implementing effective youth mentoring relationships · pdf fileimplementing effective youth...

ImplementingEffectiveYouthMentoringRelationshipsforHighSchoolStudents

CindySturtevantBorden

ThispaperwaspreparedfortheU.S.DepartmentofEducation(ED),OfficeofElementaryandSecondaryEducation,SmallerLearningCommunitiesProgramunderContractNumberED‐07‐CO‐0106withEDJAssociates,Inc.inHerndon,VA.TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationdonotnecessarilyrepresentthepositionsorpoliciesofED,nordoreferencestotradenames,commercialproducts,services,ororganizationsimplyendorsementbytheU.S.government.

TABLEOFCONTENTSIntroduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1

Background/SummaryofResearch...................................................................................................... 2

LessonsLearned .................................................................................................................................... 4

ObstaclestoSuccessfulImplementation............................................................................................. 7

Obstacle:InsufficientResources...................................................................................................... 8

Recommendation:DevelopaRealisticProgramBudget........................................................... 9

KeyQuestionstoConsider........................................................................................................... 9

Obstacle:InsufficientResources—Mentors ................................................................................. 10

Recommendation:CreateaMentorRecruitmentStrategyandPlan .................................... 10

KeyQuestionstoConsider......................................................................................................... 11

Obstacle:InadequateInfrastructure ............................................................................................. 11

Recommendation:BuildProgram/OrganizationCapacity ...................................................... 12


Obstacle:LackofSupport............................................................................................................... 13

Recommendation:InvolveStakeholders.................................................................................. 13


Obstacle:LimitedKnowledgeofMentoring ................................................................................. 14

Recommendation:LearnAboutMentoringBestPractices..................................................... 15

Recommendation:SeekOutExpertise ..................................................................................... 17


Obstacle:UnclearorUnrealisticExpectations.............................................................................. 18

Recommendation:EstablishRealisticProgramExpectations ................................................. 18


Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................... 20

References ........................................................................................................................................... 21

Appendix1:AdditionalResources ..................................................................................................... 24

Appendix2:SampleAnnualBudgetforaSchool‐BasedMentoringProgram................................ 26

Appendix3:SampleMentorRecruitmentPlan................................................................................. 29

Appendix4:MentoringProgramOutline .......................................................................................... 31

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IntroductionFornearlytwodecades,educatorsandpolicymakershaverecognizedthatpersonalizinglarge,facelesshighschoolscanplayanimportantroleinimprovingstudentachievementandsuccess,particularlyforyoungpeoplewhoenterhighschoolwithoutasolidacademicfoundation.Breakingdownlargehighschoolsintofreshmanacademies,careeracademies,andothertypesofsmallerlearningcommunitieshasbecomeacommonreformstrategy.

Thesestructuralchangesareoftencomplementedbytheimplementationofotherpersonalizationstrategiessuchasteacheradvisoriesandfamilyadvocates(Quintetal.,2008).Manyoftheseschoolsarealsointroducingprogramssuchastutoringandinternshipsthatconnectindividualstudentswithspecificadults.Studentmentoringprograms,inparticular,arebecominganincreasinglypopularpersonalizationstrategy.

Researchhasshowntheimportanceofcaringadultsinthelivesofchildrenandyouth.ThesupportandguidanceofcaringadultsisthecornerstoneoftheFivePromises—keydevelopmentalresourcesthatyoungpeopleneedtosucceed—identifiedbyAmerica’sPromiseAlliance,anonprofitfocusedonimprovingthelivesofchildren(America’sPromiseAlliance,n.d.).ThepresenceofpositiveadultrolemodelsandthesupportofatleastthreenonrelatedadultsarepartofthenonprofitSearchInstitute’sDevelopmentalAssets—whattheyconsidertobethebuildingblocksforhealthydevelopment(SearchInstitute,n.d.).

Mentoringprovidesanalternativeforyouthwhoseparentsareunabletofulfillamentoringroleandservesasanadditionalresourceforyouthwhoseparentsareengagedintheirlives.Researchhasshownmentoringtobeparticularlyeffectiveforyouthwhofaceenvironmentalriskfactorssuchaspoverty(RhodesandDuBois,2006).Inthiscontext,mentoringshouldbeexploredasonecomponentoftheoverallremedytothehighschooldropoutcrisis.

Althoughmentoringhastraditionallybeenaninterventiongearedmoretowardyoungerstudents(i.e.,elementaryandearlymiddleschoolstudents)(Bernsteinetal.,2009;Herreraetal.,2007),itholdsunrealizedpotentialinservinghighschoolstudents.Amentorcouldbeuniquelypositionedtohelpayoungpersonnavigatetheprocessoftransitioningfromhighschooltopostsecondaryeducation,work,orcareertraining—thatis,ifthementoringisdonewell.

Withthatinmind,thispaperwillexplorethefundamentalsofeffectiveyouthmentoring.Becausethevastmajorityofmentoringliteraturefocusesoncommunity‐basedmentoring(CBM),wewillpayparticularattentiontoschool‐basedmentoring(SBM),especiallySBMdirectedtohighschoolstudents.Creatingandsustainingmentoringrelationshipsthatleadtodesiredoutcomesrequiresseveralkeyelements:

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• resources;

• infrastructure;

• support;

• knowledgeofeffectivementoring;and

• realisticexpectationsaboutthebenefitsandchallengesofmentoring.

Background/SummaryofResearchOurmodernunderstandingofmentoringhasbeenshapedbytheBigBrothersBigSisters(BBBS)program.BBBSbeganmatchingyoungpeoplewithcaringadultmentorsinCBMmorethan100yearsagoinanefforttoprovidesupporttoyouthcomingthroughthejuvenilecourtsystem(BBBS,n.d.).Recently,mentoringeffortshavegrownexponentially,fueledbysupportfrombothpoliticalparties(RhodesandDuBois,2006).Thisexplosioninyouthmentoringhascreatedanumberofnewmentoringmodelswithdifferentcontexts(e.g.,settings),structures(e.g.,peer,group)andgoals(Karcheretal.,2006).

Itseemsimportant,therefore,toestablishadefinitionofyouthmentoring.AccordingtotheElementsofEffectivePractice,responsiblementoringisastructuredone‐to‐one(otherstructuresarepermitted)relationshipthatfocusesontheneedsofmenteesandencouragesthemtomeettheirpotential(MENTOR,2009).Giventhisdefinition,itseemsbothlogicalandintuitivethatmentoringshouldwork.Butdoesit?

Althoughtheconceptofmentoringisnotnew,researchonandevaluationofmentoringprogramsisfairlyrecent.Thefirstcomprehensiveevaluationoftheimpactsofyouthmentoringwaspublishedin1995byPublic/PrivateVentures.ThisstudyfoundanumberofpositiveoutcomesforyouthinBBBSprograms,includingimprovedschoolattendanceandperformance,betterparentalandpeerrelationships,andreducedinitiationofdrugandalcoholuse(TierneyandGrossman,1995).Subsequentresearchhassuggestedthatmentoringcanresultinpositiveoutcomesforyouthinanumberofareas,includingeducation,healthandsafety,andsocialandbehavioralinteraction(Jekieleketal.,2002).Specifically,afterparticipatinginmentoringprograms,someyouthhavereportedimprovementsinself‐esteem;betterparentalandpeerrelationships;greaterconnectednesstoschool;improvedacademicperformance;andreductionsinsubstanceuse,violence,andotherriskybehaviors(Cavelletal.,2009).

Theeffectivenessofmentoring,however,dependsonthequalityofthementoringrelationship.Researchsuggestsastrongconnectionbetweenthebenefitsthatyouthexperiencefrommentoringandtheclosenessofthementor/menteerelationship.Trust,empathy,authenticity,andcommoninterestsareimportantcomponentsofcloserelationships.

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Intheirseminalpaperonmentoringrelationships,MorrowandStyles(1995)foundthatmentoringrelationshipsthataredevelopmentalinnature—inwhichthementorfocusesonbuildingtherelationship—aremoresatisfyingforbothmenteesandmentors.Theserelationshipsfocusontheindividualneedsoftheyouth,involveyouthindecision‐making,andplaceahighpriorityonhavingfun(MorrowandStyles,1995).Incontrast,prescriptivementoringrelationshipsemphasizetransformingtheyouthbyachievingcertaingoalsestablishedbythementor.MorrowandStyles(1995)foundthesetypesofrelationshipstobelesssatisfyingforbothmentorsandmentees.Thisdoesnotmeanthateffectivementorsaresimplyadultfriendsthatofferyouthunconditionalsupport.Infact,themostbeneficialrelationshipsseemtobethoseinwhichmentorsoffermoderatelevelsofsupport,structure,andactivities(Rhodes,2007).

Anotherkeyelementofeffectivementoringrelationshipsistheirduration.Onestudyfoundthatpositiveoutcomeswerethegreatestwhenrelationshipslasted12monthsorlonger,andthatpositiveoutcomesdecreasedforrelationshipslasting6to12monthsand3to6months(GrossmanandRhodes,2002).Notably,youthinrelationshipsthatlastedlessthan3monthsregressedinsomeareas(GrossmanandRhodes,2002).Thatis,theyouthwereworseoffaftertheirmentoringexperiencethanyouthwhohadneverhadamentor.Subsequentresearchhassuggestedthatfewerthan6monthsofmentoringmaybedetrimentaltoyouth,butthatmeetingthementee’sexpectationsforthedurationoftherelationshipseemstobethemostimportantcriteriainpreventingharmfuleffects(RhodesandDuBois,2006).

Mentoringprogramscanhelpfosterclose,effectiverelationshipsandincreasethelikelihoodoftherelationship’ssuccessbyfollowingcertainevidence‐based“bestpractices.”Theseincludeensuringrigorousscreeningandtrainingformentors,providingongoingsupporttomentors,offeringstructuredactivities,involvingparents,andmonitoringtheprogramtomakeimprovements(Cavelletal.,2009;DuBois,2002).Foracompletelistofresearch‐supportedbestpractices,seethesectiontitledRecommendation:LearnaboutMentoringBestPractices.

Untilrecently,mostoftheexistingbodyofresearchfocusedonthetraditionalmodelofmatchingoneadultmentorwithonechildinaCBMsetting.InCBM,mentor/menteepairsmeetatavarietyoflocationsinthecommunity,andtheyoungpersonisusuallyreferredtotheprogrambyaparentorguardian.Theminimumexpecteddurationoftherelationshipvariesbyprogrambutisoften1fullyear.Incontrast,SBMpairsmeetalmostexclusivelyonschoolgrounds(someprogramsoffergroupfieldtrips)andrelyprimarilyonteachersandotherschoolstaffforreferrals.SBMrelationshipstraditionallybeginwheneveramatchoccursandlastuntiltheendoftheschoolyear.

In2007,astudyoftheimpactoftheBBBSSBMprogramwasreleased.Thestudycitedanumberofpositiveimpactsresultingfromtheprogram,includingincreasesinoverallacademicperformance(specifically,thequalityofclassworkandthenumberofassignmentsturnedin)andscholasticefficacy,anddecreasesinseriousschool

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infractionsandskippingschool(Herreraetal.,2007).Notably,incontrasttofindingsfromCBMstudies,Herreraetal.(2007)foundnoimpactsinout‐of‐schoolareassuchasself‐esteem,parentalorpeerrelationships,ordrugandalcoholuse.ThisfindingsuggeststhatthepotentialimpactsofSBMaredistinctfromthoseofCBM.OthersmallerstudieshavealsofoundpositiveoutcomesresultingfromSBM,mostnotablyincreasesinschoolconnectedness(Portwoodetal.,2005;Karcher,2008),acriticalcomponentofretention,participation,andachievementinschool.

TheBBBSSBMstudylookedattheimpactofhavingamentorinisolation—thatis,itcomparedyouthwhohadamentorwiththosewhodidnot.Anotherstudylookedatmentoringinthecontextofothersupports.TheStudyofMentoringintheLearningEnvironment(SMILE)examinedparticipantsinamulticomponentprogram,CommunitiesinSchool–SanAntonio(CIS‐SA),whoreceivedanumberofsupportservices(Karcher,2008).Thestudycomparedthosestudentswhoreceivedjustthestandardserviceswiththosewhoreceivedthestandardservicesplusmentoring.Studentswhoreceivedmentoringreportedincreasesinself‐esteem,connectednesstopeers,andsocialsupportfromfriends,despitetherelativelyshortdurationofthematches.Thisfindingsuggeststhatthereisan“additive”effectwhenmentoringiscombinedwithotherinterventions(Karcher,2008).

LessonsLearnedThereismuchtobelearnedfromunsuccessfulmentoringattempts,bothattherelationshipandtheprogrammaticlevel.Inherresearchonwhymentoringrelationshipsfail,Spencer(2007)identifiessixthemesthatcontributetoearlymatchtermination:

• mentorormenteeabandonment;

• perceivedlackofmenteemotivation;

• unfulfilledexpectations;

• deficienciesinmentorrelationalskills,includingtheabilitytobridgeculturaldivides;

• familyinterference;and

• inadequateagencysupport.

Byunderstandingthesecommoncausesofprematuretermination,mentoringprogramshaveatremendousopportunitytobuildsolutionstothesechallengesintotheirprogramdesignandimplementation.Althoughtheseinsightsmayimprovethelikelihoodofsuccessforindividualmentoringrelationships,thereareotherlessonstobelearnedaboutprogramimplementationfrombroadermentoringinitiatives.

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TheimpactevaluationsofthreemajorSBMinitiatives—theU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sStudentMentoringProgram(SMP),BBBSSBM,andCIS‐SA—offervaluableinsights(Bernsteinetal.,2009;Herreraetal.,2007;Karcher,2008).Allthreeevaluationsfoundthattheaveragementoringrelationshipslastedlessthan6months,whichcould,inpart,accountfortherelationships’limitedimpacts.Interestingly,however,thereisasignificantdisparityinthefindingsfromthethreestudies.

• TheSMPevaluationfoundnostatisticallysignificantoutcomesfrommentoring(Bernsteinetal.,2009).

• TheBBBSSBMstudyfoundimprovementsinanumberofschool‐relatedoutcomes,asdiscussedearlier(Herreraetal.,2007).

• TheCIS‐SAstudyfoundimprovementsinafewoutcomesbutsuggesteddifferencesinimpactbasedonageandgender(Karcher,2008).

Thispaperexamineseachoftheseevaluationsindividuallybeforeattemptingtoexplaintheirseeminglyinconsistentfindings.

LookingattheSMPstudyrevealsthattheprogramhadthreeintendedoutcomes:improvedinterpersonalrelationships,personalresponsibility,andcommunityinvolvement;improvedschoolengagementandacademicachievement;andreducedhigh‐riskordelinquentbehaviors.Theevaluationfoundnostatisticallysignificantoutcomesinanyoftheseareas.Asdiscussedearlier,SBMasastandaloneinterventionhasnotproventobeeffectiveonnon–school‐relatedoutcomes,whichmayexplainthelackofimpactsinthefirstandthirdintendedoutcomes.Anotherpossibleexplanationforthelackofimpactonoutcomesistherelativelyhighpercentageoftreatmentgroupyouth(i.e.,youthwhowouldreceivementors)intheSMPstudywhowerenotactuallymatchedwithmentors(17percent),comparedtotheBBBSSBMstudy(7percent)andtheCIS‐SAstudy(10percent)(Wheeleretal.,2010).

Withrespecttothesecondintendedoutcome,thatofschool‐relatedimpacts,theissuemaysimplybeoneoftiming.Studentsurveysintendedtodetermineimpactwereadministeredinthefall,beforematchingtookplace,andagaininthespring.However,manymenteeswerenotmatchedwithamentoruntilafewmonthsintotheschoolyear,meaningthattheyhadbeenwiththeirmentorsforonlyafewmonthswhenthesecondsurveyswerecompleted.Eventhosematchesthatbeganimmediatelyfollowingtheinitialsurveyhadbeenmatchedforlessthan6monthswhenthefollow‐upsurveywasgiven.Theevaluationmayhavelookedforoutcomestoosoon,beforethementoringwasabletohaveanimpact.BoththecontentofthedesiredoutcomesandthetimelineforachievingthemsuggestthatexpectationsfortheSMP,althoughadmirable,mayhavebeenunrealistic.Itishopedthatthefailureofthisinitiativetoachieveitsgoalswillleadtoimprovementsinprogramdesignandimplementationinthefuture.

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TheBBBSSBMimpactstudy(Herreraetal.,2007)offersanumberofrecommendationsthatprovideinsightintohowSBMprogramscanbemademoreeffectiveforyoungpeople.Forexample,onlyoneoftheoutcomesmentionedearlier,thereducedlikelihoodofastudentstartingtoskipschool,wassustainedintothefollowingschoolyear.Thestudyalsofoundthatduetoavarietyoffactors(e.g.,latestart‐up,schoolvacations),theaveragementoringrelationshiplastedonlyabout5months,andthatlongermatchesandcloserrelationshipswereassociatedwithstrongerimpacts.Herreraandcolleagues(2007)offeranumberofsuggestionstoimprovethelength,quality,andcontinuityofSBMrelationships,includingstartingthematchesasearlyintheschoolyearaspossible,exploringwaystobridgethe“summergap”whenmostmatcheshavenocontact,andprovidingadditionalongoingtrainingandsupporttohelpmentorsdevelopcloserelationshipswiththeirmentees.

TheCIS‐SAstudyalsoofferssomeinsightintomentoringforhighschoolyouth.Karcher(2008)foundthegreatestimpactsforhighschool–agedgirlsandelementary‐agedboysandtheleastimpactsforhighschool–agedboys.Althoughadefinitiveexplanationforthisdifferencerequiresmoreresearch,youthofdifferentagesandgendersmaysimplyperceivementoringdifferently(KarcherandHerrera,2007).Interestingly,theCIS‐SAstudyalsofoundthatmatchestalkedaboutacademicsthreetimesmoreinhighschoolthandidmatchesinelementaryschool(Karcher,2009),eventhoughusingaprescriptiveapproachtomentoring(inthiscase,focusingtoomuchonacademics)hasbeenshowntobeineffective.Thesefindingssuggesttheneedforspecializedmentoring.Programadministratorsshouldexaminetheuniqueneedsoftheyouththeyserveanddesigntheirprogramaccordingly.

Eachoftheseprogramevaluationsoffersvaluableinsightonitsown.However,thediscrepanciesinthestudies’findingscouldleadtoconfusionabouttheeffectivenessofSBM.ArecentissueoftheSocialPolicyReport(Wheeleretal.,2010)examinedallthreestudiesandfoundanumberoffactorsthathelpexplainthevariationinfindings.Thesefactorsincludethecriteriaforincludingagenciesinthestudy,variationintheprogrammodels,andimplementationfidelity.

Mostimportantly,eachstudyuseddifferentcriteriatodeterminethestatisticalsignificanceoftheprogram’simpactonoutcomes(Wheeleretal.,2010).TheSMPstudyusedthemoststringentcriteria,andtheBBBSSBMprogramthemostlenient(Wheeleretal.,2010).Whenthesamecriteriawereappliedtoallthreestudies,therewasgreaterconsistencyintheimpactacrossstudies(Wheeleretal.,2010).AsWheelerandcolleaguesexplain,“usingthemiddlegroundcriterion...theBBBSstudywouldhavereportedsignificantimpactsonsevenoutcomes,theSMPstudyfive,andtheCIS‐SAstudyfour,”suggestingmuchlessdisparityamongoutcomesthanoriginallythought.

Wheelerandcolleaguesalsoconductedametaanalysisofthethreestudiesandfoundpositiveeffectsonsixoutcomes:truancy,supportfromnonfamilialadults,perceived

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scholasticefficacy,school‐relatedmisconduct,peersupport,andabsenteeism(Wheeleretal.,2010),thusreinforcingthepotentialbenefitsofSBM.

ObstaclestoSuccessful ImplementationAsmentionedearlier,mentoringisappealingasaninterventioninpartbecauseitintuitivelymakessense—providingyoungpeoplewithsupportiveadultsseemslikeagoodideathatshouldbeeasytoimplement.Thedownsideofthiswidespreadbeliefisthenotionthatmentoringcanactasapanaceaforallrisksfacedbyyouth.Thisbeliefhasresultedinill‐designedprogramsorinitiativesbeingcreatedwithaimsthatarebeyondthepotentialoutcomessupportedbyresearchorthatservespecificriskgroupsthathavenotyetbeenshowntobenefitfrommentoring.Althoughinnovationinandexpansionofyouthmentoringprogramsarepositivetrends,theexpectationsfornewprogramapproachesmustberealistic,andtheirresultsmustbecarefullyevaluated.

Inadditiontothechallengesposedbytheideaofmentoringasa“cure‐all,”amisguidednotionhasemergedthatbecausetheconceptofmentoringissimple—matchayoungpersonwithacaringadult—creatingandsustainingaprogrammustbesimpleaswell.It’snot,andbelievingthat“mentoringissoeasyandsoinexpensivethatanyonecandoit”doesadisservicetoeveryoneinvolvedinamentoringprogram.Furthermore,asmentionedearlier,mentoringdonepoorlyhasthepotentialtoactuallyharmtheyoungpeopleitaimstoserve.

Thus,youthmentoringcanbeseenasbothapromisingandapotentiallyriskyintervention.Therearemanyobstaclestoimplementingeffectivementoringprograms.Fromapracticalstandpoint,collapsingthemintospecificcategoriesmayhelpintheidentificationofsolutions.Forthepurposesofthispaper,wehaveidentifiedfivecategoriesofobstaclestosuccessfulimplementation:

1. R–Insufficientresources

2. I–Inadequateinfrastructure

3. S–Lackofsupport

4. K–Limitedknowledgeofmentoringbestpractices

5. E–Unclearorunrealisticexpectations

Thesefivecategoriesrepresentthemostcommonobstaclestoimplementationofanymentoringprogram,whethercommunity‐orschool‐based,andreinforcethe“riske”natureofmentoring.Inthefollowingsections,weexamineeachoftheseobstaclesindividually,providerecommendationstoaddressthem,andlistrelatedquestionstoconsider.

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Obstacle: Insuff ic ientResources

Attheheartofyouthmentoringprogramsarethementors—volunteerswhochoosetospendtheirtimewithyoungpeople.Inallbutthemostintensivementoringmodels,mentorsdonatetheirtime.Althoughmanyprogramsoffersmallstipendsformentors(e.g.,topayfortraveloractivities),theoverallcostsfortheprogramareminimal.Theresultisanexpectationbyprograms,funders,andthelargercommunitythatmentoringrequiresfewerresourcesthanotherinterventionsaimedatyoungpeople.

Withthisexpectationinmind,manyprogramsgetcaughtupintheexcitementofservingyoungpeopleandbelievethat“everythingelsewillfallintoplace.”Theyassumethatthebenefitsofmentoringareclearandthatiftheyhaveagoodprogram,fundingcanbeobtainedwithlittleeffort.

Unfortunately,thatisnotalwaysthecase.Arecentsurveyfoundthatmorethanthree‐quartersofprogramproviders(78.8percent)identifiedfundraisingasveryorsomewhatdifficult(SaitoandSipe,2007).Moreworrisome,overhalfoftheseproviderswereconcernedthattheirprogramswouldhavetoshrinkinsizeorclosealtogetherbecauseofinsufficientfunding.

Bothprogramsandfundersoftenunderestimatetheresourcesrequiredtosustainaneffectiveprogram.Well‐structuredprogramsthatfollowbestpracticescompetewithlessexpensivemodelsandstruggletofindfunding.Lessestablishedprogramsattempttoserveyouthwithoutasolidprogrammaticfoundationandmayprovideineffectiveservicesordiscontinueservicesaltogether,potentiallyharmingyouthintheprocess.

Manygoodprogramsclosetheirdoorseveryyearbecauseofalackofresources,andindifficulteconomictimes,fundingbecomesmorescarceandcompetitionforfundingincreases.Fundersinvestingininnovativementoringapproachesmustrealizethat“cookiecutter”outcomescannotbeguaranteed.Theymustalsoresistthetemptationtomoldmentoringtofitintoanynewinitiativethatcomesalong.Ifagoodmentoringprogram,whethercommunity‐orschool‐based,ceasestoexistbecauseitcannotachievetheoutcomesrequiredbyaspecificfundingstream,theyouthitserveswillbeleftontheirown.

IntheSBMcontextinparticular,schoolsarealreadybeingaskedtodomorewithless—increaseacademicperformancefortheirstudentswhileprovidingadditionalsupportservices,oftenwithfewornoadditionalresources.Inthisenvironment,manyschoolshavedecidedorhavebeenrequiredtodevelopmentoringprogramsfortheirstudents.Manyoftheseschoolsarealreadyimplementingalternativemodelssuchassmallerlearningcommunitiesthatrequireadditionaltimecommitmentsfromstaffandsapotherresources.Withresourcesofallkinds—money,stafftime,space,andequipment—alreadystretchedtothelimit,addinganotherprogramwithoutcarefulidentificationandallocationofresourcescouldbearecipefordisaster.

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Recommendation: Developa Real isticProgramBudget

Sohowmuchdoesitreallycosttoimplementahigh‐qualityyouthmentoringprogram?Untilrecently,itwascommonlyacceptedwithinthementoringcommunitythatSBMwassignificantlylessexpensivetoimplementthanCBM.Thismayaccountfortheunprecedentedgrowthofschool‐basedprogramsinrecentyears,allowingittosurpassCBMasthemostcommonmentoringmodel.

However,recentresearchhasfoundthecostofmentoringayouthfor1yearinanSBMsettingtobeverysimilartothecostsinaCBMsetting:$987forSBMand$1,088forCBM(Herreraetal.,2007).Themostsignificantcomponentsoftheprogrambudgetwerestaffingcosts—bothprogrammatic(41percent)andgeneral(26percent)—andoperatingcosts(27percent)(Herreraetal.,2007).

Althoughcostsvariedsignificantlyacrosstheprogramsinvolvedinthestudy—rangingfrom$370to$1,415peryouthperyear—usingtheaveragecostforinitialbudgetingpurposesseemsalogicalplacetostart.Onceaprogramisupandrunning,thisassumptioncanbetestedsothatfuturebudgetsreflectactualprogramcosts.Althoughcoveringtheinitialprogrambudgetisimportant,doingsoisnotenoughtoensurethecontinuationoftheprogram.Creatingasustainabilityplanisessentialandwillbediscussedintheinfrastructuresectionlaterinthispaper.

ItisimportanttonotethattheBBBSSBMimpactstudy(Herreraetal.,2007)lookedatcostsrequiredforcommunity‐basedorganizations(CBOs)—inthiscase,BBBSagencies—toimplementSBMprogramsinpartnershipwithlocalschoolsandschooldistricts.TheCBOswereabletoleverageschoolresources,mostnotablyintheformofteacher/stafftimeandmeetingspace,toreducetheirout‐of‐pocketexpensesbyanaverageof12percentor$117perstudentperyear(Herreraetal.,2007).

Whendesigningaprogram,schoolorschooldistrictpersonnelwillhavetochoosebetweencontractingwithaCBOtoruntheprogramorrunningitthemselves.Intheformersituation,theaveragecostsmentionedabovecanbeusedinnegotiatingvendorcontracts.Inthelattercase,manyoftheresourcesusedwillbeleveragedfromexistingsources,requiringthereductionoreliminationofotheractivities.Asampleprogrambudgetislocatedinappendix2.

KeyQuestionstoConsider

Whowillprovidefundingforprogramstart‐up?Forongoingoperations?Whatin‐kindresourcescanbeleveraged?Fromwhom?Willtheprogramdependontheuseofexistingstaffandotherresources(e.g.,spaceandtechnology)?Ifso,whataretheimplicationsforexistinginitiatives?

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Obstacle: Insuff ic ientResources—Mentors

Mostyouthmentoringprogramsrelyheavily,ifnotexclusively,onvolunteersasmentors.Inaddition,manysmallerprogramsdependonvolunteerstocarryouttheday‐to‐daymanagementoftheprogram.

Unfortunately,thedemandformentorsfarexceedsthesupply.Theshortageofsomecategoriesofmentors,includingmalesandminorities,isevenmoredramatic.InarecentsurveybyMENTOR(SaitoandSipe,2007),almosthalfofallprogramssaidtheyneededmembersofaspecificrace,andmorethanthree‐quartersneededmentorsofaspecificgender.Programsservingpopulationsperceivedtobemorechallenging(e.g.,olderadolescents)faceadditionalchallengesinrecruitingvolunteers.Theinabilitytorecruit,screen,andtrainsufficientnumbersofmentorstomeetdemandsisoneofthemajorbarrierstoeffectivelytakingyouthmentoringprogramstoscalenationally(Cavelletal.,2009)andlimitstheimpactofindividualprograms.AlthoughSBMmayattractnewgroupsofvolunteerswhoappreciateitsstructureandsupervision,itmayalsolimitworkingprofessionals’abilitytoparticipate.

Recommendation: Createa MentorRecrui tmentStrategyandPlan

Manyprogramsmistakenlybelievethatrecruitingmentorswillbeeasyandunderestimatethetimeandresourcesrequiredtodomentorrecruitmentright.Ahaphazardapproachtorecruitmentisinefficientandineffective:itleadstolongwait‐lists,matchingdelays,andfrustrationforbothyouthandstaff.Incontrast,awell‐thought‐outrecruitmentplanprovideseveryonewithablueprinttofollow.Aneffectiveplan

• includescleargoalsandstrategies;

• identifiespotentialsourcesofmentors;

• specifiestherecruitmentmessage;

• detailsthestaffing,budget,andmaterialsrequirements;and

• canbeusedasatooltoassesstheeffectivenessofoverallrecruitmenteffortsandindividualstrategies,allowingprogramstomakeongoingadjustmentsasnecessary.

Asamplerecruitmentplancanbefoundinappendix3.

Whileanin‐depthdiscussionofmentorrecruitmentisbeyondthescopeofthispaper,rememberthefollowingtips:

• Knowtheprogram.Whatisthemission?Whomdoestheprogramserve?Whyisthisprogramimportant?

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• Understandpotential mentors. Whatkindofpeoplewouldmakegoodmentorsfortheprogram?Whatmightmotivatethemtobecomementors?Whatbarriersmaypreventthemfrommentoring?

• Developaclearmessage.Everyoneconnectedtotheprogramshouldbepartoftherecruitmentteam(includingstaff,mentors,mentees,andparents)andshouldbeabletotalkabouttheprogram’smission,goals,andtheuniquepopulationbeingservedinasimple,compellingmanner.

• Recruitmorementorsthanyouneed.Potentialmentorswillbelostthroughouttheenrollmentandscreeningprocess.Somemaydecidethatmentoringingeneral,oracertainprograminparticular,isn’ttherightfitforthem.Otherswillbeexcludedbytheprogram’sscreeningprocess.Thisisagoodthing—itismuchbettertoloseaprospectivementorearlyintheprocessthanafterheorshehasbeenmatchedwithayoungperson.Programadministratorsshouldplanaccordingly,however,toensurethattheyhaveenoughmentorstomatchwithyouth.

Formoreinformationaboutmentorrecruitment,seeappendix1,AdditionalResources.


Whatkindofpeoplewillmakethebestmentorsfortheyouthbeingserved?Whatcharacteristicsaremostimportant?Where/howcanyoufindthesetypesofpeople?Whyshouldsomeonevolunteerasamentorforyourprogram?Whatbarriersexistthatmightpreventsomeonefromvolunteering?

Obstacle: InadequateInfrastructure

Asolidinfrastructureisessentialtothesuccessofanybusinessornonprofitorganization.Unfortunately,basedonavarietyoffactors,includingfunders’unrealisticexpectationsofoperationalcosts,manynonprofitsdonotspendenoughonoverheadcoststoensurethelong‐termstabilityoftheiroperation(GogginsandHoward,2009).

Likeanynonprofitorganization,mentoringprogramsrequireasolidfoundationandframeworktosurviveandthrive.Manyprogramsarestartedwiththebestofintentionsbutwithouttheorganizationalcapacityneededtomakethemsuccessful.Sixkeycomponentsoforganizationalcapacityarenecessaryforhighperformanceandsustainability(Connolly,2002):

1. strongleadershipandgovernancepractices;

2. aclearmission;

3. high‐qualityprogramdeliverywithmeasurableimpact;

4. strategicrelationshipswithconstituentsandthecommunity;

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5. aresourcedevelopmentplan;and

6. efficientinternaloperationsandmanagementoffinances,information,andrisk.

Withoutthisessentialframework,manymentoringprogramscollapseunderthepressureofcompetingdemandsandlimitedresources.

Recommendation: Bui ldProgram/OrganizationCapacity

Fortunately,manyofthesesixcomponentsusuallyexistwithintheschooldistrictorindividualschoolbuildingsandcanbeleveragedbythementoringprogram.Nonetheless,itiscriticalthatroles,responsibilities,andresourcesconnectedtothementoringprogrambeexplicitlyincludedtoavoidconfusion.

Forexample,itisnotenoughtoidentifythepersonresponsiblefortheday‐to‐dayleadershipoftheprogram.Onemustalsodeterminehowtheprogramfitsintothevision,operationalstructure,andresourcedevelopmentplansfortheschoolorschooldistrict.Onecannotjustassumethatthementoringprogramwillbeallowedtoleverageexistingresourcessuchastechnology,datamanagement,oradministrativepersonnel.Acleardirectivefromtheprincipalorschooldistrictthatexplicitlydefineswhichresourcesthementoringprogrammayaccessaswellastheprocessfordoingsowillavoidconfusionandpreventpossibleturfbattles.

SomeschoolsandschooldistrictschoosetopartnerwithanexistingCBMprogramtoleverageitsinfrastructureandexpertise(see“Obstacle:LimitedKnowledgeofMentoring”sectionofthispaper).Thisiscertainlyanacceptablestrategy—aslongasthereisacontractormemorandumofunderstandingthatclearlystatestherolesandresponsibilitiesofeachparty.

Inadditiontothegeneralareasoforganizationalcapacitymentionedabove,allmentoringprogramsshoulddevelopthefollowingcomponents:

• Asustainabilityplantoensurethequalityandcontinuationoftheprogram.Formoreinformationondevelopingasustainabilityplan,seeEffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunitiesSustainabilityPlanningandResourceDevelopmentforYouthMentoringPrograms(http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/476).

• Apoliciesandproceduresmanualthatcaptureshowtheprogramoperates,includingeverythingfromeligibilitycriteriatomatchclosure.TheGenericMentoringProgramPolicyandProcedureManual,publishedbytheHamiltonFishInstituteandtheNationalMentoringCenter,providesanexcellentcustomizabletemplate(http://gwired.gwu.edu/hamfish/merlin‐cgi/p/downloadFile/d/20701/n/off/other/1/name/policypdf).

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• Ariskmanagementplanthatacknowledges,evaluates,andprioritizesriskandidentifiesstrategiestomanagerisk,includingliabilityinsurance.MoreinformationaboutriskmanagementcanbefoundontheNonprofitRiskManagementCenter’swebsite(http://www.nonprofitrisk.org).


Whoisresponsiblefortheday‐to‐daymanagementandimplementationoftheprogram?Whatarethekeytasksthatneedtobecompleted?Howmuchstafftimeisrequiredtocompletethosetasks?WilltheschoolruntheprogramaloneorwillitpartnerwithaCBO?Ifapartnershipisformed,whataretheroles,responsibilities,andexpectationsforeachpartner?Whatisthechainofcommandforresolvingdifficultsituations?Whoisultimatelyaccountablefortheprogram?Howwillprograminformationbecollectedandmaintainedtoensureconfidentiality?Howwilltheprogrambeevaluated?

Obstacle:Lackof Support

In2006,aspartofitsNationalAgendaforAction,MENTORdeclaredthat“itistimetodevelopa‘cultureofmentoring’—aculturewherementoringisviewedasintegraltothehealthandwell‐beingofbothorganizationsandindividuals.”Thisdeclarationunderscorestheimportanceofintegratingmentoringintothefabricofoursocietyandmakingthewellbeingofyoungpeopleeveryone’sresponsibility.

Unfortunately,mentoringprogramsoftenbeginasthebrainchildofonepersonorasmallgroupofpeople.Oncetheprogramisunderway,itcanfaceapathyorresistancefromkeystakeholders,includingpotentialvolunteers,schoolorschooldistrictpersonnel,parents,andyouth.Thislackofownershipfortheprogramtransformsthetaskofrunningtheprogramfromchallengingtodaunting.

AsmentionedintheLessonsLearnedsection,lackofmenteeinterestandparentsupport/involvementarecommonreasonsfortheearlyterminationofmentoringrelationships(Spencer,2007)—butevenhavingyouthandparentalsupportofaprogramisnotenough.Withoutlargerscalebuy‐inandsupport,programsstrugglewithfundraising,volunteerandyouthrecruitment,andoverallimplementation.

Recommendation: InvolveStakeholders

Toensurethesuccessofamentoringprogram,oneneedsbuy‐inacrossalllevelswithintheschoolsystemandthecommunityatlarge.Thefirststeptogarneringsupportisinclusion—toengagepeopleintheplanningprocess.Programinitiatorsshouldformacommitteeoranadvisoryboardtohelpdesigntheprogram.Thecommitteeshouldincluderepresentativesfromallthekeystakeholdersintheprogram,including:

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• schooldistrictpersonnel;

• schoolstaff;

• communityandbusinessleaders;

• parents;and

• perhapsmostimportantly,theyouththeprogramwillserve.

Programstaffshouldbeclearandhonestaboutanyconstraints(e.g.,budget)ornonnegotiableitems(e.g.,mandatoryreportingrequirements)affectingtheprogram,butbeopentoadvice,guidance,andsuggestionsfromthegroup.Givingstakeholdersalegitimatevoiceintheprogramdesignresultsinasenseofempowermentandownership;peoplearemuchmorewillingtoworkandfightforsomethingtheyfeelbelongstothem.

Althoughinvolvingstakeholdersinprogramdesignisimportant,itisnotenough.Fromapracticalstandpoint,everyonecannotbeincludedontheprogramcommittee,andeventhosewhoareincludedmaynotbesatisfiedwitheverydecisionthatismade.

Theefforttowinovercriticsandaddressresistancerequiresengagementonadifferentlevel.Itisimportanttolistentocritiquesandtrytodeterminemotivations.Whymightsomeoneberesistanttotheprogram?Perhapsthepersonhasotherprioritiesandisworriedthatmentoringcoulddivertresourcesfromthoseprojectsorgoals.Inthiscase,onemusttrytofindaconnectionbetweenmentoringandthestatedpriorities,or,ataminimum,provideassurancethatthementoringprogramwillnotcompetewiththeindividual’spriorities.

Evenifsomeconcernscannotbeaddressed,itisimportanttoacknowledgethemrespectfullytopreventresentmentandpotentialsabotagingoftheprogram.


Whosesupportandbuy‐inisnecessaryfortheprogramtobesuccessful?Howwilleachofthesestakeholdersbeengaged?Whatrolewillyouthhaveinprogramdesignandimplementation?Whatwilltheprogramdotoencourageparent/guardianinvolvement?Whatpotentialpartnersexistwithintheschool,district,orcommunity?Howcanyouworktogethertoleverageresourcesandbetterserveyouth?

Obstacle:L imitedKnowledgeof Mentoring

Asmentionedearlier,theconceptofmentoringhasbenefitedgreatlyfromitssimplicity,intuitiveness,andseemingeaseofimplementation.However,atitsheart,mentoringisaboutcreatingandcultivatingcaringrelationshipsbetweenyoungpeopleandadult,volunteermentors.Mostmentoringprogramsbringtogethermentorsandmentees

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withdifferentbackgrounds,cultures,andvalues—peoplewhowouldnotnaturallyinteractwitheachother—andaskthemtoformcloserelationships.

Asonemightexpect,anumberofchallengescanarisewhen“worldscollideandculturesclash.”Evenwell‐establishedprogramswithextensiveknowledgeofbestpracticesstruggletoovercomethesebarrierstosuccess.Manyneworinexperiencedprogramsareunpreparedfortheinevitableobstaclesandbecomeoverwhelmedtryingtodealwiththem.Lackingknowledgeofbestpracticesformentorscreening,training,andsupport,theseprogramsoftenconfrontearlymatchterminationsandlossofmentors.

Inadditiontothepotentialimpactsuchterminationshaveonmentees,programsmustuseadditionaltimeandresourcestoreplacethelostmentors,whichcanpotentiallyleadtostaffburnout.Eventhoughalmostallprogramsaredrivenbyasinceredesiretohelpyoungpeople,goodintentionsarenotenough.Thepotentialofmentoringtodoharmifdonepoorlyplacesanenormousresponsibilityonallprogramstounderstandandincorporatebestpractices.

Recommendation: LearnAbout MentoringBestPractices

Acomprehensivediscussionofmentoringbestpracticesisbeyondthescopeofthispaper,butabriefoverviewofimportantfindingsandresourcesisprovided.Althoughmanyprogramsfeelpowerlesswhenitcomestofosteringeffectivementoringrelationships,researchdemonstratesthatcertainbestpracticescanleadtogreaterimpactsforyouth.

OneparticularlyhelpfulstudyilluminatingbestpracticeswasthemetaanalysisconductedbyDuBoisandcolleagues.Thisstudyexaminedtheresultsof55evaluationsofmentoringprogramsandfoundthat,overall,mentoringprogramscanhaveapositiveimpact(DuBoisetal.,2002).Perhapsevenmoreusefulforpractitioners,DuBoisandcolleagues(2002)identifiedspecificpracticesthatindividuallypredictedlargerpositiveeffects;thesearereferredtoas“empiricallybasedpractices”:

• monitoringprogramimplementation;

• selectinganappropriatesettingforthementoringprogram(programsoutsideofschoolshowedlargereffectsizes);

• recruitingmentorswithexperienceinahelpingroleorprofession;

• settingfirmrequirementsaroundtheexpectedfrequencyofmentor/menteecontact;

• providingongoingtrainingformentors;

• providingstructuredactivitiesformentorsandyouth;and

• encouragingparentalsupportandinvolvement.

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DuBoisandcolleaguesalsoidentifiedtheory‐basedpractices—practicesthathadbeenpreviouslyidentifiedinthementoringliterature.Thesepracticesdidnotindividuallypredictgreateryouthoutcomesinthestudy.However,theresearchersfoundthatasthenumberofbestpractices(bothempiricallybasedandtheorybased)incorporatedbyaprogramincreased,sodidtheimpactsforyouth.Thetheory‐basedpracticesDuBoisandcolleaguesidentifiedareasfollows:

• screeningprospectivementors;

• matchingmentorsandyouthbasedoncommoninterests;

• providingprematchtrainingtomentors;

• establishingclearexpectationsforthedurationofthematch;

• supervisingthementor/menteerelationship;and

• offeringasupportgroupformentors.

Havingidentifiedwhatthebestpracticesare,thenextchallengeistousethem.TheElementsofEffectivePracticeforMentoring(MENTOR,2009)providesthefollowingsixstandardstohelpmentoringprogramsincorporatebestpracticesintotheirday‐to‐dayoperations:

• Standard1. Recruitappropriatementorsandmenteesbyrealisticallydescribingtheprogram’saimsandexpectedoutcomes.

• Standard2. Screenprospectivementorstodeterminewhethertheyhavethetime,commitment,andpersonalqualitiesneededtobeaneffectivementor.

• Standard3. Trainprospectivementorsinthebasicknowledgeandskillsneededtobuildaneffectivementoringrelationship.

• Standard4. Matchmentorsandmenteesalongdimensionslikelytoincreasetheoddsthatmentoringrelationshipswillendure.

• Standard5. Monitormentoringrelationshipmilestonesandsupportmentorswithongoingadvice,problem‐solvingsupport,andtrainingopportunitiesforthedurationoftherelationship.

• Standard6. Facilitatebringingthematchtoclosureinawaythataffirmsthecontributionsofboththementorandmenteeandoffersbothindividualstheopportunitytoassesstheexperience.

Foreachstandard,theElementsprovidesspecificbenchmarksforself‐assessmentbyprograms;research‐basedjustificationsforthebenchmarks;andenhancementstothestandardbasedontheadviceofpractitioners.AcopyoftheElementsandachecklistto

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tracktheprogressofaprogramcanbedownloadedathttp://www.mentoring.org/find_resources/elements_of_effective_practice.

Inadditiontothesebestpracticesformentoringasawhole,somepromisingpracticesspecificallyforSBMarebeginningtoemergefromresearchandpractice.OneofthemainchallengesidentifiedinSBMistheshortdurationofthematch.Programstaffshouldkeepthisconsideration,andthefollowingothers,inmindwhendesigningtheprogram:

• Plantostartasmanymatchesaspossibleatthebeginningoftheyearandadjustthetimelineandotheractivitiesasnecessary.

• Provideongoingtrainingandsupporttohelpmentorsbuildandsustainstrongrelationshipswiththeirmentees.

• Encouragematchestostaytogetherbeyondtheinitialschoolyearandofferopportunitiesforsummercontactbetweenmentorsandmentees.Optionsforsummercontactmaydependonschooldistrictpolicies,butcouldincludehostingregulargroupmeetingsformatchesattheschooloracommunitysite;organizingcommunityserviceactivitiesformentor/menteepairs;developingasystemforphone,e‐mail,orpostalmailcontact;andaskingmentorsandmenteestokeepajournaltosharewitheachotherwhenschoolresumes.

FormoreinformationaboutSBM,seeappendix1,AdditionalResources.

Recommendation: Seek Out Expertise

Havingabasicunderstandingofmentoringisessentialforanyoneconsideringstartingaprogram.Thatdoesnotmean,however,thatprogramstaffshouldexpecttobecomeexpertsinmentoringovernight.SomeschoolsdecidetocontractwithanexistingmentoringprogramtoruntheirSBMprogram.Ifthisoptionischosen,itisimportanttoselectaqualifiedvendorwithexperienceinbothmentoringandworkingwiththetargetedyouthpopulation.

Otherschoolsdecidetoimplementaprogramontheirown.Ifthisrouteischosen,itisimportanttoseekouttraining,technicalassistance,andsupportfrommentoringexperts.Thereareanumberofnational,regional,andlocalorganizationsavailabletosupportmentoringprograms(seeappendix1,AdditionalResources).


Doestheprogramfollowbestpracticesformentoring?Istheresomeoneonstaffwhohasexpertiseinmentoring?Wherecanprogramstafffindtechnicalassistanceandsupport?

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Obstacle:Unclearor UnrealisticExpectations

Theincreasingpopularityandpublicsupportformentoringandmentoringprogramshasdownsides—morescrutinyofprogramsandanexpectationofimmediate,positiveresults.Althoughaccountabilityisagoodthing,uninformedaccountability—demanded,perhaps,byfunders,policymakers,orcitizenswithoutasolidunderstandingofhowmentoringworks—underminesthequalityofyouthmentoringaswhole.

Forexample,greateremphasisisoftenplacedonthenumberofyouthbeingmentoredratherthanonthequalityofthementoringprovided.Assumptionsareoftenmadeaboutthecost‐effectivenessofmentoring,causingsomeprogramstocutbackonqualityinanefforttocompeteforfunds.Evensuccessfulprogramsstruggletobalancequalityandquantityastheyarecontinuallypushedtodomore:toservemoreyouth,ormorechallengingyouththantheyarecapableofhandling,oftenextendingthemselvesbeyondtheircapacity.

Unlikemanyotherservices,thereisnoeconomyofscaleformentoring—thatis,costspermatchdonotdecreasesignificantlyasthenumberofmatchesincreases(Herreraetal.,2007;Fountain,1999).Ontheotherhand,anincreasedlongevityofmatchesmayreducecostsovertimebecausemanycosts(e.g.,recruitment,screening,andtraining)areincurredupfront.Pressuringprogramstocontinuallyincreasetheirnumbersmayforcethemtodedicatethelimitedresourcestheyhavetomakingnewmatches,ratherthansupportingexistingones.Thisinturncanresultintheneedtocreateevenmorematchesasunsupportedmatchesendprematurely.

Individualmentoringprogramscaneasilyfallintothistrap.Manyprogramsarestartedwithoutanycleargoalinmindotherthan“tohelpyouth.”Withnocleardefinitionofsuccess,theprogramoftenfollowsthelatestfundingtrend,sometimespromisingimpactsitcannotdeliver.Otherprogramsarestartedwithveryspecificgoalsinmind—goalsthatmaybetooambitious.Programsmayexpecttoreaplong‐termimpactsinashorttimeframeortoservelargenumbersofyouthimmediately.Theymayalsopursuegoalsthatarebeyondthescopeofmentoringasastandaloneintervention.Theseprogramsoftenfailtorealizethepotentialpowerofcombiningmentoringwithothersupportservices.

Recommendation: Establ ishReal isticProgramExpectations

Fromthebeginning,programinitiatorswillneedtodevelopclear,reasonableexpectationsbasedinpartontheprogram’suniqueRISKE(resources,infrastructure,support,knowledge,andexpectations)situation.Asthegoalsfortheprogramareconsidered,initiatorsshouldkeepinmindtheresearchandlessonslearnedaboutthepotentialimpactsofmentoring.

Forexample,iftheonlypurposeofanSBMprogramistoincreasestudents’gradepointaverage,mentoringmaynotbethebestintervention.However,ifthegoaloftheSBMis

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todevelopasenseofcommunitywithintheschool,withthebeliefthat,overtime,thedropoutratewilldecrease,mentoringmaybetheanswer.Ifthedesiredprogramimpactsextendbeyondschool‐relatedoutcomes,therelativeimportanceofthosespecificoutcomesshouldbeevaluated,orapartnershipwithaCBOtorunaCBMprogramshouldbeconsidered.Manypeoplefindithelpfultocreatealogicmodeldescribinghowtheprogramwillwork.(Formoreinformationaboutlogicmodels,seeappendix1,AdditionalResources.)

Oncethegoalsand/orlogicmodelisinplace,atimelineforimplementationshouldbedeveloped.Manyprogramsmakethemistakeofstartingaprogramtoosoon.Aminimumof4months(preferably6)shouldbeallowedfromthetimeplanningstartsuntiltheprogrambegins.IfmatchingbeginsinSeptember,staffshouldbeginplanninginJanuarytoallowextratimeforthesummerbreak.AsampletimelinefromMENTOR’sElementsofEffectivePracticeToolKitcanbefoundathttp://www.mentoring.org/find_resources/tool_kit/design.

Anothercommonmistakefornewprogramsistryingtoservetoomanyyouthtooquickly.Itismuchbettertostartsmallandgraduallytaketheprogramtoscalethantotrytoserveeveryonethefirstyearandfail.Startingwithasmallgroupofyouth(25–50studentsinthefirstyear)providestheopportunitytoidentifystrengthsandweaknesseswithintheprogram’sprocessesandadjustthemasnecessary.Itwillalsoallowtheprogramtomoreaccuratelypredictfutureexpensesanddeterminetheprogram’slimits(e.g.,numberofmentors,space).

Astheprogramisdesigned,anumberofcriticalquestionsabouthowtheprogramwillworkneedtobeanswered.Theprogramoutlineinappendix4offersanexampleofhowoneprogramwouldanswerthesequestions.


Whatarethedesiredoutcomesoftheprogram?Aretheyrealisticgivenresearchaboutmentoring?Whenareresultsexpected?Whowilltheprogramserve(e.g.,age,gender)?Howmanyyouthwilltheprogramserve?

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ConclusionsAsaninterventionforhighschoolstudents,mentoringshowspromiseforsuccess.However,theriskofpotentialharmtoyouthandtheimportanceofallocatinglimitedresourcesefficientlydemandvigilanceinprogramdesignandimplementation.

Beforestartingamentoringprogram,aschoolorschooldistrictmustcarefullyexamineitsunique“riske”profile—resources,infrastructure,support,knowledge,andexpectations—toincreasethelikelihoodofsuccess.ResearchdemonstratesthatbothCBMandSBMcanresultinpositiveyouthoutcomes.Inparticular,SBMhasbeenshowntoreducetruancy,absenteeism,andschool‐relatedmisconductandtoincreasesupportfrompeersandnonrelatedadultsandperceivedacademicproficiency(Wheeleretal.,2010).

Takentogether,theseoutcomescouldleadtoareductioninthedropoutrateovertime.Thestakesarehigh,butschoolscannotaffordtomissthisimportantopportunity.WeofferafewfinalsuggestionstohelpensurethesuccessofSBMprograms.

• Startearly.Allowaminimumof4months,preferably6,togetaprogramupandrunning.

• Plan, plan, plan.Don’tassumethatanythingwilltakecareofitself—puteverythinginwriting.

• Involveeveryone.Designingandimplementingaprogramshouldbeagroupeffortthatbringstheschoolandcommunitytogether.

• Startsmal l .Don’ttrytoserveeveryoneallatonce.Startsmallandexpandovertimeasresourcesandexpertiseincrease.

• Bereal ist ic.Expectsetbacks.Don’ttrytodotoomuchtoosoon.Don’tpromisemorethantheprogramcanrealisticallydeliver.

• Analyzeresults andprocess.Assesstheprogramregularlyandlearnfrommistakes.

• Makeadjustments.Addressproblemsastheyarise.Worktocontinuouslyimprovetheprogram.

• Celebratesuccess.Recognizeallachievements,whetherbigorsmall,asawayofmaintainingmoraleandmotivatingeveryonetopushharder.

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ReferencesAmerica’sPromiseAlliance.(n.d.)TheFivePromises.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.americaspromise.org/About‐the‐Alliance/Five‐Promises.aspx.

Bernstein,L.,DunRappaport,C.,Olsho,L.,Hunt,D.,andLevin,M.(2009).ImpactEvaluationoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sStudentMentoringProgram(NCEE2009–4047).Washington,DC:NationalCenterforEducationEvaluationandRegionalAssistance,InstituteofEducationSciences,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.

BigBrothersBigSisters.(n.d.)RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.bbbs.org.

Boccanfuso,C.,Moore,K.A.,andWhitney,C.(2010).TenWaystoPromoteEducationalAchievementandAttainmentBeyondtheClassroom.Research‐to‐ResultsBrief,ChildTrendsPublication#2010–16.Minneapolis,MN:ChildTrends.

Bowman,C.,Hodge,M.,Hoover,R.,MacRae,P.,McGrath,P.,Senger,B.,Wakeland,D.,andWeinberger,S.G.(2007,revised).EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:SustainabilityPlanningandResourceDevelopmentforYouthMentoringPrograms.Portland,OR:HamiltonFishInstituteonSchoolandCommunityViolenceandTheNationalMentoringCenteratNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.

Cannata,A.,Garringer,M.,MaRae,P.,andWakeland,D.(2005).MakingtheGrade:AGuidetoIncorporatingAcademicAchievementintoMentoringProgramsandRelationships.Washington,DC:MentoringResourceCenter,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.

Cavell,T.,DuBois,D.,Karcher,M.,Keller,T.,andRhodes,J.(2009).PolicyBrief:StrengtheningMentoringOpportunitiesforAt‐RiskYouth.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.nwrel.org/mentoring/pdf/mentoring_policy_brief.pdf.

Connolly,P.(2002).BuildingtoLast:AFunder’sGuidetoCapacityBuilding.St.Paul,MN:AmherstH.WilderFoundation.

DuBois,D.L.YouthMentoring:ProgramsandPracticesthatWork,AForum—September15,2006.Availablefromhttp://www.aypf.org/forumbriefs/2006/fb091506.htm.

DuBois,D.L.,Holloway,B.E.,Valentine,J.C.,andCooper,H.(2002).EffectivenessofMentoringProgramsforYouth:AMeta‐AnalyticReview.AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology,30(2):157–197.

Fountain,D.L.(1999).TheCostofMentoring.InJ.B.Grossman(Ed.),ContemporaryIssuesinMentoring.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.

Garringer,M.(2006).EffectiveMentorRecruitment:GettingOrganized,GettingResults.Washington,DC:MentoringResourceCenter,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.

Garringer,M.,andMacRae,P.(2007,revised).EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:FoundationsofSuccessfulYouthMentoring.Portland,

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OR:HamiltonFishInstituteonSchoolandCommunityViolenceandTheNationalMentoringCenteratNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.

Goggins,A.,andHoward,D.TheNonprofitStarvationCycle.StanfordSocialInnovationReview,Fall2009:49–53.

Grossman,J.B.,andRhodes,J.E.(2002).TheTestofTime:PredictorsandEffectsofDurationinYouthMentoringPrograms.AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology,30(2):199–219.

Herrera,C.,Grossman,J.B.,Kauh,T.J.,Feldman,A.F.,McMaken,J.,andJucovy,L.Z.(2007).MakingaDifferenceinSchools:TheBigBrothersBigSistersSchool‐BasedMentoringImpactStudy.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.

Herrera,C.,Sipe,C.L.,andMcClanahan,W.S.(withA.J.A.ArbretonandS.K.Pepper).(2000).MentoringSchool‐AgeChildren:RelationshipDevelopmentinCommunity‐BasedandSchool‐BasedPrograms.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.

Jekielek,S.,Moore,K.A.,andHair,E.C.(2002).MentoringProgramsandYouthDevelopment:ASynthesis.Minneapolis,MN:ChildTrends.

Jucovy,L.,andGarringer,M.(2007,revised).EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:TheABCsofSchool‐BasedMentoring.Portland,OR:HamiltonFishInstituteonSchoolandCommunityViolenceandTheNationalMentoringCenteratNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.

Karcher,M.J.(2008).TheStudyofMentoringintheLearningEnvironment(SMILE):ARandomizedEvaluationoftheEffectivenessofSchool‐BasedMentoring.PreventionScience,9(2):99–113.

Karcher,M.J.,Kuperminc,G.,Portwood,S.,Sipe,C.,andTaylor,A.(2006).MentoringPrograms:AFrameworktoInformProgramDevelopment,Research,andEvaluation.JournalofCommunityPsychology,34(6):709–725.

Karcher,M.,andHerrera,C.(2007).School‐BasedMentoring.ResearchinAction,Issue6.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.

MENTOR.(2009).ElementsofEffectivePracticeforMentoring(3rded.).Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.

Morrow,K.V.,andStyles,M.B.(1995).BuildingRelationshipswithYouthinProgramSettings.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.

Portwood,S.G.,Ayers,P.M.,Kinnison,K.E.,Waris,R.G.,andWise,D.L.(2005).YouthFriends:OutcomesfromaSchool‐BasedMentoringProgram.JournalofPrimaryPreventionSpecialIssue:MentoringWithChildrenandYouth,26(2):129–145.

Quint,J.,Thompson,S.L.,andBald,M.(2008).Relationships,Rigor,andReadiness:StrategiesforImprovingHighSchools.NewYork:MDRC.

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Rhodes,J.(2007).FosteringCloseandEffectiveRelationshipsinYouthMentoringPrograms.ResearchinAction,Issue4.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.

Rhodes,J.(2001).YouthMentoringinPerspective.TheCenter,Summer.RepublishedinTheEncyclopediaofInformalEducation.RetrievedMonthxx,20xxfromwww.infed.org/learningmentors/youth_mentoring_in_perspective.htm.

Rhodes,J.E.,andDuBois,D.L.(2006).UnderstandingandFacilitatingtheYouthMentoringMovement.SocialPolicyReport,20(3):3–19.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.srcd.org/documents/publications/spr/spr20‐3.pdf.

Saito,R.N.,andSipe,C.L.(2007).TheNationalAgendaforAction:BackgroundandAnalysisofMentoringToday.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.

SearchInstitute.(n.d.)DevelopmentalAssets.RetrievedSept.16,2010,fromhttp://www.search‐institute.org/developmental‐assets.

Spencer,R.(2007).WhyYouthMentoringRelationshipsEnd.ResearchinAction,Issue5.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.

Taylor,A.(2007).MentoringAcrossGenerations:EngagingAge50+AdultsasMentors.ResearchinAction,Issue8.Alexandria,VA:MENTOR.

Tierney,J.P.,andGrossman,J.B.,withResch,N.L.(1995,revised2000).MakingaDifference:AnImpactStudyofBigBrothersBigSisters.Philadelphia:Public/PrivateVentures.

Wheeler,M.E.,Keller,T.E.,andDuBois,D.L.(2010).ReviewofThreeRecentRandomizedTrialsofSchool‐BasedMentoring:MakingSenseofMixedFindings.SocialPolicyReport,24(3):3–21.AnnArbor,MI:SocietyforResearchandChildDevelopment.

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Appendix1:Additional ResourcesLogicModels:

• EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities:FoundationsofSuccessfulYouthMentoring.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/180.

• LogicModelforGirlPOWER!http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_624.pdf.

MentorRecruitment:

• EffectiveMentorRecruitment:GettingOrganized,GettingResults.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/172.

• MeninMentoringToolkit.http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mentormichigan/09_MCSC‐106_MaleRecruitMessaging_271677_7.pdf.

• MentoringAcrossGeneration:EngagingAge50+AdultsasMentors,ResearchinActionSeries,Issue8,http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_389.pdf.

School‐BasedMentoring:

• TheABC’sofSchool‐BasedMentoring:EffectiveStrategiesforProvidingQualityYouthMentoringinSchoolsandCommunities.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/177.

• MakingtheGrade:AGuidetoIncorporatingAcademicAchievementintoMentoringProgramsandRelationships.http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/205.

• School‐BasedMentoring,ResearchinActionSeries,Issue6.http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_387.pdf.

TrainingandTechnicalAssistance:

NationalOrganizations:

• MENTORisanationalorganizationthatworkstoexpandthepowerofmentoring.MENTORhoststheNationalYouthMentoringNetwork,allowingvolunteersfromaroundthecountrytofindmentoringopportunitiesintheircommunities.Thewebsiteoffersaccesstoanumberofmentoringresources,includingtheElementsofEffectivePractice.http://www.mentoring.org.

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• TheNationalMentoringCenteratEducationNorthwestprovidestrainingandtechnicalassistanceforyouthmentoringprogramsandinitiatives.Thewebsiteincludesavarietyofpublicationsandresources.TheCenteralsohostsmentoringforumsinwhichmentoringprofessionalscanaskquestions,seeksupport,andsharebestpractices.http://www.educationnorthwest.org/nmc.

• YouthFriendsMentoringInstituteprovideseducationonrecommendedbestpracticesforyouthmentoringthroughproducts,training,andanannualconference.http://www.mentoringinstitute.org.

Local/RegionalOrganizations:

• MENTOR’snetworkofmentoringpartnershipsincludesstateandlocalorganizationsthatpromotequalitymentoringintheirareasthroughoutreach,training,andtechnicalassistance.AcompletelistofpartnershipscanbefoundonMENTOR’swebsite.http://www.mentoring.org/find_resources/state_partnerships.

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Appendix2:SampleAnnualBudgetforaSchool‐BasedMentoringProgram

BudgetCategory Amount

Staff

Programcoordinator* $30,000

Otherprogramstaff* 10,000

ProgramExpenses

Programactivities/meetings 1,050

Groupoutings(e.g.,transportation,admission) 1,500

Recognitionandincentives(e.g.,kickoffevent,end‐of‐year

celebration,miscellaneousincentives) 1,500

Training 750

Operational Expenses

Liabilityinsurance* 3,500

Screening/backgroundchecks 2,450

Facilities* 500

Publicrelations 750

Miscellaneous* 500

Total $ 52,500

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*Theseitemscanbeleveragedusingexistingschool/districtresourcesandthereforewouldnotnecessarilyrequirenewfunding.However,areallocationofresourceswouldberequiredthatcouldaffectcurrentprograms.

Assumptions:

Thissamplebudgetisforaprogramservingapproximately50youthandassumesthattheschool/schooldistrictismanagingthementoringprogram.

Staff

Programcoordinator:includessalaryandbenefitsforoneexistingschool/districtemployeetoserveparttime(percentagewillvarybasedonprogram)ascoordinator.

Otherprogramstaff:toassistwithmentorrecruitment,relationshipsupport,andotheractivities,asneeded.

ProgramExpenses

Programactivities/meetings:includesgames,curricula,food,andmaterialsforoneactivity/meetingperweekfor30weeksofprogramming.

Groupoutings/fieldtrips:includestransportation,admissionfees,andthelikeforthreegrouptripsat$500each.

Recognitionandincentives:includesprogramkickoffevent($500),end‐of‐yearcelebration($500),andmiscellaneousincentivesformentorsandmentees($500).

Training:includesmaterialsformentortraining,menteetraining,andparentorientation,aswellasresourcestohireexperttrainersasneeded.

OperationalExpenses:

Liabilityinsurance:thisrepresentsanestimateonly.Liabilityinsuranceratesvarysignificantlyfromstatetostate.Formanyschools,thedistrict’sinsurancepolicywillcoveranyprogramoperatedbytheschool.However,ifaCBOisrunningtheprogram,aseparatepolicyisusuallyrequired.

Screening/backgroundchecks:assumesbackgroundchecksfor70potentialmentorsat$35each.

Facilities:includesspace,utilities,andsoforth.Theestimateisbasedonapercentageoftheoverallfacilitiesexpensesfortheschoolandassumestheprogramdoesnotrequiretheschooltoopenoutsideofnormalhours.

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Publicrelations:includesmarketingmaterials,registrationforvolunteerrecruitmentevents,andothermarketingexpenses.

Miscellaneous:includesofficesupplies,postage,andsimilaritems.

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Appendix3:SampleMentorRecruitmentP lanGoal: Match40[insertschoolname]highschoolfreshmenwithadultmentorsforthe[insertdate]schoolyear.

Strategy:

Formalpresentationsatcommunityorganizations, rel igious insti tutions, and local businesses

Budget:$750

Source (target audience)

Message Materials Goal Timeline Staff Responsible

Local church (local community members)

Giving back, investing in youth of community

Recruitment packets, posters, short summary to be include in church newsletter

• 20 requests for more information

• 12 applications

• Summary in August newsletter

July Outreach specialist

Fraternity alumni organization (minority males)

Giving back to community

Recruitment packets (i.e., applications, brochures)


• 8 applications

August Principal (member of fraternity)

Local bank Build competent workforce, social responsibility, benefits to employer

Recruitment packets, information on employer/employee benefits of volunteering


• 6 applications

September Principal and program coordinator

Seniors group (retired volunteers available during school hours)

Share experience, giving back, benefits to mentors, structure and assistance provided by school (in contrast to CBM)

Recruitment packets • 8 requests for more information

• 4 applications

September Program coordinator

United Way volunteer fair (people looking to volunteer)

Impact of mentoring, benefits to mentors

Recruitment packets, giveaways for booth, posters/signs


• 30 applications

October and May

Program coordinator, mentors and mentees at booth to answer questions

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Strategy:

Adver ti se in local mediaandvolunteernetworks

Budget:$250

Source (target audience)

Message Materials Goal Timeline Staff Responsible

Local news daily (local paper)

Get involved—call to action, invest in local community

Short description of opportunity

• Listing in paper once per quarter (pro bono if possible)

December, March, June, September

Program coordinator

VolunteerMatch (online search tool)

Benefits of mentoring, uniqueness of program

Short description of opportunity

• Listing in volunteer database

July, update quarterly

Program coordinator

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Appendix4:MentoringProgramOutl ine

ProgramOverview

MentoringType

Whatisthestructureofthementoringprogram?(One‐to‐one,group/team,peer,etc.)

Example:One‐to‐oneprogrammatchingyouthwithadultmentors.

Goals Whatarethe(long‐term)goalsoftheprogram?

Example:IncreasethegraduationrateformalesatCentralHighSchool.

Objectives

Whataretheobjectivesoftheprogram?(Note:ObjectivesshouldbeSMART—Specific,Measurable,Achievable,Relevant,andTime‐based.)

Example:Decreaseabsenteeismamongfreshmenmalesby15percent.Decreaseincidentsofmisconductbyfreshmanmalesby10percent.

Targetpopulation(mentees)

Character ist ics/

Descr iption

Describethecharacteristicsoftheyouthpopulationtobeserved.

Example:50freshmanmales.

Recruitmentandintake

Howwillyouthbeidentifiedforandenrolledinthementoringprogram?

Example:Aninformationalflyerwillbeincludedinthewelcomematerialsforparents/guardiansofallfreshmenmalestudentswithdetailsonhowtoenrolltheirchild.Referralswillalsobeacceptedfromschoolstaff(e.g.,counselors,teachers).Signedparentalpermissionformsarerequiredforparticipation.

Training Howwillyouthbepreparedtoparticipateintheprogram?

Example:Youthwillberequiredtoattenda1‐hourtraining/orientation.

Mentors

Character ist ics/Descript ion

Describethecharacteristicsofthepeoplewhowillserveasmentors.

Example:Adultmales,aged25andover,preferablyfromsimilarsocioeconomicorethnicbackgroundsasyouth.

Recruitment Howwillyouidentifymentorswiththeabovecharacteristics?Wherewillyougo?

Example:Wewillbuildrelationshipswiththemens’groupsoflocalreligiousinstitutionsandlocalchaptersoffraternalorganizations.Wewillalsolooktolocalbusinessesforprospectivementors.

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Screening,Intake,andTraining

Whatistheprocessforscreeningandenrollingpotentialmentors?Whatkindoftrainingwillmentorsberequiredtocomplete?

Example:Allpotentialmentorsmustcompleteanapplication,providethreereferences,passacriminalbackgroundcheck,completeapersonalinterview,andattendmentororientationandtraining.Mentorsarerequiredtoattenda3‐hourprematchtrainingandaminimumofone1‐houradditionaltrainingsession.

Mentor/MenteeMatches

RelationshipDuration:

Howlongarementoringrelationshipsexpectedtolast?

Example:Minimumof1calendaryear.

Matching Whatistheprocessformatchingmentorsandmentees?Whatcriteriawillbeused?

Example:Menteeswillbematchedwithmentorsbasedonthefollowingcriteria:commoninterests;similarpersonalities;andpreferencesofyouth,parent,andmentor.

Meet ings Describethematchmeetings,includingtheirlocation,length,andfrequency.

Example:Matcheswillmeetonceaweekfor1hour.Allmatcheswillmeetinthelibrary.Matchesmaymeetbeforeschool,duringlunch,orafterschool,dependingontheschedulesofmentorsandmentees.

SupportandSupervision

Whatkindofsupport/supervisionwillbeprovidedtomatches?Whowillbecontracted?Howoften?Bywhatmethod?

Example:Amemberoftheprogramorschoolstaffwillbepresentduringallmatchmeetings.Programstaffwillmeetwitheachmenteeinpersononceaweekforthefirst2monthsofthematchandmonthlythereafter.Inaddition,staffwillcontactmentorseitherinpersonorbyphoneonceamonthtodiscussthematch.

Activit ies Whatwillthematchesdowhentheymeet?Willyouprovideacurriculumofactivities?Willtheprogramsponsorgroupactivities?

Example:Theprogramwillprovidementorsandmenteeswithalistofsuggestedactivities.

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