelength,quality,andcontinuityofSBMrelationships,includingstartingthematchesasearlyintheschoolyearaspossible,exploringwaystobridgethe“summergap”whenmostmatcheshavenocontact,andprovidingadditionalongoingtrainingandsupporttohelpmentorsdevelopcloserelationshipswiththeirmentees.
TheCIS‐SAstudyalsoofferssomeinsightintomentoringforhighschoolyouth.Karcher(2008)foundthegreatestimpactsforhighschool–agedgirlsandelementary‐agedboysandtheleastimpactsforhighschool–agedboys.Althoughadefinitiveexplanationforthisdifferencerequiresmoreresearch,youthofdifferentagesandgendersmaysimplyperceivementoringdifferently(KarcherandHerrera,2007).Interestingly,theCIS‐SAstudyalsofoundthatmatchestalkedaboutacademicsthreetimesmoreinhighschoolthandidmatchesinelementaryschool(Karcher,2009),eventhoughusingaprescriptiveapproachtomentoring(inthiscase,focusingtoomuchonacademics)hasbeenshowntobeineffective.Thesefindingssuggesttheneedforspecializedmentoring.Programadministratorsshouldexaminetheuniqueneedsoftheyouththeyserveanddesigntheirprogramaccordingly.
Eachoftheseprogramevaluationsoffersvaluableinsightonitsown.However,thediscrepanciesinthestudies’findingscouldleadtoconfusionabouttheeffectivenessofSBM.ArecentissueoftheSocialPolicyReport(Wheeleretal.,2010)examinedallthreestudiesandfoundanumberoffactorsthathelpexplainthevariationinfindings.Thesefactorsincludethecriteriaforincludingagenciesinthestudy,variationintheprogrammodels,andimplementationfidelity.
Mostimportantly,eachstudyuseddifferentcriteriatodeterminethestatisticalsignificanceoftheprogram’simpactonoutcomes(Wheeleretal.,2010).TheSMPstudyusedthemoststringentcriteria,andtheBBBSSBMprogramthemostlenient(Wheeleretal.,2010).Whenthesamecriteriawereappliedtoallthreestudies,therewasgreaterconsistencyintheimpactacrossstudies(Wheeleretal.,2010).AsWheelerandcolleaguesexplain,“usingthemiddlegroundcriterion...theBBBSstudywouldhavereportedsignificantimpactsonsevenoutcomes,theSMPstudyfive,andtheCIS‐SAstudyfour,”suggestingmuchlessdisparityamongoutcomesthanoriginallythought.
Wheelerandcolleaguesalsoconductedametaanalysisofthethreestudiesandfoundpositiveeffectsonsixoutcomes:truancy,supportfromnonfamilialadults,perceived
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scholasticefficacy,school‐relatedmisconduct,peersupport,andabsenteeism(Wheeleretal.,2010),thusreinforcingthepotentialbenefitsofSBM.
ObstaclestoSuccessful ImplementationAsmentionedearlier,mentoringisappealingasaninterventioninpartbecauseitintuitivelymakessense—providingyoungpeoplewithsupportiveadultsseemslikeagoodideathatshouldbeeasytoimplement.Thedownsideofthiswidespreadbeliefisthenotionthatmentoringcanactasapanaceaforallrisksfacedbyyouth.Thisbeliefhasresultedinill‐designedprogramsorinitiativesbeingcreatedwithaimsthatarebeyondthepotentialoutcomessupportedbyresearchorthatservespecificriskgroupsthathavenotyetbeenshowntobenefitfrommentoring.Althoughinnovationinandexpansionofyouthmentoringprogramsarepositivetrends,theexpectationsfornewprogramapproachesmustberealistic,andtheirresultsmustbecarefullyevaluated.
Inadditiontothechallengesposedbytheideaofmentoringasa“cure‐all,”amisguidednotionhasemergedthatbecausetheconceptofmentoringissimple—matchayoungpersonwithacaringadult—creatingandsustainingaprogrammustbesimpleaswell.It’snot,andbelievingthat“mentoringissoeasyandsoinexpensivethatanyonecandoit”doesadisservicetoeveryoneinvolvedinamentoringprogram.Furthermore,asmentionedearlier,mentoringdonepoorlyhasthepotentialtoactuallyharmtheyoungpeopleitaimstoserve.
Thus,youthmentoringcanbeseenasbothapromisingandapotentiallyriskyintervention.Therearemanyobstaclestoimplementingeffectivementoringprograms.Fromapracticalstandpoint,collapsingthemintospecificcategoriesmayhelpintheidentificationofsolutions.Forthepurposesofthispaper,wehaveidentifiedfivecategoriesofobstaclestosuccessfulimplementation:
1. R–Insufficientresources
2. I–Inadequateinfrastructure
3. S–Lackofsupport
4. K–Limitedknowledgeofmentoringbestpractices
5. E–Unclearorunrealisticexpectations
Thesefivecategoriesrepresentthemostcommonobstaclestoimplementationofanymentoringprogram,whethercommunity‐orschool‐based,andreinforcethe“riske”natureofmentoring.Inthefollowingsections,weexamineeachoftheseobstaclesindividually,providerecommendationstoaddressthem,andlistrelatedquestionstoconsider.
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Obstacle: Insuff ic ientResources
Attheheartofyouthmentoringprogramsarethementors—volunteerswhochoosetospendtheirtimewithyoungpeople.Inallbutthemostintensivementoringmodels,mentorsdonatetheirtime.Althoughmanyprogramsoffersmallstipendsformentors(e.g.,topayfortraveloractivities),theoverallcostsfortheprogramareminimal.Theresultisanexpectationbyprograms,funders,andthelargercommunitythatmentoringrequiresfewerresourcesthanotherinterventionsaimedatyoungpeople.
Withthisexpectationinmind,manyprogramsgetcaughtupintheexcitementofservingyoungpeopleandbelievethat“everythingelsewillfallintoplace.”Theyassumethatthebenefitsofmentoringareclearandthatiftheyhaveagoodprogram,fundingcanbeobtainedwithlittleeffort.
Unfortunately,thatisnotalwaysthecase.Arecentsurveyfoundthatmorethanthree‐quartersofprogramproviders(78.8percent)identifiedfundraisingasveryorsomewhatdifficult(SaitoandSipe,2007).Moreworrisome,overhalfoftheseproviderswereconcernedthattheirprogramswouldhavetoshrinkinsizeorclosealtogetherbecauseofinsufficientfunding.
Bothprogramsandfundersoftenunderestimatetheresourcesrequiredtosustainaneffectiveprogram.Well‐structuredprogramsthatfollowbestpracticescompetewithlessexpensivemodelsandstruggletofindfunding.Lessestablishedprogramsattempttoserveyouthwithoutasolidprogrammaticfoundationandmayprovideineffectiveservicesordiscontinueservicesaltogether,potentiallyharmingyouthintheprocess.
Manygoodprogramsclosetheirdoorseveryyearbecauseofalackofresources,andindifficulteconomictimes,fundingbecomesmorescarceandcompetitionforfundingincreases.Fundersinvestingininnovativementoringapproachesmustrealizethat“cookiecutter”outcomescannotbeguaranteed.Theymustalsoresistthetemptationtomoldmentoringtofitintoanynewinitiativethatcomesalong.Ifagoodmentoringprogram,whethercommunity‐orschool‐based,ceasestoexistbecauseitcannotachievetheoutcomesrequiredbyaspecificfundingstream,theyouthitserveswillbeleftontheirown.
IntheSBMcontextinparticular,schoolsarealreadybeingaskedtodomorewithless—increaseacademicperformancefortheirstudentswhileprovidingadditionalsupportservices,oftenwithfewornoadditionalresources.Inthisenvironment,manyschoolshavedecidedorhavebeenrequiredtodevelopmentoringprogramsfortheirstudents.Manyoftheseschoolsarealreadyimplementingalternativemodelssuchassmallerlearningcommunitiesthatrequireadditionaltimecommitmentsfromstaffandsapotherresources.Withresourcesofallkinds—money,stafftime,space,andequipment—alreadystretchedtothelimit,addinganotherprogramwithoutcarefulidentificationandallocationofresourcescouldbearecipefordisaster.
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Recommendation: Developa Real isticProgramBudget
Sohowmuchdoesitreallycosttoimplementahigh‐qualityyouthmentoringprogram?Untilrecently,itwascommonlyacceptedwithinthementoringcommunitythatSBMwassignificantlylessexpensivetoimplementthanCBM.Thismayaccountfortheunprecedentedgrowthofschool‐basedprogramsinrecentyears,allowingittosurpassCBMasthemostcommonmentoringmodel.
However,recentresearchhasfoundthecostofmentoringayouthfor1yearinanSBMsettingtobeverysimilartothecostsinaCBMsetting:$987forSBMand$1,088forCBM(Herreraetal.,2007).Themostsignificantcomponentsoftheprogrambudgetwerestaffingcosts—bothprogrammatic(41percent)andgeneral(26percent)—andoperatingcosts(27percent)(Herreraetal.,2007).
Althoughcostsvariedsignificantlyacrosstheprogramsinvolvedinthestudy—rangingfrom$370to$1,415peryouthperyear—usingtheaveragecostforinitialbudgetingpurposesseemsalogicalplacetostart.Onceaprogramisupandrunning,thisassumptioncanbetestedsothatfuturebudgetsreflectactualprogramcosts.Althoughcoveringtheinitialprogrambudgetisimportant,doingsoisnotenoughtoensurethecontinuationoftheprogram.Creatingasustainabilityplanisessentialandwillbediscussedintheinfrastructuresectionlaterinthispaper.
ItisimportanttonotethattheBBBSSBMimpactstudy(Herreraetal.,2007)lookedatcostsrequiredforcommunity‐basedorganizations(CBOs)—inthiscase,BBBSagencies—toimplementSBMprogramsinpartnershipwithlocalschoolsandschooldistricts.TheCBOswereabletoleverageschoolresources,mostnotablyintheformofteacher/stafftimeandmeetingspace,toreducetheirout‐of‐pocketexpensesbyanaverageof12percentor$117perstudentperyear(Herreraetal.,2007).
Whendesigningaprogram,schoolorschooldistrictpersonnelwillhavetochoosebetweencontractingwithaCBOtoruntheprogramorrunningitthemselves.Intheformersituation,theaveragecostsmentionedabovecanbeusedinnegotiatingvendorcontracts.Inthelattercase,manyoftheresourcesusedwillbeleveragedfromexistingsources,requiringthereductionoreliminationofotheractivities.Asampleprogrambudgetislocatedinappendix2.
KeyQuestionstoConsider
Whowillprovidefundingforprogramstart‐up?Forongoingoperations?Whatin‐kindresourcescanbeleveraged?Fromwhom?Willtheprogramdependontheuseofexistingstaffandotherresources(e.g.,spaceandtechnology)?Ifso,whataretheimplicationsforexistinginitiatives?
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Obstacle: Insuff ic ientResources—Mentors
Mostyouthmentoringprogramsrelyheavily,ifnotexclusively,onvolunteersasmentors.Inaddition,manysmallerprogramsdependonvolunteerstocarryouttheday‐to‐daymanagementoftheprogram.
Unfortunately,thedemandformentorsfarexceedsthesupply.Theshortageofsomecategoriesofmentors,includingmalesandminorities,isevenmoredramatic.InarecentsurveybyMENTOR(SaitoandSipe,2007),almosthalfofallprogramssaidtheyneededmembersofaspecificrace,andmorethanthree‐quartersneededmentorsofaspecificgender.Programsservingpopulationsperceivedtobemorechallenging(e.g.,olderadolescents)faceadditionalchallengesinrecruitingvolunteers.Theinabilitytorecruit,screen,andtrainsufficientnumbersofmentorstomeetdemandsisoneofthemajorbarrierstoeffectivelytakingyouthmentoringprogramstoscalenationally(Cavelletal.,2009)andlimitstheimpactofindividualprograms.AlthoughSBMmayattractnewgroupsofvolunteerswhoappreciateitsstructureandsupervision,itmayalsolimitworkingprofessionals’abilitytoparticipate.
Recommendation: Createa MentorRecrui tmentStrategyandPlan
Manyprogramsmistakenlybelievethatrecruitingmentorswillbeeasyandunderestimatethetimeandresourcesrequiredtodomentorrecruitmentright.Ahaphazardapproachtorecruitmentisinefficientandineffective:itleadstolongwait‐lists,matchingdelays,andfrustrationforbothyouthandstaff.Incontrast,awell‐thought‐outrecruitmentplanprovideseveryonewithablueprinttofollow.Aneffectiveplan
• includescleargoalsandstrategies;
• identifiespotentialsourcesofmentors;
• specifiestherecruitmentmessage;
• detailsthestaffing,budget,andmaterialsrequirements;and
• canbeusedasatooltoassesstheeffectivenessofoverallrecruitmenteffortsandindividualstrategies,allowingprogramstomakeongoingadjustmentsasnecessary.
Asamplerecruitmentplancanbefoundinappendix3.
Whileanin‐depthdiscussionofmentorrecruitmentisbeyondthescopeofthispaper,rememberthefollowingtips:
• Knowtheprogram.Whatisthemission?Whomdoestheprogramserve?Whyisthisprogramimportant?
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• Understandpotential mentors. Whatkindofpeoplewouldmakegoodmentorsfortheprogram?Whatmightmotivatethemtobecomementors?Whatbarriersmaypreventthemfrommentoring?
• Developaclearmessage.Everyoneconnectedtotheprogramshouldbepartoftherecruitmentteam(includingstaff,mentors,mentees,andparents)andshouldbeabletotalkabouttheprogram’smission,goals,andtheuniquepopulationbeingservedinasimple,compellingmanner.
• Recruitmorementorsthanyouneed.Potentialmentorswillbelostthroughouttheenrollmentandscreeningprocess.Somemaydecidethatmentoringingeneral,oracertainprograminparticular,isn’ttherightfitforthem.Otherswillbeexcludedbytheprogram’sscreeningprocess.Thisisagoodthing—itismuchbettertoloseaprospectivementorearlyintheprocessthanafterheorshehasbeenmatchedwithayoungperson.Programadministratorsshouldplanaccordingly,however,toensurethattheyhaveenoughmentorstomatchwithyouth.
Formoreinformationaboutmentorrecruitment,seeappendix1,AdditionalResources.
KeyQuestionstoConsider
Whatkindofpeoplewillmakethebestmentorsfortheyouthbeingserved?Whatcharacteristicsaremostimportant?Where/howcanyoufindthesetypesofpeople?Whyshouldsomeonevolunteerasamentorforyourprogram?Whatbarriersexistthatmightpreventsomeonefromvolunteering?
Obstacle: InadequateInfrastructure
Asolidinfrastructureisessentialtothesuccessofanybusinessornonprofitorganization.Unfortunately,basedonavarietyoffactors,includingfunders’unrealisticexpectationsofoperationalcosts,manynonprofitsdonotspendenoughonoverheadcoststoensurethelong‐termstabilityoftheiroperation(GogginsandHoward,2009).
Likeanynonprofitorganization,mentoringprogramsrequireasolidfoundationandframeworktosurviveandthrive.Manyprogramsarestartedwiththebestofintentionsbutwithouttheorganizationalcapacityneededtomakethemsuccessful.Sixkeycomponentsoforganizationalcapacityarenecessaryforhighperformanceandsustainability(Connolly,2002):
1. strongleadershipandgovernancepractices;
2. aclearmission;
3. high‐qualityprogramdeliverywithmeasurableimpact;
4. strategicrelationshipswithconstituentsandthecommunity;
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5. aresourcedevelopmentplan;and
6. efficientinternaloperationsandmanagementoffinances,information,andrisk.
Withoutthisessentialframework,manymentoringprogramscollapseunderthepressureofcompetingdemandsandlimitedresources.
Recommendation: Bui ldProgram/OrganizationCapacity
Fortunately,manyofthesesixcomponentsusuallyexistwithintheschooldistrictorindividualschoolbuildingsandcanbeleveragedbythementoringprogram.Nonetheless,itiscriticalthatroles,responsibilities,andresourcesconnectedtothementoringprogrambeexplicitlyincludedtoavoidconfusion.
Forexample,itisnotenoughtoidentifythepersonresponsiblefortheday‐to‐dayleadershipoftheprogram.Onemustalsodeterminehowtheprogramfitsintothevision,operationalstructure,andresourcedevelopmentplansfortheschoolorschooldistrict.Onecannotjustassumethatthementoringprogramwillbeallowedtoleverageexistingresourcessuchastechnology,datamanagement,oradministrativepersonnel.Acleardirectivefromtheprincipalorschooldistrictthatexplicitlydefineswhichresourcesthementoringprogrammayaccessaswellastheprocessfordoingsowillavoidconfusionandpreventpossibleturfbattles.
SomeschoolsandschooldistrictschoosetopartnerwithanexistingCBMprogramtoleverageitsinfrastructureandexpertise(see“Obstacle:LimitedKnowledgeofMentoring”sectionofthispaper).Thisiscertainlyanacceptablestrategy—aslongasthereisacontractormemorandumofunderstandingthatclearlystatestherolesandresponsibilitiesofeachparty.
Inadditiontothegeneralareasoforganizationalcapacitymentionedabove,allmentoringprogramsshoulddevelopthefollowingcomponents:
• Asustainabilityplantoensurethequalityandcontinuationoftheprogram.Formoreinformationondevelopingasustainabilityplan,seeEffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunitiesSustainabilityPlanningandResourceDevelopmentforYouthMentoringPrograms(http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/476).
• Apoliciesandproceduresmanualthatcaptureshowtheprogramoperates,includingeverythingfromeligibilitycriteriatomatchclosure.TheGenericMentoringProgramPolicyandProcedureManual,publishedbytheHamiltonFishInstituteandtheNationalMentoringCenter,providesanexcellentcustomizabletemplate(http://gwired.gwu.edu/hamfish/merlin‐cgi/p/downloadFile/d/20701/n/off/other/1/name/policypdf).
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• Ariskmanagementplanthatacknowledges,evaluates,andprioritizesriskandidentifiesstrategiestomanagerisk,includingliabilityinsurance.MoreinformationaboutriskmanagementcanbefoundontheNonprofitRiskManagementCenter’swebsite(http://www.nonprofitrisk.org).
KeyQuestionstoConsider
Whoisresponsiblefortheday‐to‐daymanagementandimplementationoftheprogram?Whatarethekeytasksthatneedtobecompleted?Howmuchstafftimeisrequiredtocompletethosetasks?WilltheschoolruntheprogramaloneorwillitpartnerwithaCBO?Ifapartnershipisformed,whataretheroles,responsibilities,andexpectationsforeachpartner?Whatisthechainofcommandforresolvingdifficultsituations?Whoisultimatelyaccountablefortheprogram?Howwillprograminformationbecollectedandmaintainedtoensureconfidentiality?Howwilltheprogrambeevaluated?
Obstacle:Lackof Support
In2006,aspartofitsNationalAgendaforAction,MENTORdeclaredthat“itistimetodevelopa‘cultureofmentoring’—aculturewherementoringisviewedasintegraltothehealthandwell‐beingofbothorganizationsandindividuals.”Thisdeclarationunderscorestheimportanceofintegratingmentoringintothefabricofoursocietyandmakingthewellbeingofyoungpeopleeveryone’sresponsibility.
Unfortunately,mentoringprogramsoftenbeginasthebrainchildofonepersonorasmallgroupofpeople.Oncetheprogramisunderway,itcanfaceapathyorresistancefromkeystakeholders,includingpotentialvolunteers,schoolorschooldistrictpersonnel,parents,andyouth.Thislackofownershipfortheprogramtransformsthetaskofrunningtheprogramfromchallengingtodaunting.
AsmentionedintheLessonsLearnedsection,lackofmenteeinterestandparentsupport/involvementarecommonreasonsfortheearlyterminationofmentoringrelationships(Spencer,2007)—butevenhavingyouthandparentalsupportofaprogramisnotenough.Withoutlargerscalebuy‐inandsupport,programsstrugglewithfundraising,volunteerandyouthrecruitment,andoverallimplementation.
Recommendation: InvolveStakeholders
Toensurethesuccessofamentoringprogram,oneneedsbuy‐inacrossalllevelswithintheschoolsystemandthecommunityatlarge.Thefirststeptogarneringsupportisinclusion—toengagepeopleintheplanningprocess.Programinitiatorsshouldformacommitteeoranadvisoryboardtohelpdesigntheprogram.Thecommitteeshouldincluderepresentativesfromallthekeystakeholdersintheprogram,including:
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• schooldistrictpersonnel;
• schoolstaff;
• communityandbusinessleaders;
• parents;and
• perhapsmostimportantly,theyouththeprogramwillserve.
Programstaffshouldbeclearandhonestaboutanyconstraints(e.g.,budget)ornonnegotiableitems(e.g.,mandatoryreportingrequirements)affectingtheprogram,butbeopentoadvice,guidance,andsuggestionsfromthegroup.Givingstakeholdersalegitimatevoiceintheprogramdesignresultsinasenseofempowermentandownership;peoplearemuchmorewillingtoworkandfightforsomethingtheyfeelbelongstothem.
Althoughinvolvingstakeholdersinprogramdesignisimportant,itisnotenough.Fromapracticalstandpoint,everyonecannotbeincludedontheprogramcommittee,andeventhosewhoareincludedmaynotbesatisfiedwitheverydecisionthatismade.
Theefforttowinovercriticsandaddressresistancerequiresengagementonadifferentlevel.Itisimportanttolistentocritiquesandtrytodeterminemotivations.Whymightsomeoneberesistanttotheprogram?Perhapsthepersonhasotherprioritiesandisworriedthatmentoringcoulddivertresourcesfromthoseprojectsorgoals.Inthiscase,onemusttrytofindaconnectionbetweenmentoringandthestatedpriorities,or,ataminimum,provideassurancethatthementoringprogramwillnotcompetewiththeindividual’spriorities.
Evenifsomeconcernscannotbeaddressed,itisimportanttoacknowledgethemrespectfullytopreventresentmentandpotentialsabotagingoftheprogram.
KeyQuestionstoConsider
Whosesupportandbuy‐inisnecessaryfortheprogramtobesuccessful?Howwilleachofthesestakeholdersbeengaged?Whatrolewillyouthhaveinprogramdesignandimplementation?Whatwilltheprogramdotoencourageparent/guardianinvolvement?Whatpotentialpartnersexistwithintheschool,district,orcommunity?Howcanyouworktogethertoleverageresourcesandbetterserveyouth?
Obstacle:L imitedKnowledgeof Mentoring
Asmentionedearlier,theconceptofmentoringhasbenefitedgreatlyfromitssimplicity,intuitiveness,andseemingeaseofimplementation.However,atitsheart,mentoringisaboutcreatingandcultivatingcaringrelationshipsbetweenyoungpeopleandadult,volunteermentors.Mostmentoringprogramsbringtogethermentorsandmentees
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withdifferentbackgrounds,cultures,andvalues—peoplewhowouldnotnaturallyinteractwitheachother—andaskthemtoformcloserelationships.
Asonemightexpect,anumberofchallengescanarisewhen“worldscollideandculturesclash.”Evenwell‐establishedprogramswithextensiveknowledgeofbestpracticesstruggletoovercomethesebarrierstosuccess.Manyneworinexperiencedprogramsareunpreparedfortheinevitableobstaclesandbecomeoverwhelmedtryingtodealwiththem.Lackingknowledgeofbestpracticesformentorscreening,training,andsupport,theseprogramsoftenconfrontearlymatchterminationsandlossofmentors.
Inadditiontothepotentialimpactsuchterminationshaveonmentees,programsmustuseadditionaltimeandresourcestoreplacethelostmentors,whichcanpotentiallyleadtostaffburnout.Eventhoughalmostallprogramsaredrivenbyasinceredesiretohelpyoungpeople,goodintentionsarenotenough.Thepotentialofmentoringtodoharmifdonepoorlyplacesanenormousresponsibilityonallprogramstounderstandandincorporatebestpractices.
Recommendation: LearnAbout MentoringBestPractices
Acomprehensivediscussionofmentoringbestpracticesisbeyondthescopeofthispaper,butabriefoverviewofimportantfindingsandresourcesisprovided.Althoughmanyprogramsfeelpowerlesswhenitcomestofosteringeffectivementoringrelationships,researchdemonstratesthatcertainbestpracticescanleadtogreaterimpactsforyouth.
OneparticularlyhelpfulstudyilluminatingbestpracticeswasthemetaanalysisconductedbyDuBoisandcolleagues.Thisstudyexaminedtheresultsof55evaluationsofmentoringprogramsandfoundthat,overall,mentoringprogramscanhaveapositiveimpact(DuBoisetal.,2002).Perhapsevenmoreusefulforpractitioners,DuBoisandcolleagues(2002)identifiedspecificpracticesthatindividuallypredictedlargerpositiveeffects;thesearereferredtoas“empiricallybasedpractices”:
• monitoringprogramimplementation;
• selectinganappropriatesettingforthementoringprogram(programsoutsideofschoolshowedlargereffectsizes);
• recruitingmentorswithexperienceinahelpingroleorprofession;
• settingfirmrequirementsaroundtheexpectedfrequencyofmentor/menteecontact;
• providingongoingtrainingformentors;
• providingstructuredactivitiesformentorsandyouth;and
• encouragingparentalsupportandinvolvement.
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DuBoisandcolleaguesalsoidentifiedtheory‐basedpractices—practicesthathadbeenpreviouslyidentifiedinthementoringliterature.Thesepracticesdidnotindividuallypredictgreateryouthoutcomesinthestudy.However,theresearchersfoundthatasthenumberofbestpractices(bothempiricallybasedandtheorybased)incorporatedbyaprogramincreased,sodidtheimpactsforyouth.Thetheory‐basedpracticesDuBoisandcolleaguesidentifiedareasfollows:
• screeningprospectivementors;
• matchingmentorsandyouthbasedoncommoninterests;
• providingprematchtrainingtomentors;
• establishingclearexpectationsforthedurationofthematch;
• supervisingthementor/menteerelationship;and
• offeringasupportgroupformentors.
Havingidentifiedwhatthebestpracticesare,thenextchallengeistousethem.TheElementsofEffectivePracticeforMentoring(MENTOR,2009)providesthefollowingsixstandardstohelpmentoringprogramsincorporatebestpracticesintotheirday‐to‐dayoperations:
• Standard1. Recruitappropriatementorsandmenteesbyrealisticallydescribingtheprogram’saimsandexpectedoutcomes.
• Standard2. Screenprospectivementorstodeterminewhethertheyhavethetime,commitment,andpersonalqualitiesneededtobeaneffectivementor.
• Standard3. Trainprospectivementorsinthebasicknowledgeandskillsneededtobuildaneffectivementoringrelationship.
• Standard4. Matchmentorsandmenteesalongdimensionslikelytoincreasetheoddsthatmentoringrelationshipswillendure.
• Standard5. Monitormentoringrelationshipmilestonesandsupportmentorswithongoingadvice,problem‐solvingsupport,andtrainingopportunitiesforthedurationoftherelationship.
• Standard6. Facilitatebringingthematchtoclosureinawaythataffirmsthecontributionsofboththementorandmenteeandoffersbothindividualstheopportunitytoassesstheexperience.
Foreachstandard,theElementsprovidesspecificbenchmarksforself‐assessmentbyprograms;research‐basedjustificationsforthebenchmarks;andenhancementstothestandardbasedontheadviceofpractitioners.AcopyoftheElementsandachecklistto
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tracktheprogressofaprogramcanbedownloadedathttp://www.mentoring.org/find_resources/elements_of_effective_practice.
Inadditiontothesebestpracticesformentoringasawhole,somepromisingpracticesspecificallyforSBMarebeginningtoemergefromresearchandpractice.OneofthemainchallengesidentifiedinSBMistheshortdurationofthematch.Programstaffshouldkeepthisconsideration,andthefollowingothers,inmindwhendesigningtheprogram:
• Plantostartasmanymatchesaspossibleatthebeginningoftheyearandadjustthetimelineandotheractivitiesasnecessary.
• Provideongoingtrainingandsupporttohelpmentorsbuildandsustainstrongrelationshipswiththeirmentees.
• Encouragematchestostaytogetherbeyondtheinitialschoolyearandofferopportunitiesforsummercontactbetweenmentorsandmentees.Optionsforsummercontactmaydependonschooldistrictpolicies,butcouldincludehostingregulargroupmeetingsformatchesattheschooloracommunitysite;organizingcommunityserviceactivitiesformentor/menteepairs;developingasystemforphone,e‐mail,orpostalmailcontact;andaskingmentorsandmenteestokeepajournaltosharewitheachotherwhenschoolresumes.
FormoreinformationaboutSBM,seeappendix1,AdditionalResources.
Recommendation: Seek Out Expertise
Havingabasicunderstandingofmentoringisessentialforanyoneconsideringstartingaprogram.Thatdoesnotmean,however,thatprogramstaffshouldexpecttobecomeexpertsinmentoringovernight.SomeschoolsdecidetocontractwithanexistingmentoringprogramtoruntheirSBMprogram.Ifthisoptionischosen,itisimportanttoselectaqualifiedvendorwithexperienceinbothmentoringandworkingwiththetargetedyouthpopulation.
Otherschoolsdecidetoimplementaprogramontheirown.Ifthisrouteischosen,itisimportanttoseekouttraining,technicalassistance,andsupportfrommentoringexperts.Thereareanumberofnational,regional,andlocalorganizationsavailabletosupportmentoringprograms(seeappendix1,AdditionalResources).
KeyQuestionstoConsider
Doestheprogramfollowbestpracticesformentoring?Istheresomeoneonstaffwhohasexpertiseinmentoring?Wherecanprogramstafffindtechnicalassistanceandsupport?
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Obstacle:Unclearor UnrealisticExpectations
Theincreasingpopularityandpublicsupportformentoringandmentoringprogramshasdownsides—morescrutinyofprogramsandanexpectationofimmediate,positiveresults.Althoughaccountabilityisagoodthing,uninformedaccountability—demanded,perhaps,byfunders,policymakers,orcitizenswithoutasolidunderstandingofhowmentoringworks—underminesthequalityofyouthmentoringaswhole.
Forexample,greateremphasisisoftenplacedonthenumberofyouthbeingmentoredratherthanonthequalityofthementoringprovided.Assumptionsareoftenmadeaboutthecost‐effectivenessofmentoring,causingsomeprogramstocutbackonqualityinanefforttocompeteforfunds.Evensuccessfulprogramsstruggletobalancequalityandquantityastheyarecontinuallypushedtodomore:toservemoreyouth,ormorechallengingyouththantheyarecapableofhandling,oftenextendingthemselvesbeyondtheircapacity.
Unlikemanyotherservices,thereisnoeconomyofscaleformentoring—thatis,costspermatchdonotdecreasesignificantlyasthenumberofmatchesincreases(Herreraetal.,2007;Fountain,1999).Ontheotherhand,anincreasedlongevityofmatchesmayreducecostsovertimebecausemanycosts(e.g.,recruitment,screening,andtraining)areincurredupfront.Pressuringprogramstocontinuallyincreasetheirnumbersmayforcethemtodedicatethelimitedresourcestheyhavetomakingnewmatches,ratherthansupportingexistingones.Thisinturncanresultintheneedtocreateevenmorematchesasunsupportedmatchesendprematurely.
Individualmentoringprogramscaneasilyfallintothistrap.Manyprogramsarestartedwithoutanycleargoalinmindotherthan“tohelpyouth.”Withnocleardefinitionofsuccess,theprogramoftenfollowsthelatestfundingtrend,sometimespromisingimpactsitcannotdeliver.Otherprogramsarestartedwithveryspecificgoalsinmind—goalsthatmaybetooambitious.Programsmayexpecttoreaplong‐termimpactsinashorttimeframeortoservelargenumbersofyouthimmediately.Theymayalsopursuegoalsthatarebeyondthescopeofmentoringasastandaloneintervention.Theseprogramsoftenfailtorealizethepotentialpowerofcombiningmentoringwithothersupportservices.
Recommendation: Establ ishReal isticProgramExpectations
Fromthebeginning,programinitiatorswillneedtodevelopclear,reasonableexpectationsbasedinpartontheprogram’suniqueRISKE(resources,infrastructure,support,knowledge,andexpectations)situation.Asthegoalsfortheprogramareconsidered,initiatorsshouldkeepinmindtheresearchandlessonslearnedaboutthepotentialimpactsofmentoring.
Forexample,iftheonlypurposeofanSBMprogramistoincreasestudents’gradepointaverage,mentoringmaynotbethebestintervention.However,ifthegoaloftheSBMis
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todevelopasenseofcommunitywithintheschool,withthebeliefthat,overtime,thedropoutratewilldecrease,mentoringmaybetheanswer.Ifthedesiredprogramimpactsextendbeyondschool‐relatedoutcomes,therelativeimportanceofthosespecificoutcomesshouldbeevaluated,orapartnershipwithaCBOtorunaCBMprogramshouldbeconsidered.Manypeoplefindithelpfultocreatealogicmodeldescribinghowtheprogramwillwork.(Formoreinformationaboutlogicmodels,seeappendix1,AdditionalResources.)
Oncethegoalsand/orlogicmodelisinplace,atimelineforimplementationshouldbedeveloped.Manyprogramsmakethemistakeofstartingaprogramtoosoon.Aminimumof4months(preferably6)shouldbeallowedfromthetimeplanningstartsuntiltheprogrambegins.IfmatchingbeginsinSeptember,staffshouldbeginplanninginJanuarytoallowextratimeforthesummerbreak.AsampletimelinefromMENTOR’sElementsofEffectivePracticeToolKitcanbefoundathttp://www.mentoring.org/find_resources/tool_kit/design.
Anothercommonmistakefornewprogramsistryingtoservetoomanyyouthtooquickly.Itismuchbettertostartsmallandgraduallytaketheprogramtoscalethantotrytoserveeveryonethefirstyearandfail.Startingwithasmallgroupofyouth(25–50studentsinthefirstyear)providestheopportunitytoidentifystrengthsandweaknesseswithintheprogram’sprocessesandadjustthemasnecessary.Itwillalsoallowtheprogramtomoreaccuratelypredictfutureexpensesanddeterminetheprogram’slimits(e.g.,numberofmentors,space).
Astheprogramisdesigned,anumberofcriticalquestionsabouthowtheprogramwillworkneedtobeanswered.Theprogramoutlineinappendix4offersanexampleofhowoneprogramwouldanswerthesequestions.
KeyQuestionstoConsider
Whatarethedesiredoutcomesoftheprogram?Aretheyrealisticgivenresearchaboutmentoring?Whenareresultsexpected?Whowilltheprogramserve(e.g.,age,gender)?Howmanyyouthwilltheprogramserve?
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ConclusionsAsaninterventionforhighschoolstudents,mentoringshowspromiseforsuccess.However,theriskofpotentialharmtoyouthandtheimportanceofallocatinglimitedresourcesefficientlydemandvigilanceinprogramdesignandimplementation.
Beforestartingamentoringprogram,aschoolorschooldistrictmustcarefullyexamineitsunique“riske”profile—resources,infrastructure,support,knowledge,andexpectations—toincreasethelikelihoodofsuccess.ResearchdemonstratesthatbothCBMandSBMcanresultinpositiveyouthoutcomes.Inparticular,SBMhasbeenshowntoreducetruancy,absenteeism,andschool‐relatedmisconductandtoincreasesupportfrompeersandnonrelatedadultsandperceivedacademicproficiency(Wheeleretal.,2010).
Takentogether,theseoutcomescouldleadtoareductioninthedropoutrateovertime.Thestakesarehigh,butschoolscannotaffordtomissthisimportantopportunity.WeofferafewfinalsuggestionstohelpensurethesuccessofSBMprograms.
• Startearly.Allowaminimumof4months,preferably6,togetaprogramupandrunning.
• Plan, plan, plan.Don’tassumethatanythingwilltakecareofitself—puteverythinginwriting.
• Involveeveryone.Designingandimplementingaprogramshouldbeagroupeffortthatbringstheschoolandcommunitytogether.
• Startsmal l .Don’ttrytoserveeveryoneallatonce.Startsmallandexpandovertimeasresourcesandexpertiseincrease.
• Bereal ist ic.Expectsetbacks.Don’ttrytodotoomuchtoosoon.Don’tpromisemorethantheprogramcanrealisticallydeliver.
• Analyzeresults andprocess.Assesstheprogramregularlyandlearnfrommistakes.
• Makeadjustments.Addressproblemsastheyarise.Worktocontinuouslyimprovetheprogram.
• Celebratesuccess.Recognizeallachievements,whetherbigorsmall,asawayofmaintainingmoraleandmotivatingeveryonetopushharder.
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ReferencesAmerica’sPromiseAlliance.(n.d.)TheFivePromises.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.americaspromise.org/About‐the‐Alliance/Five‐Promises.aspx.
Bernstein,L.,DunRappaport,C.,Olsho,L.,Hunt,D.,andLevin,M.(2009).ImpactEvaluationoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sStudentMentoringProgram(NCEE2009–4047).Washington,DC:NationalCenterforEducationEvaluationandRegionalAssistance,InstituteofEducationSciences,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.
BigBrothersBigSisters.(n.d.)RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.bbbs.org.
Boccanfuso,C.,Moore,K.A.,andWhitney,C.(2010).TenWaystoPromoteEducationalAchievementandAttainmentBeyondtheClassroom.Research‐to‐ResultsBrief,ChildTrendsPublication#2010–16.Minneapolis,MN:ChildTrends.
Bowman,C.,Hodge,M.,Hoover,R.,MacRae,P.,McGrath,P.,Senger,B.,Wakeland,D.,andWeinberger,S.G.(2007,revised).EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:SustainabilityPlanningandResourceDevelopmentforYouthMentoringPrograms.Portland,OR:HamiltonFishInstituteonSchoolandCommunityViolenceandTheNationalMentoringCenteratNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.
Cannata,A.,Garringer,M.,MaRae,P.,andWakeland,D.(2005).MakingtheGrade:AGuidetoIncorporatingAcademicAchievementintoMentoringProgramsandRelationships.Washington,DC:MentoringResourceCenter,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.
Cavell,T.,DuBois,D.,Karcher,M.,Keller,T.,andRhodes,J.(2009).PolicyBrief:StrengtheningMentoringOpportunitiesforAt‐RiskYouth.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.nwrel.org/mentoring/pdf/mentoring_policy_brief.pdf.
Connolly,P.(2002).BuildingtoLast:AFunder’sGuidetoCapacityBuilding.St.Paul,MN:AmherstH.WilderFoundation.
DuBois,D.L.YouthMentoring:ProgramsandPracticesthatWork,AForum—September15,2006.Availablefromhttp://www.aypf.org/forumbriefs/2006/fb091506.htm.
DuBois,D.L.,Holloway,B.E.,Valentine,J.C.,andCooper,H.(2002).EffectivenessofMentoringProgramsforYouth:AMeta‐AnalyticReview.AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology,30(2):157–197.
Fountain,D.L.(1999).TheCostofMentoring.InJ.B.Grossman(Ed.),ContemporaryIssuesinMentoring.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.
Garringer,M.(2006).EffectiveMentorRecruitment:GettingOrganized,GettingResults.Washington,DC:MentoringResourceCenter,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.
Garringer,M.,andMacRae,P.(2007,revised).EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:FoundationsofSuccessfulYouthMentoring.Portland,
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OR:HamiltonFishInstituteonSchoolandCommunityViolenceandTheNationalMentoringCenteratNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.
Goggins,A.,andHoward,D.TheNonprofitStarvationCycle.StanfordSocialInnovationReview,Fall2009:49–53.
Grossman,J.B.,andRhodes,J.E.(2002).TheTestofTime:PredictorsandEffectsofDurationinYouthMentoringPrograms.AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology,30(2):199–219.
Herrera,C.,Grossman,J.B.,Kauh,T.J.,Feldman,A.F.,McMaken,J.,andJucovy,L.Z.(2007).MakingaDifferenceinSchools:TheBigBrothersBigSistersSchool‐BasedMentoringImpactStudy.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.
Herrera,C.,Sipe,C.L.,andMcClanahan,W.S.(withA.J.A.ArbretonandS.K.Pepper).(2000).MentoringSchool‐AgeChildren:RelationshipDevelopmentinCommunity‐BasedandSchool‐BasedPrograms.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.
Jekielek,S.,Moore,K.A.,andHair,E.C.(2002).MentoringProgramsandYouthDevelopment:ASynthesis.Minneapolis,MN:ChildTrends.
Jucovy,L.,andGarringer,M.(2007,revised).EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:TheABCsofSchool‐BasedMentoring.Portland,OR:HamiltonFishInstituteonSchoolandCommunityViolenceandTheNationalMentoringCenteratNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.
Karcher,M.J.(2008).TheStudyofMentoringintheLearningEnvironment(SMILE):ARandomizedEvaluationoftheEffectivenessofSchool‐BasedMentoring.PreventionScience,9(2):99–113.
Karcher,M.J.,Kuperminc,G.,Portwood,S.,Sipe,C.,andTaylor,A.(2006).MentoringPrograms:AFrameworktoInformProgramDevelopment,Research,andEvaluation.JournalofCommunityPsychology,34(6):709–725.
Karcher,M.,andHerrera,C.(2007).School‐BasedMentoring.ResearchinAction,Issue6.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.
MENTOR.(2009).ElementsofEffectivePracticeforMentoring(3rded.).Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.
Morrow,K.V.,andStyles,M.B.(1995).BuildingRelationshipswithYouthinProgramSettings.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.
Portwood,S.G.,Ayers,P.M.,Kinnison,K.E.,Waris,R.G.,andWise,D.L.(2005).YouthFriends:OutcomesfromaSchool‐BasedMentoringProgram.JournalofPrimaryPreventionSpecialIssue:MentoringWithChildrenandYouth,26(2):129–145.
Quint,J.,Thompson,S.L.,andBald,M.(2008).Relationships,Rigor,andReadiness:StrategiesforImprovingHighSchools.NewYork:MDRC.
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Rhodes,J.(2007).FosteringCloseandEffectiveRelationshipsinYouthMentoringPrograms.ResearchinAction,Issue4.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.
Rhodes,J.(2001).YouthMentoringinPerspective.TheCenter,Summer.RepublishedinTheEncyclopediaofInformalEducation.RetrievedMonthxx,20xxfromwww.infed.org/learningmentors/youth_mentoring_in_perspective.htm.
Rhodes,J.E.,andDuBois,D.L.(2006).UnderstandingandFacilitatingtheYouthMentoringMovement.SocialPolicyReport,20(3):3–19.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.srcd.org/documents/publications/spr/spr20‐3.pdf.
Saito,R.N.,andSipe,C.L.(2007).TheNationalAgendaforAction:BackgroundandAnalysisofMentoringToday.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.
SearchInstitute.(n.d.)DevelopmentalAssets.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.search‐institute.org/developmental‐assets.
Spencer,R.(2007).WhyYouthMentoringRelationshipsEnd.ResearchinAction,Issue5.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.
Taylor,A.(2007).MentoringAcrossGenerations:EngagingAge50+AdultsasMentors.ResearchinAction,Issue8.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.
Tierney,J.P.,andGrossman,J.B.,withResch,N.L.(1995,revised2000).MakingaDifference:AnImpactStudyofBigBrothersBigSisters.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.
Wheeler,M.E.,Keller,T.E.,andDuBois,D.L.(2010).ReviewofThreeRecentRandomizedTrialsofSchool‐BasedMentoring:MakingSenseofMixedFindings.SocialPolicyReport,24(3):3–21.AnnArbor,MI:SocietyforResearchandChildDevelopment.
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Appendix1:Additional ResourcesLogicModels:
• EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:FoundationsofSuccessfulYouthMentoring.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/180.
• LogicModelforGirlPOWER!http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_624.pdf.
MentorRecruitment:
• EffectiveMentorRecruitment:GettingOrganized,GettingResults.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/172.
• MeninMentoringToolkit.http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mentormichigan/09_MCSC‐106_MaleRecruitMessaging_271677_7.pdf.
• MentoringAcrossGeneration:EngagingAge50+AdultsasMentors,ResearchinActionSeries,Issue8,http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_389.pdf.
School‐BasedMentoring:
• TheABC’sofSchool‐BasedMentoring:EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/177.
• MakingtheGrade:AGuidetoIncorporatingAcademicAchievementintoMentoringProgramsandRelationships.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/205.
• School‐BasedMentoring,ResearchinActionSeries,Issue6.http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_387.pdf.
TrainingandTechnicalAssistance:
NationalOrganizations:
• MENTORisanationalorganizationthatworkstoexpandthepowerofmentoring.MENTORhoststheNationalYouthMentoringNetwork,allowingvolunteersfromaroundthecountrytofindmentoringopportunitiesintheircommunities.Thewebsiteoffersaccesstoanumberofmentoringresources,includingtheElementsofEffectivePractice.http://www.mentoring.org.
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• TheNationalMentoringCenteratEducationNorthwestprovidestrainingandtechnicalassistanceforyouthmentoringprogramsandinitiatives.Thewebsiteincludesavarietyofpublicationsandresources.TheCenteralsohostsmentoringforumsinwhichmentoringprofessionalscanaskquestions,seeksupport,andsharebestpractices.http://www.educationnorthwest.org/nmc.
• YouthFriendsMentoringInstituteprovideseducationonrecommendedbestpracticesforyouthmentoringthroughproducts,training,andanannualconference.http://www.mentoringinstitute.org.
Local/RegionalOrganizations:
• MENTOR’snetworkofmentoringpartnershipsincludesstateandlocalorganizationsthatpromotequalitymentoringintheirareasthroughoutreach,training,andtechnicalassistance.AcompletelistofpartnershipscanbefoundonMENTOR’swebsite.http://www.mentoring.org/find_resources/state_partnerships.
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Appendix2:SampleAnnualBudgetforaSchool‐BasedMentoringProgram
BudgetCategory Amount
Staff
Programcoordinator* $30,000
Otherprogramstaff* 10,000
ProgramExpenses
Programactivities/meetings 1,050
Groupoutings(e.g.,transportation,admission) 1,500
Recognitionandincentives(e.g.,kickoffevent,end‐of‐year
celebration,miscellaneousincentives) 1,500
Training 750
Operational Expenses
Liabilityinsurance* 3,500
Screening/backgroundchecks 2,450
Facilities* 500
Publicrelations 750
Miscellaneous* 500
Total $ 52,500
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*Theseitemscanbeleveragedusingexistingschool/districtresourcesandthereforewouldnotnecessarilyrequirenewfunding.However,areallocationofresourceswouldberequiredthatcouldaffectcurrentprograms.
Assumptions:
Thissamplebudgetisforaprogramservingapproximately50youthandassumesthattheschool/schooldistrictismanagingthementoringprogram.
Staff
Programcoordinator:includessalaryandbenefitsforoneexistingschool/districtemployeetoserveparttime(percentagewillvarybasedonprogram)ascoordinator.
Otherprogramstaff:toassistwithmentorrecruitment,relationshipsupport,andotheractivities,asneeded.
ProgramExpenses
Programactivities/meetings:includesgames,curricula,food,andmaterialsforoneactivity/meetingperweekfor30weeksofprogramming.
Groupoutings/fieldtrips:includestransportation,admissionfees,andthelikeforthreegrouptripsat$500each.
Recognitionandincentives:includesprogramkickoffevent($500),end‐of‐yearcelebration($500),andmiscellaneousincentivesformentorsandmentees($500).
Training:includesmaterialsformentortraining,menteetraining,andparentorientation,aswellasresourcestohireexperttrainersasneeded.
OperationalExpenses:
Liabilityinsurance:thisrepresentsanestimateonly.Liabilityinsuranceratesvarysignificantlyfromstatetostate.Formanyschools,thedistrict’sinsurancepolicywillcoveranyprogramoperatedbytheschool.However,ifaCBOisrunningtheprogram,aseparatepolicyisusuallyrequired.
Screening/backgroundchecks:assumesbackgroundchecksfor70potentialmentorsat$35each.
Facilities:includesspace,utilities,andsoforth.Theestimateisbasedonapercentageoftheoverallfacilitiesexpensesfortheschoolandassumestheprogramdoesnotrequiretheschooltoopenoutsideofnormalhours.
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Publicrelations:includesmarketingmaterials,registrationforvolunteerrecruitmentevents,andothermarketingexpenses.
Miscellaneous:includesofficesupplies,postage,andsimilaritems.
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Appendix3:SampleMentorRecruitmentP lanGoal: Match40[insertschoolname]highschoolfreshmenwithadultmentorsforthe[insertdate]schoolyear.
Strategy:
Formalpresentationsatcommunityorganizations, rel igious insti tutions, and local businesses
Budget:$750
Source (target audience)
Message Materials Goal Timeline Staff Responsible
Local church (local community members)
Giving back, investing in youth of community
Recruitment packets, posters, short summary to be include in church newsletter
• 20 requests for more information
• 12 applications
• Summary in August newsletter
July Outreach specialist
Fraternity alumni organization (minority males)
Giving back to community
Recruitment packets (i.e., applications, brochures)
• 15 requests for more information
• 8 applications
August Principal (member of fraternity)
Local bank Build competent workforce, social responsibility, benefits to employer
Recruitment packets, information on employer/employee benefits of volunteering
• 12 requests for more information
• 6 applications
September Principal and program coordinator
Seniors group (retired volunteers available during school hours)
Share experience, giving back, benefits to mentors, structure and assistance provided by school (in contrast to CBM)
Recruitment packets • 8 requests for more information
• 4 applications
September Program coordinator
United Way volunteer fair (people looking to volunteer)
Impact of mentoring, benefits to mentors
Recruitment packets, giveaways for booth, posters/signs
• 50 requests for more information
• 30 applications
October and May
Program coordinator, mentors and mentees at booth to answer questions
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Strategy:
Adver ti se in local mediaandvolunteernetworks
Budget:$250
Source (target audience)
Message Materials Goal Timeline Staff Responsible
Local news daily (local paper)
Get involved—call to action, invest in local community
Short description of opportunity
• Listing in paper once per quarter (pro bono if possible)
December, March, June, September
Program coordinator
VolunteerMatch (online search tool)
Benefits of mentoring, uniqueness of program
Short description of opportunity
• Listing in volunteer database
July, update quarterly
Program coordinator
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Appendix4:MentoringProgramOutl ine
ProgramOverview
MentoringType
Whatisthestructureofthementoringprogram?(One‐to‐one,group/team,peer,etc.)
Example:One‐to‐oneprogrammatchingyouthwithadultmentors.
Goals Whatarethe(long‐term)goalsoftheprogram?
Example:IncreasethegraduationrateformalesatCentralHighSchool.
Objectives
Whataretheobjectivesoftheprogram?(Note:ObjectivesshouldbeSMART—Specific,Measurable,Achievable,Relevant,andTime‐based.)
Example:Decreaseabsenteeismamongfreshmenmalesby15percent.Decreaseincidentsofmisconductbyfreshmanmalesby10percent.
Targetpopulation(mentees)
Character ist ics/
Descr iption
Describethecharacteristicsoftheyouthpopulationtobeserved.
Example:50freshmanmales.
Recruitmentandintake
Howwillyouthbeidentifiedforandenrolledinthementoringprogram?
Example:Aninformationalflyerwillbeincludedinthewelcomematerialsforparents/guardiansofallfreshmenmalestudentswithdetailsonhowtoenrolltheirchild.Referralswillalsobeacceptedfromschoolstaff(e.g.,counselors,teachers).Signedparentalpermissionformsarerequiredforparticipation.
Training Howwillyouthbepreparedtoparticipateintheprogram?
Example:Youthwillberequiredtoattenda1‐hourtraining/orientation.
Mentors
Character ist ics/Descript ion
Describethecharacteristicsofthepeoplewhowillserveasmentors.
Example:Adultmales,aged25andover,preferablyfromsimilarsocioeconomicorethnicbackgroundsasyouth.
Recruitment Howwillyouidentifymentorswiththeabovecharacteristics?Wherewillyougo?
Example:Wewillbuildrelationshipswiththemens’groupsoflocalreligiousinstitutionsandlocalchaptersoffraternalorganizations.Wewillalsolooktolocalbusinessesforprospectivementors.
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Screening,Intake,andTraining
Whatistheprocessforscreeningandenrollingpotentialmentors?Whatkindoftrainingwillmentorsberequiredtocomplete?
Example:Allpotentialmentorsmustcompleteanapplication,providethreereferences,passacriminalbackgroundcheck,completeapersonalinterview,andattendmentororientationandtraining.Mentorsarerequiredtoattenda3‐hourprematchtrainingandaminimumofone1‐houradditionaltrainingsession.
Mentor/MenteeMatches
RelationshipDuration:
Howlongarementoringrelationshipsexpectedtolast?
Example:Minimumof1calendaryear.
Matching Whatistheprocessformatchingmentorsandmentees?Whatcriteriawillbeused?
Example:Menteeswillbematchedwithmentorsbasedonthefollowingcriteria:commoninterests;similarpersonalities;andpreferencesofyouth,parent,andmentor.
Meet ings Describethematchmeetings,includingtheirlocation,length,andfrequency.
Example:Matcheswillmeetonceaweekfor1hour.Allmatcheswillmeetinthelibrary.Matchesmaymeetbeforeschool,duringlunch,orafterschool,dependingontheschedulesofmentorsandmentees.
SupportandSupervision
Whatkindofsupport/supervisionwillbeprovidedtomatches?Whowillbecontracted?Howoften?Bywhatmethod?
Example:Amemberoftheprogramorschoolstaffwillbepresentduringallmatchmeetings.Programstaffwillmeetwitheachmenteeinpersononceaweekforthefirst2monthsofthematchandmonthlythereafter.Inaddition,staffwillcontactmentorseitherinpersonorbyphoneonceamonthtodiscussthematch.
Activit ies Whatwillthematchesdowhentheymeet?Willyouprovideacurriculumofactivities?Willtheprogramsponsorgroupactivities?
Example:Theprogramwillprovidementorsandmenteeswithalistofsuggestedactivities.
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