Architecture of IndiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The architecture of India is rooted in its history, culture and religion. Indian architecture progressedwith time and assimilated the many influences that came as a result of India's global discourse with otherregions of the world throughout its millennia­old past. The architectural methods practiced in India are aresult of examination and implementation of its established building traditions and outside culturalinteractions.[1]

Though old, this Eastern tradition has also incorporated modern values as India became a modern nationstate. The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the countrybecame more integrated with the world's economy. Traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential inIndia's architecture during the contemporary era.[1]

Contents

1 Indus Valley Civilization (2700 BC­1700BC)2 Post Maha Janapadas period (600 BC—200 AD)3 Early Common Era—High Middle Ages (200 AD—1200 AD)4 Late Middle Ages (1100 AD—1526 AD)5 Islamic influence and Mughal Era (1526 AD­1857 AD)6 Colonial Era (1500 AD—1947 AD)

6.1 British Colonial Era: 1615 to 19476.2 French: 1673 to 19546.3 Dutch: 1605 to 18256.4 Portuguese: 1498 to 1961

7 Republic of India (1947 AD—present)8 Gallery9 See also10 Notes11 References12 Further reading13 External links

Indus Valley Civilization (2700 BC­1700BC)

Further information: Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (2700–1700 BC; mature period2600–1900 BC) that was located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, consisting ofwhat is now mainly modern­day Pakistan and northwest India. Flourishing around the Indus River basin,the civilization primarily centred along the Indus and the Punjab region, extending into the Ghaggar­Hakra River valley and the Ganges­Yamuna Doab. Geographically, the civilization was spread over anarea of some 1,260,000 square km, making it the largest ancient civilization in the world.

The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries,Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of wellover five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in metallurgy

A well and drainage system is atLothal

A bath and toilet excavated in Lothal

The entire Kalibangancitadel unexcavated

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th–1stcentury BC). The dome shaped stupawas used in India as acommemorative monument associatedwith storing sacred relics.

and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving) and producedcopper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilization is noted for itscities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoriedhouses. The baths and toilets system the cities had isacknowledged as one of the most advanced in the ancient world.The grid layout planning of the cities with roads at exact rightangles is a modern system that was implemented in the cities ofthis particular civilization. The urban agglomeration andproduction scale of this particular civilization was unsurpassed atthe time and for many future centuries.

The mature phase of this civilization is called the HarappanCivilization, as the first of its cities to be unearthed was locatedat Harappa, excavated in the 1920s in what was at the time thePunjab province of British India (now in Pakistan). Excavation ofHarappan sites have been ongoing since 1920, with importantbreakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. To date, over 1,052cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the generalregion of the Ghaggar­Hakra river and its tributaries. Among thesettlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Lothal,Mohenjo­daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira,Kalibanga, and Rakhigarhi.

Post Maha Janapadas period (600 BC—200AD)

Further information: Hindu temple architecture, Udayagiri andKhandagiri Caves, Buddhist architecture, and Indian rock­cutarchitecture

The Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as acommemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[2] Thestupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, whereit became prominent as a Buddhist monument used forenshrining sacred relics.[2] Fortified cities with stūpas, viharas,and temples were constructed during the Maurya empire (c. 321–185 BC).[3] Wooden architecture was popular and rock cutarchitecture became solidified.[3] Guard rails—consisting ofposts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safetysurrounding a stupa.[3] Temples—build on elliptical, circular,quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick andtimber.[3] The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached EastAsia with the spread of Buddhism.[4] Some scholars hold thattorii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site ofSanchi (3rd century BC – 11th century AD).[5]

The temple complex atKhajuraho—adhering to theshikhara temple stylearchitecture—is a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site

Rock­cut stepwells in India date from 200–400 AD.[6] Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank(550–625 AD) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 AD) took place.[6] The city of Mohenjo­daro haswells which may be the predecessors of the step well.[7] As many as 700 wells, constructed by 3rdmillennium BC, have been discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to believe that'cylindrical brick lined wells' were invented by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.[7] Cavetemples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give riseto cave architecture in places such as Ajanta and Ellora.[3]

Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi­storied buildings which consistently used archedwindows and doors are important features of the architecture during this period.[3] The Indian emperorAshoka (rule: 273—232 BC) established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230BCE.[8] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272—231 BC) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Ashoka)erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were nohealing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[9] Buddhistarchitecture blended with Roman architecture and Hellenestic architecture to give rise to unique blends—such as the Greco­Buddhist school.[10] Indian art and culture has absorbed extraneous impacts byvarying degrees, and is much richer for this exposure. This cross fertilization between different artstreams converging on the subcontinent produced new forms that, while retaining the essence of thepast, succeeded in the integrating selected elements of the new influences. A long tradition of art andculture was already established well before the beginning of 20th century in India. Indian painting canbe broadly divided into two categories—MURALS and MINIATURE.

Early Common Era—High Middle Ages (200 AD—1200 AD)

Further information: Architecture of Karnataka, Kalinga architecture,Dravidian architecture, Western Chalukya architecture, and BadamiChalukya Architecture

Universities—housing thousands of teachers and students—flourished atNalanda and Valabhi between the 4th–8th centuries.[11] South Indiantemple architecture—visible as a distinct tradition during the 7th centuryAD—is described below:[12]

Māru­Gurjara Temple Architecture originated somewherein sixth century in and around areas of Rajasthan. Māru­Gurjara Architecture show the deep understanding ofstructures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygoneera. Māru­Gurjara Architecture has two prominent stylesMaha­Maru and Maru­Gurjara. According to M. A. Dhaky,Maha­Maru style developed primarily in Marudesa,Sapadalaksa, Surasena and parts of Uparamala whereasMaru­Gurjara originated in Medapata, Gurjaradesa­Arbuda,Gurjaradesa­Anarta and some areas of Gujarat.[13] Scholarssuch as George Michell, M.A. Dhaky, Michael W. Meisterand U.S. Moorti believe that Māru­Gurjara TempleArchitecture is entirely Western Indian architecture and isquite different from the North Indian Temple architecture.[14]There is a connecting link between Māru­GurjaraArchitecture and Hoysala Temple Architecture. In both ofthese styles architecture is treated sculpturally.[15]

Konark Sun Temple, one of the mostwell renowned temples in India and isa World Heritage Site.

Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance,Belur temple

these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.[15]

The South Indian temple consists essentially of asquare­chambered sanctuary topped by asuperstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillaredporch or hall (maṇḍapa, or maṇṭapam), enclosed by aperistyle of cells within a rectangular court. Theexternal walls of the temple are segmented bypilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. Thesuperstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of thekūṭina type and consists of an arrangement ofgradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Eachstory is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines,square at the corners and rectangular with barrel­vaultroofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome­shaped cupola and a crowning pot

North Indian temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century.[16]

Richly decorated temples—including the complex at Khajuraho—were constructed in Central India.[16]

Indian traders brought Indian architecture to South east Asia through various trade routes.[10] Grandeurof construction, beautiful sculptures, delicate carvings, high domes, gopuras and extensive courtyardswere the features of temple architecture in India. Examples include the Lingaraj Temple atBhubaneshwar in Odisha, Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha, Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur inTamil Nadu.

Late Middle Ages (1100 AD—1526 AD)

Further information: Hoysala architecture and Vijayanagaraarchitecture

Vijayanagara Architecture of the period (1336 – 1565 AD) was anotable building style evolved by the Vijayanagar empire thatruled most of South India from their capital at Vijayanagara onthe banks of the Tungabhadra River in present­day Karnataka.[17]The architecture of the temples built during the reign of theVijayanagara empire had elements of political authority.[18] Thisresulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style ofarchitecture which featured prominently not only in temples butalso in administrative structures across the deccan.[19] TheVijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala,Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and ischaracterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.[20]

Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire inthe region historically known as Karnata, today's Karnataka, India, between the 11th and the 14thcenturies.[21] Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysalaarchitectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu,and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship are the templesat Belavadi, Amrithapura, and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a

In the August 1604 CE theconstruction of the Harmandir Sahib—the holiest shrine of the Sikhreligion—was completed.

Qutub Minar a prominentexample of Islamicarchitecture in India.

The Chepauk Palace at Chennai, oncethe residence of the Nawab of Arcot

negligible Indo­Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.[22] A featureof Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftmanship. The temples of Belurand Halebidu are proposed UNESCO world heritage sites.[23] About a 100 Hoysala temples survivetoday.[24]

Islamic influence and Mughal Era (1526 AD­1857 AD)

Further information: Mughal architecture and Indo­Islamicarchitecture

Mughal tombs of sandstone andmarble show Persian influence.[25] The Red Fort at Agra (1565–74) and the walled city ofFatehpur Sikri (1569–74) areamong the architecturalachievements of this time—as isthe Taj Mahal, built as a tomb forQueen Mumtaz Mahal by ShahJahan (1628–58).[25] Employingthe double dome, the recessedarchway, white marble and parks while stressing on symmetry and detailwas visible during the reign of Shah Jahan.[26] Quranic verses weredescribed on the walls of the buildings.[1] However, the depiction of anyliving being—an essential part of the pre­Islamic tradition of India—wasforbidden under Islam.[1] The Architecture during the Mughal Period has

shown a very good blend of Indian style with the Persian style.

Some scholars hold that cultural contact with Europe under Manuel I of Portugal (reign: 25 October1495—13 December 1521) resulted in exchange of architectural influences.[27] Little literary evidenceexists to confirm the Indian influence but some scholars have nonetheless suggested a possible relationbased on proximity of architectural styles.[27]

Colonial Era (1500 AD—1947 AD)

Further information: Indo­Gothic

Under colonial rule, architecture became an emblem of power,designed to endorse the patron. Numerous outsiders invadedIndia and created architectural styles reflective of their ancestraland adopted homes. The European colonizers createdarchitecture that symbolized their mission of conquest, dedicatedto the state or religion.[28]

The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the mainpowers that colonized India.[29] [30]

British Colonial Era: 1615 to 1947

The British arrival in 1615 overthrew the Mughal empire. Britain reigned India for over three hundredyears and their legacy still remains through building and infrastructure that populate their formercolonies.[31]

The major cities colonized during this period were Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore,Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal and Hyderabad.[32][30]

St Andrews Kirk, Madras is renowned for its colonial beauty. The building is circular in form and issided by two rectangular sections one is the entrance porch. The entrance is lined with twelvecolonnades and two British lions and motto of East India Company engraved on them. The interior holdssixteen columns and the dome is painted blue with decorated with gold stars.[33]

The staple of Madras was Fort St. George, a walled squared building adjacent to the beach. Surroundingthe fort was White Town settlement of British and Indian area Black Town later to be calledGeorgetown.

Black Town described in 1855 as "the minor streets, occupied by the natives are numerous, irregular andof various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and ill­ventilated ... a hallow square, therooms opening into a courtyard in the centre."[34]

Garden houses were originally used as weekend houses for recreational use by the upper class British.Nonetheless, the garden house became ideal a full­time dwelling, deserting the fort in the 19th Century.[35]

Calcutta – Madras and Calcutta were similar bordered by water and division of Indian in the north andBritish in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 "the banks of the river are as one may sayabsolutely studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses." Esplanade­row isfronts the fort with lined palaces.[36][37]

Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses, later transformed into a metropolis ofbrick and stone.[38]

The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, is the most effective symbolism of British Empire, built as amonument in tribute to Queen Victoria’s reign. The plan of the building consists of one large central partcovered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner holds a smaller domeand is floored with marble plinth. The memorial stands on 26 hectares of garden surrounded byreflective pools.[39]

French: 1673 to 1954

The French colonized a fishing village (Pondicherry) in Tamil Nadu and transformed it into a flourishingport­town. The town was built on the French grid pattern and features neat sectors and perpendicularstreets and divided into two sectors, French Quarter (Ville Blanche) and the Indian quarter (Ville Noire).French styled villas were styled with long compounds and stately walls, lined houses with verandas,large French doors and grills. Infrastructure such as banks, police station and Pondicherry InternationalPort still hold the French presence.

To preserve Pondicherry an organization named INTACH was formed. Authorization is needed fromINTACH, to annihilate any original French Architecture.[40]

French expanded their empire by colonizing coastal towns, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal in TamilNadu and Mahe in Kerala with a French atmosphere of quiet towns around beaches. French spelling onsignage and traffic signs still remains.[30]

Dutch: 1605 to 1825

The Dutch entered India with the only interests of Trade in the early 17th Century. During their 200years in India, they colonized Surat, Bharuch, Venrula, Ahmedabad, Malabar Coast, Kochi and Sadras.[30]

Surat – a Dutch factory in 1630’s Bharuch: Trading Post of the Dutch East India Company had a Dutchcemetery. Venrula: a warehouse was built for 3000 Guilders by Leendart Janszoons and a castle for theprotection of the Dutch. Ahmedabad: The Dutch cemetery lies on the bank of Kankaria lake. It holds amix of Indian and European styled graves, with domed tombs, pyramids, walled and plain grave stones.Malabar Coast Kochi: The Dutch Palace (Mattancherry Palace) – The palace was originally built by thePortuguese, it fell into the hands of the Dutch when the Portuguese lost control of Kochi. Dutchcemetery – The cemetery runs parallel to the beach and is the oldest European cemetery in India. It holds104 tombs that visually narrate the Dutch influence in Architecture during the era. The cemetery isguarded by heavy walls and the entrance pillar still carries the original calligraphic inscription “1724”David Hall – which was the residence of the famous Dutch Commander and Governor of Kochi,Adriaan van Reed lot Drakestein was built in 1695. The hall has been restored as a cultural centre and artcafé for young, visual and performing artists. Bastion bungalow – This Dutch styled building near theFort Kochi beach was built to protect the harbor. Thakur House – the Dutch built this bungalowoverlooking the sea as a club. Sadras – 17 km (11 mi) from the rock cut temples of Mamallapuram isanother Dutch settlement. Pullicat – Pullicat lake 55 km north of Madras is a million years old and thesecond largest lagoon in India. It was the most important trading post of the Dutch. They built twocemeteries. One was ruined due to negligence and at the entrance is flanked by stone pillars, having 76tombs. Images of skeletons are carved onto the gravestones, symbolizing life and death.[41]

Portuguese: 1498 to 1961

The Portuguese arrived as merchants in the 1498 and were more driven by a Catholic missionary zealthan gaining powers in India. The Portuguese gained a foothold in Goa and ruled for 400 years.[30]

Portuguese dominance in Goa still remains evident. Colonizers' missionary spirit built many magnificentcathedrals, churches, basilicas and seminaries. The Basilica of Bom Jesus (Good Jesus), Old Goa,former capital during the Portuguese rule. The three storied Renaissance styled church was built ofplaster and laterite in 1605, and holds the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier. The interior is built in aMosaic­Corinthian style and adorned with wood and gold leaf. The walls embrace old painting of saintsas the floor is laid with pure white marble.[42]

The Portuguese – Catholic houses faced the street with unique large ornamental windows opening ontoverandahs. Bold colours were painted on houses constructing distinct identity, allowing the sailors torecognize their houses from sea. The covered porches and verandas were designed for socializingcontrary to the Hindu styled housing. Front doors were lined with columns, and railings were popular inembellishment.[43]

The interior of Goan­Portuguese houses consisted of elaborate patterns created with tiles imported fromEurope and a false ceiling installed of wood. The walls are painted with bright colours contrasting to theearthy coloured furniture.

The walls were made out of mud or laterite stone and coloured with vegetable and natural dyes.Gateposts and compound walls were carved with great detail.[44]

Indian Architecture continued to flourish as they took influence from the colonies. Indian Architecturefurther shaped as they combined the colonial influences with traditional Architecture.

Republic of India (1947 AD—present)

Further information: List of World Heritage Sites in India and Category:Indian architecture

In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres of industry,leading to price rise in property in various cities of India.[45] Urban housing in India balances spaceconstrictions and is aimed to serve the working class.[46] Growing awareness of ecology has influencedarchitecture in India during modern times.[47]

Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but has been losing itssignificance as of late.[48] Indian architecture reflects its various socio­cultural sensibilities which varyfrom region to region.[48] Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women.[48] Villages inIndia have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.[46] Calico, chintz, and palampore—of Indian origin—highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.[49]Roshandans, which are skylights­cum­ventilators, are a common feature in Indian homes, especially inNorth India.[50][51]

Gallery

Ranakpur Adinath JainTemple in Rajasthan,15th Century.

The Se Cathedral—located in Old Goa—isa cathedral dedicatedto Catherine ofAlexandria.

The famous jaali fromthe 16th­century SidiSaiyyed mosque builtby Ahmed Shah ofGujarat, in Ahmedabad

Chowmahalla Palace inHyderabad

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related toArchitecture of India.

The North Block inNew Delhi houses keygovernment offices,built along withLutyens' Delhi.

Chandigarh Secretariatdesigned by LeCorbusier.

Akshardham Temple inDelhi, completed in2005 and one of thelargest Hindu templesin the world.

Arakuzha MarthMariam Syro­MalabarChurch in Kerala,founded in 999 is aSaint Thomas Christianchurch.

The Taj Mahal in Agra,arguably the greatestexample of Islamicarchitecture in India.

Charminar at Old Cityin Hyderabad

The Jagannath Templein Puri, Odisha

See also

Western Chalukya architectureBadami Chalukya architectureHoysala architectureVijayanagara architectureDravidian architectureArchitecture of KarnatakaHindu temple architectureHoysala architectureBadami cave temples

Temples of North KarnatakaIndian vernacular architectureRajasthani architectureHemadpanthiJainism in North KarnatakaList of Indian architectsKalinga ArchitectureArchitecture of Kerala

Notes1. See Raj Jadhav, pp. 7–13 in Modern Traditions: ContemporaryArchitecture in India.

2. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), Pagoda.3. Chandra (2008)4. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), torii

5. Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), torii.(http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/)

6. Livingston & Beach, xxiii7. Livingstone & Beach, 198. Piercey & Scarborough (2008)9. See Stanley Finger (2001), Origins of Neuroscience: A History ofExplorations Into Brain Function, Oxford University Press, p.12, ISBN 0­19­514694­8.

10. Moffett et al., 7511. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), education, history of.12. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), South Indian temple

architecture.13. The sculpture of early medieval Rajasthan By Cynthia Packert

Atherton14. Beginnings of Medieval Idiom c. A.D. 900–1000 by George

Michell15. The legacy of G.S. Ghurye: a centennial festschrift By Govind

Sadashiv Ghurye, A. R. Momin, p­20516. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), North Indian temple

architecture.17. See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's A concise history of

Karnataka: from pre­historic times to the present, p. 132.18. See Carla Sinopoli, Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and

Historical Memory, Vijayanagara as Historical Memory, p. 26.19. See Carla Sinopoli, The Political Economy of Craft Production:

Crafting Empire in South India, C. 1350–1650, p. 209.20. See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's A concise history of

Karnataka: from pre­historic times to the present, p. 182.21. MSN Encarta (2008), Hoysala_Dynasty

(http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588346/Hoysala_Dynasty.html). Archived (http://www.webcitation.org/5kwKcQ2xF)2009­10­31.

22. See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's A concise history ofKarnataka: from pre­historic times to the present, p. 134.

23. The Hindu (2004), Belur for World Heritage Status.(http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/25/stories/2004072501490300.htm)

24. Foekema, 1625. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), Mughal architecture.26. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), Shāh Jahān period architecture.27. Lach, 57–6228. Thapar 2004, p. 122.29. Nilsson 1968, p. 9.30. "(Brief) History of European – Asian trade"

(http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/Genealogy/Documents/Asia/EuropeanExploration.html#england). European Exploration.Retrieved 14 October 2011.

31. Jaffar 1936, p. 230.32. Tadgell 1990, p. 14.33. Thapar 2004, p. 125.34. Evenson 1989, p. 2.35. Evenson 1989, p. 6.36. Evenson 1989, p. 20.

References

Vastu­Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu/S.K.RamachandaraRao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series) ISBN.978­93­81218­51­8(Set)Chandra, Pramod (2008), South Asian arts, Encyclopædia Britannica.Evenson, Norma (1989). The Indian Metropolis. New Haven and London: Yale University press.ISBN 0­300­04333­3.Foekema, Gerard (1996), A Complete Guide to Hoysaḷa Temples, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 81­7017­345­0.Gast, Klaus­Peter (2007), Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India, Birkhäuser,ISBN 978­3­7643­7754­0.Jaffar, S.M (1936). The Mughal Empire From Babar To Aurangzeb. Peshawar City: MuhammadSadiq Khan. OU_1 60252.Lach, Donald F. (1993), Asia in the Making of Europe (vol. 2), University of Chicago Press, ISBN0­226­46730­9.Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002), Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India,Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1­56898­324­7.Mankekar, Kamla (2004). Temples of Goa. India: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,Govt. of Ind. ISBN 978­81­2301161­5.Moffett, Marion; Fazio, Michael W.; Wodehouse Lawrence (2003), A World History of

37. Dutta, Arindam (29 March 2010). "Representing Calcutta:Modernity, Nationalism and the Colonial Uncanny". Journal ofArchitectural Education 63 (2): 167–169. doi:10.1111/j.1531­314X.2010.01082.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1531­314X.2010.01082.x).

38. Nilsson 1968, pp. 66–67.39. Thapar 2004, p. 129.40. Nilsson 1968, pp. 94–97.41. Wild, Anthony (2000). The East India Company: Trade and

Conquest from 1600. New York: The Lyons Press. pp. 32, 45,74, 88, 89. ISBN 1­58574­059­4.

42. Thapar 2004, p. 124.43. Mankekar 2004, p. 99.44. Mankekar 2004, p. 17.45. See Raj Jadhav, p. 11 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary

Architecture in India.46. Gast, 7747. Gast, 11948. See Raj Jadhav, 13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary

Architecture in India.49. Savage 200850. Thomas George Percival Spear, Margaret Spear, India

remembered (http://books.google.com/books?id=6vEtAAAAMAAJ), Orient Longman, 1981, ISBN 978­0­86131­265­8, "... The bungalow was a typical north Indian one,with a large central room lit only by skylights (roshandans) and anumber of others opening out from them ..."

51. Pavan K. Varma, Sondeep Shankar, Mansions at dusk: the havelisof old Delhi (http://books.google.com/books?id=jCBuAAAAMAAJ), Spantech Publishers, 1992, ISBN 978­81­85215­14­3, "... Thirdly, while obviating direct sunlight, ithad to allow some light and air to enter through overheadroshandans ..."

Architecture, McGraw­Hill Professional, ISBN 0­07­141751­6.Nilsson, Sten (1968). European Architecture in India 1750 – 1850. London: Faber and Faber.ISBN 0­571­08225­4.Piercey, W. Douglas & Scarborough, Harold (2008), hospital, Encyclopædia Britannica.Possehl, Gregory L. (1996), "Mehrgarh", Oxford Companion to Archaeology edited by BrianFagan, Oxford University Press.Rodda & Ubertini (2004), The Basis of Civilization­Water Science?, International Association ofHydrological Science, ISBN 1­901502­57­0.Savage, George (2008), interior design, Encyclopædia Britannica.Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in SouthIndia, C. 1350–1650, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0­521­82613­6.Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), "Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and Historical Memory,Vijayanagara as Historical Memory", Archaeologies of memory edited by Ruth M. Van Dyke &Susan E. Alcock, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0­631­23585­X.Singh, Vijay P. & Yadava, R. N. (2003), Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Water and Environment, Allied Publishers, ISBN 81­7764­548­X.Tadgell, Christopher (1990). The history of architecture in India : from the dawn of civilization tothe end of the Raj. London: Architecture Design and Technology Press. ISBN 1­85454­350­4.Teresi, Dick (2002), Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from theBabylonians to the Maya, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0­684­83718­8.Thapar, Bindia (2004). Introduction to Indian Architecture. Singapore: Periplus Editions. ISBN 0­7946­0011­5.

Further reading

Havell, E.B. (1913). Indian Architecture, its psychology, structure, and history from the firstMuhammadan invasion to the present day(http://www.archive.org/stream/indianarchitectu00haveuoft#page/n9/mode/2up). J. Murray,London.Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1914). Viśvakarmā ; examples of Indian architecture, sculpture,painting, handicraft (http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924022942993#page/n3/mode/2up).London.Havell, E. B. (1915). The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India: a study of Indo­Aryancivilisation (http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924011010109#page/n9/mode/2up). JohnMurray, London.Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture(http://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC&printsec=frontcover), Architectural Press,20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0­7506­2267­9. Cf. Part Four, Chapter 26.

External links

Kamiya, Taeko, The Architecture of India. (http://www.kamit.jp/engl.htm)Indian Architecture on Architecture News Plus.(http://www.architecturenewsplus.com/pages/indian­architecture)

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