control of plant growth and development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) chapter 35

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Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식식 식식식 식식 식식 ) Chapter 35

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Page 1: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Control of Plant Growth and Development

( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 )

Chapter 35

Page 2: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

환경에 대한 식물의 반응의 예 , 햇빛의 방향을 향하고 있는 해바라기들 (Helianthus).

Page 3: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Why It Matters

Gibberellin and rice

그림 35.1. 벼 (Oryza) 의 줄기생장에 대한 호르몬 지베렐린의 효과 .

Page 4: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

35.1 Plant Hormones

Auxins promote growth

Gibberellins also stimulate growth, including the elongation of stems

Cytokinins enhance growth and retard aging

Ethylene regulates a range of responses, including senescence

Page 5: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

35.1 (cont.)

Brassinosteroids regulate plant growth responses

Abscisic acid suppresses growth and influences responses to environmental stress

Jasmonates and oligosaccharins regulate growth and have roles in defense

Page 6: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35
Page 7: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Auxins( 옥신 )

Mainly indole acetic acid (IAA)

Synthesized primarily in shoot apical meristem and young stems and leaves

Promote elongation of cells in coleoptiles and stems

Page 8: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.2. 굴광성에 대한 다윈의 실험들 .

Page 9: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.3. 귀리 자엽초에서의 IAA 의 효과를 보여주는 벤트 (Went) 의 두 가지 실험 .

Page 10: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Auxin Effects on Stem and Root

그림 35.4. 치자나무 (Gardenia) 절지에 대한 옥신 처리의 효과 .

Page 11: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Polar transport from tip to base

그림 35.5. 식물 조직에서의 옥신의 극성 이동에 대한 연구의 실험적 증거 .

Page 12: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.6. 옥신의 극성 이동에 관한 모델 .

산성 pH

AUX1__

___

Page 13: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Cell Expansion Acid-growth hypothesis( 산성생장설 )

그림 35.7. 옥신이 식물세포의 생장을 조절하는 방법 .

Page 14: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Gibberellins( 지베렐린 )

GA1 is most common

Synthesized in shoot and root tips

Promote stem elongation, help seeds and buds break dormancy( 휴면타파 )

Page 15: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Effects of Gibberellin

Bolting and fruit enlargement

그림 35.8. 겨울 채소인 양배추에서의 추대형성 . 그림 35.9. 씨 없는 포도에

대한 지베렐린의 효과 .

Page 16: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Cytokinins( 시토키닌 )

Zeatin( 제아틴 ) is most abundant natural cytokinin

Synthesized mostly in root tips

Stimulate cell division, promote leaf expansion, and retard leaf aging

Page 17: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.10. 담배 (Nicotiana tabacum) 조직 배양에서 옥신과 시토키닌의 비율의 영향 .

Page 18: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Ethylene( 에틸렌 )

Ethylene gas

Present in fruits, flowers, seeds, leaves, roots

Promotes fruit ripening, senescence( 노화 ) and abscission( 탈리 )

Page 19: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Abscission Zone( 탈리 부위 )

그림 35.11. 단풍나무 (Acer) 에 있는 탈리 부위 .

Page 20: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Ethylene

Removal of seed pods in soybean delays senescence since ethylene is not produced

그림 35.12. 완두 (Glycine max) 꼬투리를 제거하면 노화가 지연된다는 것을 보여주는 실험 .

Page 21: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Brassinosteroids( 브라시노스테로이드 )

Group of steroid hormones

Highest concentrations in shoot tips and in developing seeds and embryos

Stimulate cell division and elongation 그림 35.13.

브라시노스테로이드는 유전자 발현을 조절하여 빛에 대한 식물의 생장 반응을 중재함 .

Page 22: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Abscisic acid( 앱시스산 )

ABA

Synthesized from carotenoid pigments inside plastids in leaves

Promotes stomatal closure; may trigger seed and bud dormancy

Page 23: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.14. 다년생 콘플라워 (Centaurea montana) 의 눈에 있는 비늘들 ( 휴면상태 ).

Page 24: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Jasmonates( 자스민산자스몬산 )

JA and oligosaccharins( 올리고당 )

Signaling roles

Regulate growth; trigger defense responses

Page 25: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

35.2 Plant Chemical Defenses

Jasmonate and other compounds interact in a general response to wounds

The hypersensitive response(HR) and PR proteins are other general defenses

Secondary metabolites defend against pathogens and herbivores

Page 26: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

35.2 (cont.)

Gene-for-gene recognition allows rapid responses to specific threats

Systemic acquired resistance(SAR) can provide long-term protection

Extremes of heat and cold also elicit protective chemical responses

Page 27: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

General Responses to Wounds

Hormone-induced wound responses limit damage from bacteria, fungi, worms, or plant-eating insects

Page 28: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35
Page 29: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.15. 상처에 대한 시스테민 (systemin)( 펩티드 호르몬 ) 반응 .

Page 30: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Hypersensitive Response( 과민성 반응 )

Isolates an infection site by surrounding it with dead cells

Salicylic acid( 살리실산 ) (SA) induces synthesis of PR (pathogenesis-related) proteins

그림 35.16. 과민성 반응의 증거 .

Page 31: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Secondary Metabolites(2 차 대사물질 (산물 ))

Oligosaccharins( 올리고당 ) trigger synthesis of phytoalexins( 파이토알렉신 )

Function as antibiotics

Examples:(2 차대사물질의 예 )• Caffeine, cocaine, strychnine

• Tannins

• Terpenes: Conifer resins, essential oils

Page 32: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Gene-for-Gene Recognition( 유전자 -유전자 인식 )

Enables plant to recognize pathogen chemically and mount defenses against it

Plant’s R gene

Pathogen’s Avr gene(avirulent, 비병원성 )

Page 33: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.17. 유전자 - 유전자 저항성이 작동하는 방법에 대한 모델 .

Page 34: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Systemic Acquired Resistance( 전신성 획득 저항 , SAR)

Provides long-term protection against some pathogens

Salicylic acid passes from infected organ to newly forming organs such as leaves, which then synthesize PR proteins

Page 35: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.18. 전신성 획득저항에 대한 제안 메커니즘 .

Page 36: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Heat-Shock Proteins( 열충격 단백질 )

HSPs can reversibly bind enzymes and other proteins in plant cells

Prevents denaturing when plant is under heat stress

Page 37: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Antifreeze Proteins( 부동 단백질 )

Stabilize cell proteins when cells are threatened with freezing

Help maintain structural integrity of cell proteins

Page 38: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

35.3 Plant Responses to the Environment: Movements( 운동 ; 움직임 )

Phototropisms( 굴광성 ) are responses to light

Gravitropism( 굴중성 ) orients plant parts to the pull of gravity

Thigmotropism( 굴촉성 ) and thigmomorphogenesis( 굴촉형태발생 ) are responses to physical contact

Nastic movements( 경성 운동 ; 기울어짐 ) are nondirectional

Page 39: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Phototropisms( 굴광성 )

Growth responses to directional light source

Blue light receptors trigger auxin transport

Auxin triggers differential cell elongation

Page 40: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.19. 유식물에서의 굴광성 .

Page 41: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Gravitropism( 굴중성 )

Growth response to Earth’s gravitational pull • Statoliths( 평형석 ) move in response to gravity

그림 35.20. 평형석 가설을 지지하는 증거 .

Page 42: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Gravitropism

Mechanical stimulus from statoliths triggers auxin transport, leading to differential cell elongation

Stems exhibit negative gravitropism, growing upward, while roots show positive gravitropism

Page 43: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Gravitropism

그림 35.21. 어린 줄기에서의 굴중성 반응 . 유식물을 5일간 암실에서 키운 후 , 옆으로 놓은 다음 0.5 cm 간격으로 표시 . 음성 굴중성에 의해 2 시간 이내에 줄기가 똑바로 섰음 .

Page 44: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Thigmotropism( 굴촉성 )

Growth in response to contact with a solid object

그림 35.22. 지지대를 감고 있는 시계풀(Passiflora) 덩굴손에서의 굴촉성 반응 .

Page 45: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Thigmomorphogenesis( 촉성형태발생 )

Mechanical stress causes the stem to add girth• Caused by frequent strong winds, rainstorms,

grazing animals, etc

그림 35.23. 토마토에 대한 물리적 스트레스의 효과 . (a) 대조군 , 온실재배 , (b) 28 일동안 280 rpm 으로 30 초간 물리적으로 흔들어 주었음 , (c) (b) 를 하루에 두번씩 행함 .

Page 46: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Nastic Movements( 경성운동 )

Reversible responses to nondirectional stimuli• Movements in leaves, leaflets, flowers

그림 35.24. 콩과 식물 잎에서의 경성 수면 운동 . 23 시간 동안 계속 암 처리를 하였지만 , 수면 운동은 일출이나 일몰과 상관없이 계속되었음 .

Page 47: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Nastic Movements

Sensitive plant: 미모사 (Mimosa pudica)

Mechanical stimulation triggers a membrane action potential( 활동전위 )

Water then enters or exits cells of pulvinus( 엽침 ), triggering leaf folding

Page 48: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Sensitive Plant: Mimosa pudica

그림 35.25. 예민한 식물인 미모사의 소엽들의 경성 운동 .

Page 49: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

35.4 Plant Responses to the Environment: Biological Clocks( 생체시계 )

Circadian rhythms( 개일리듬 ; 일주기성 리듬 ) are based on 24-hour cycles

Photoperiodism( 광주기성 ) involves seasonal changes in the relative length of night and day

Cycles of light and dark often influence flowering

Dormancy is an adaptation to seasonal changes or stress

Page 50: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Circadian Rhythms( 일주기성 리듬 )

24 hours cycles

Internal time-measuring mechanisms with a biochemical basis

Environmental cues can “reset” clocks• Enables seasonal adjustments in growth,

development, and reproduction

Page 51: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Photoperiodism( 광주기성 )

Responses to change in relative length of daylight and darkness

Also allows biological clock to be “reset” for seasonal adjustments to day length

Controlled by phytochrome( 피토크롬 ) pigment

Page 52: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Phytochrome( 피토크롬 )

Converts to active form (Pfr) during daylight, when red wavelengths dominate

Reverts to inactive form (Pr) at sunset, at night, or in shade, when far-red( 원적외선 ; 근적외선 ) wavelengths predominate

Page 53: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Phytochrome Switching Mechanism

그림 35.26. 식물의 여러 부위의 생장을 촉진하거나 억제할 수 있는 피토크롬 스위치 메커니즘 .

Page 54: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Phytochrome

Pfr controls types of enzymes produced in particular cells

Examples:• Seed germination

• Stem elongation

• Leaf expansion

• Flowers, fruits, seeds그림 35.27. 어린 콩과 식물에서 암실의 효과 . 카로티노이드는 합성되지만 엽록소가 합성되지 않아서 노란색임 . 대조군보다 긴 줄기 , 작은 잎 , 작은 뿌리를 가짐 .

Page 55: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Flowering Responses( 개화반응 ) (1)

Long-day plants( 장일식물 ; 단야식물 )• Flower in spring or summer, when day length is

long relative to night

그림 35.28. 장일식물인 시금치에 대한 낮 길이의 영향 .

Page 56: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Flowering Responses (2)

Short-day plants( 단일식물 ; 장야식물 )• Flower in late summer or autumn, when day

length is relatively short

Intermediate-day plants( 중간식물 ; 중일식물 )• In between long- and short-day plants

Day-neutral plants( 중일식물 ; 광주기 중립식물 )• Flowering not affected by photoperiod

Page 57: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Night Length Controls Photoperiodism

그림 35.29. 밤의 길이가 개화에 중요하다는 것을 보여주는 실험 .

Page 58: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Florigen( 화성소 ): Chemical Signals for Flowering

그림 35.30. 개화 신호 전달 경로의 모델 .

Page 59: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Vernalization( 춘화처리 ) and Flowering

Vernalization (“making springlike”)• Period of low temperature stimulates flowering

• Used to force bulbs to flower for certain holidays

Page 60: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Dormancy( 휴면 )

Perennial or biennial plant stops growing even though conditions appear to be suitable for continued growth

Preparation for winter

Phytochrome used to sense long nights of autumn

Page 61: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Experiment: Effect of Day/Night Length

그림 35.31. 미송의 생장에 있어서 낮과 밤의 상대적 길이의 영향 . 왼쪽은 낮의 길이가 짧아서 (12 시간 ) 휴면상태에 있음 . 오른쪽은 낮의 길이를 길게 ( 밤의 길이를 짧게 ) 하여 휴면 없이 생장하도록 함 .

Page 62: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Breaking Dormancy( 휴면 타파 )

Requires exposure to sufficient periods of low temperatures• Gibberellin and abscisic acid signals

그림 35.32. 라일락의 휴면하는 눈들에 대한 낮은 온도의 영향 .

Page 63: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

35.5 Signal Responses at the Cellular Level

Several signal response pathways operate in plants

Second messenger(2 차 신호전달자 ) systems enhance the plant cell’s response to a hormone’s signal

Page 64: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Signal Response Pathways

Hormones and environmental stimuli alter behavior of target cells• Signal molecules bind to receptors( 수용체 ) in

target cells

Response pathway ultimately alters gene expression

Changes induced in cell’s shape or internal structure or influence its metabolism

Page 65: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

그림 35.33. 식물세포에서의 신호에 대한 반응 경로 .

Page 66: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Receptors( 수용체 )

Some hormones and growth factors bind to receptors at target cell’s plasma membrane• Receptor changes shape

Binding triggers release of internal second messengers(2 차 신호전달자 )• Diffuse to nucleus and alter gene expression

Page 67: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Second Messengers

Reaction sequence amplifies cell’s response to signal• Activated receptor activates series of proteins

G proteins and enzymes stimulate synthesis of second messengers (such as IP3)• Bind to ion channels on endoplasmic reticulum,

vacuole, plasma membrane, etc

Page 68: Control of Plant Growth and Development ( 식물 생장과 발육 조절 ) Chapter 35

Action of Second Messengers

Bound channels open to release calcium ions• Ions enter cytoplasm and activate protein kinases

• Kinases activate specific proteins that produce cell response

• Many proteins can be activated, so signal is amplified significantly