day 4 classic ot although we’ve seen most of the ingredients of ot, there’s one more big thing...
TRANSCRIPT
Day 4 Classic OT
Although we’ve seen most of the ingredients of OT, there’s one more big thing you need to know to be able to read OT papers and listen to OT talks
Constraints interact through strict ranking instead of through weighting
Analogy: alphabetical order
Constraints– HaveEarly1stLetter– HaveEarly2ndLetter– HaveEarly3rdLetter– HaveEarly4thLetter– HaveEarly5thLetter– ...
Harmonic grammar
Cabana wins because it does much better on less-important constraints
1st
w=5
2nd
w=4
3rd
w=3
4th
w=2
5th
w=1
harm.
banana -1 -13 -13 -57
azalea -25 -11 -4 -126
azote -25 -14 -19 -4 -184
cabana -2 -1 -13 -26
Classic Optimality Theory
Strict ranking: all the candidates that aren’t the best on the top constraint are eliminated
– “!” means “eliminated here”– Shading on rest of row indicates it doesn’t matter how well
or poorly the candidate does on subsequent constraints
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
banana 1! 13 13
azalea 25 11 4
azote 25 14! 19 4
cabana 2! 1 13
Classic Optimality Theory
Repeat the elimination for subsequent constraints Here, the two remaining candidates tie (both are the
best), so we move to the next constraint Winner(s) = the candidates that remain
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
banana 1! 13 13
azalea 25 11 4
azote 25 14! 19 4
cabana 2! 1 13
“Harmonically bounded” candidates
A fancy term for candidates that can’t win under any ranking Simple harmonic bounding: What can’t (c) win under any
ranking?
C2 C3 C4
a. * *
b. * *
c. ** *
“Harmonically bounded” candidates
Joint harmonic bounding: What can’t (c) win under any ranking?
C1 C2
a. **
b. **
c. * *
Why this matters for variation
“Multi-site” variation: more than one place in word that can vary
Which candidates can win under some ranking?
/akitamiso/ *i Max-V
a. [akitamiso] **
b. [aktamiso] * *
c. [akitamso] * *
d. [aktamso] **
/akitamiso/ Max-V *i
a. [akitamiso] **
b. [aktamiso] * *
c. [akitamso] * *
d. [aktamso] **
Why this matters for variation
Even if the ranking is allowed to vary, candidates like (b) and (c) can never occur
/akitamiso/ *i Max-V
a. [akitamiso] **
b. [aktamiso] * *
c. [akitamso] * *
d. [aktamso] **
/akitamiso/ Max-V *i
a. [akitamiso] **
b. [aktamiso] * *
c. [akitamso] * *
d. [aktamso] **
How about in MaxEnt?
Can (b) and (c) ever occur?
/akitamiso/ *i Max-V
a. [akitamiso] **
b. [aktamiso] * *
c. [akitamso] * *
d. [aktamso] **
How about in Noisy Harmonic Grammar?
Suppose the two constraints have the same weight
/akitamiso/ *i
w=1
Max-V
w=1
a. [akitamiso] **
b. [aktamiso] * *
c. [akitamso] * *
d. [aktamso] **
Special case in Noisy HG
/apataka/ *aCa
w=a
Ident(lo)
w=b
harmony wins (or ties) if
a. [apataka] *** -3a a < ½ b
b. [epataka] ** * -2a-b --
c. [apetaka] * * -a-b a < b < 2a
d. [apateka] * * -a-b a < b < 2a
e. [apatake] ** * -2a-b --
f. [epateka] ** -2b b < a
g. [epatake] * ** -a-2b --
d. [apetake] ** -2b b < a
Summary for harmonic bounding
In OT, harmonically bounded candidates can never win under any ranking
– means that applying a change to one part of a word but not another is impossible
In MaxEnt, all candidates have some probability of winning.
In Noisy HG, harmonically bounded candidates can win only in special cases.
See Jesney 2007 for a nice discussion of harmonic bounding in weighted models.
Is it good or bad that (b) and (c) can’t win in OT?
In my opinion, probably bad, because there are several cases where candidates like (b) and (c) do win...
/akitamiso/ *i Max-V
a. [akitamiso] **
b. [aktamiso] * *
c. [akitamso] * *
d. [aktamso] **
French optional schwa deletion
There’s a long literature on this. See Riggle & Wilson 2005, Kaplan 2011 Kimper 2011 for references.
La queue de ce renard no deletion La queue d’ ce renard some deletion La queue de c’ renard some deletion La queue de ce r’nard some deletion La queue d’ ce r’nard as much deletion as
possible, without violating *CCC
Pima plural marking
Munro & Riggle 2004, Uto-Aztecan language of Mexico, about 650 speakers [Lewis 2009].
Infixing reduplication marks plural. In compounds, any combination of members can
reduplicate, as long as at least one does:Singular: [ʔus-kàlit-váinom], lit. tree-car-knife ‘wagon-knife’Plural options:
ʔuʔus-kàklit-vápainom ‘wagon-knives’ʔuʔus-kàklit-váinomʔuʔus-kàlit-vápainomʔus-kàklit-vápainomʔuʔus-kàlit-váinomʔus-kàklit-váinomʔus-kàlit-vápainom
Simplest theory of variation in OT: Anttila’s partial ranking (Anttila 1997)
Some constraints’ rankings are fixed; others vary I’m using the red line here to indicate varying ranking
/θɪk/ Max-C Ident(place) *θ Ident(cont) *Dental
a [θɪk] * *
b [tT ɪk] * *
c [ɪk] *!
d [sɪk] *!
Linearization
In order to generate a form, the constraints have to be put into a linear order
Each linear order consistent with the grammar’s partial order is equally probable
grammar linearization 1 (50%) lineariztn 2 (50%)Max-C Max-C Max-C
Ident(place) Ident(place)Id(place) *θ Ident(cont)
Ident(cont) *θ*θ Id(cont) *Dental *Dental
*Dental [tT ɪk] [θɪk]
Properties of this theory
No learning algorithm, unfortunately Makes strong predictions about variation
numbers:– If there are 2 constraints, what are the possible
Anttilan grammars?– What variation pattern does each one predict?
Finnish example (Anttila 1997)
The genitive suffix has two forms– “strong”: -iden/-iten (with additional changes)– “weak”: -(j)en (data from p. 3)
Factors affecting variation
Anttila shows that choice is governed by...– avoiding sequence of heavies or lights (*HH, *LL)– avoiding high vowels in heavy syllables (*H/I) or low
vowels in light syllables (*L/A)
Day 4 summary
We’ve seen Classic OT, and a simple way to capture variation in that theory
But there’s no learning algorithm available for this theory, so its usefulness is limited
Also, predictions may be too restrictive– E.g. if there are 2 constraints, the candidates
must be distributed 100%-0%, 50%-50%, or 0%-100%
Next time (our final day)
A theory of variation in OT that permits finer-grained predictions, and has a learning algorithm
Ways to deal with lexical variation
Day 4 references
Anttila, A. (1997). Deriving variation from grammar. In F. Hinskens, R. van Hout, & W. L. Wetzels (Eds.), Variation, Change, and Phonological Theory (pp. 35–68). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Jesney, K. (2007). The locus of variation in weighted constraint grammars. In Workshop on Variatin, Gradience and Frequency in Phonology. Presented at the Workshop on Variatin, Gradience and Frequency in Phonology, Stanford University.
Kaplan, A. F. (2011). Variation Through Markedness Suppression. Phonology, 28(03), 331–370. doi:10.1017/S0952675711000200
Kimper, W. A. (2011). Locality and globality in phonological variation. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory, 29(2), 423–465. doi:10.1007/s11049-011-9129-1
Lewis, M. P. (Ed.). (2009). Ethnologue: languages of the world (16th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.
Munro, P., & Riggle, J. (2004). Productivity and lexicalization in Pima compounds. In Proceedings of BLS.
Riggle, J., & Wilson, C. (2005). Local optionality. In L. Bateman & C. Ussery (Eds.), NELS 35.
Day 5: Before we start
Last time I promised to show you numbers for multi-site variation in MaxEnt
If weights are equal:/akitamiso/ *i
w= 1
Max-V
w = 1
harmony prob.
a. [akitamiso] ** e-2 0.25
b. [aktamiso] * * e-2 0.25
c. [akitamso] * * e-2 0.25
d. [aktamso] ** e-2 0.25
Day 5: Before we start
As weights move apart, “compromise” candidates remain more frequent than no-deletion candidate
/akitamiso/ *i
w= 1
Max-V
w = 2
harmony prob.
a. [akitamiso] ** e-2 = 0.14 0.57
b. [aktamiso] * * e-3 = 0.05 0.21
c. [akitamso] * * e-3 = 0.05 0.21
d. [aktamso] ** e-6 = 0.002 0.01
sum = 0.24
Stochastic OT
Today we’ll see a richer model of variation in Classic (strict-ranking) OT.
But first, we need to discuss the concept of a probability distribution
What is a probability distribution
It’s a function from possible outcomes (of some random variable) to probabilities.
A simple example: flipping a fair coin
which side lands up probabiliy
heads 0.5
tails 0.5
Rolling 2 dice
sum of 2 dice probability
2 (1+1) 1/36
3 (1+2, 2+1) 2/36
4 (1+3, 2+2, 3+1) 3/36
5 (1+4, 2+3, 3+2, 4+1) 4/36
6 (1+5, 2+4, 3+3, 4+2, 5+1) 5/36
7 (1+6, 2+5, 3+4, 4+3, 5+2, 6+1) 6/36
8 (2+6, 3+5, 4+4, 5+3, 6+2) 5/36
9 (3+6, 4+5, 5+4, 6+3) 4/36
10 (4+6, 5+5, 6+4) 3/36
11 (5+6, 6+5) 2/36
12 (6+6) 1/36
Probability distributions over grammars
One way to think about within-speaker variation is that, at each moment, the speaker has multiple grammars to choose between.
This idea is often invoked in syntactic variation (e.g., Yang 2010)
– E.g., SVO order vs. verb-second order
Probability distributions over Classic OT grammars
We could have a theory that allows any probability distribution:
– Max-C >> *θ >> Ident(continuant): 0.10 (tT ɪn)– Max-C >> Ident(continuant) >> *θ: 0.50 (θɪn) – *θ >> Max-C >> Ident(continuant): 0.05 (tT ɪn)– *θ >> Ident(continuant)>> Max-C: 0.20 (ɪn)– Ident(continuant) >> Max-C >> *θ: 0.05(θɪn) – Ident(continuant) >> *θ >> Max-C: 0 (ɪn)
The child has to learn a number for each ranking (except one)
Probability distributions over Classic OT grammars
But I haven’t seen any proposal like that in phonology
Instead, the probability distributions are usually constrained somehow
Anttilan partial ranking as a probability distribution over Classic OT grammars
Id(place)
*θ Id(cont)
means Id(place) >> *θ >> Id(cont): 50% Id(place) >> Id(cont) >> *θ: 50% *θ>> Id(place) >> Id(cont): 0% *θ>> Id(cont) >> Id(place): 0% Id(cont) >> *θ>> Id(place): 0% Id(cont) >> Id(place) >> *θ: 0%
A less-restrictive theory: Stochastic OT
Early version of the idea from Hayes & MacEachern 1998.
– Each constraint is associated with a range, and those ranges also have fringes (margem), indicated by “?” or “??”
p. 43
Stochastic OT
Each time you want to generate an output, choose one point from each constraint’s range, then use a total ranking according to those points.
This approach defines (though without precise quantification) a probability distribution over constraint rankings.
Making it quantitative
Boersma 1997: the first theory to quantify ranking preference.
In the grammar, each constraint has a “ranking value”: *θ 101Ident(cont) 99
Every time a person speaks, they add a little noise to each of these numbers
– then rank the constraints according to the new numbers. ⇒ Go to demo [Day5_StochOT_Materials.xls] Once again, this defines a probability distribution over
constraint rankings An Anttilan grammar is a special case of a Stochastic OT
grammar
Boersma’s Gradual Learning Algorithm for stochastic OT
1. Start out with both constraints’ ranking values at 100.2. You hear an adult say something—suppose /θɪk/ →[θɪk]3. You use your current ranking values to produce an output. Suppose it’s /θɪk/ →
[tT ɪk].4. Your grammar produced the wrong result! (If the result was right, repeat from
Step 2)5. Constraints that [θɪk] violates are ranked too low; constraints that [tT ɪk] violates
are too high.6. So, promote and demote them, by some fixed amount (say 0.33 points)
/θɪk/ *θ Ident(cont)
the adult said this
[θɪk] *demote to 99.67
your grammar produced this
[t̪ ɪk] *promote to
100.33
Problems with the GLA for stochastic OT
Unlike with MaxEnt grammars, the space is not convex: there’s no guarantee that there isn’t a better set of ranking values far away from the current ones
And in any case, the GLA isn’t a “hill-climbing” algorithm. It doesn’t have a function it’s trying to optimize, but just a procedure for changing in response to data
Problems with GLA for stochastic OT
Pater 2008: constructed cases where some constraints never stop getting promoted (or demoted)– This means the grammar isn’t even converging to
a wrong solution—it’s not converging at all!
I’ve experienced this in appyling the algorithm myself
Still, in many cases stochastic OT works well
E.g., Boersma & Hayes 2001– Variation in Ilokano reduplication and metathesis– Variation in English light/dark /l/– Variation in Finnish genitives (as we saw last
time)
Type variation
All the theories of variation we’ve used so far predict token variation
– In this case, every theory wrongly predicts that both words vary
/mão+s/ Ident(round) *ãos
mãos *
mães *
/pão+s/ Ident(round) *ãos
pãos *
pães *
Indexed constraints
Pater 2009, Becker 2009 Some constraints apply only to certain words
/mão+s/TypeA Ident(round)TypeA *ãos Ident(round)TypeB
mãos *
mães *!
/pão+s/TypeB Ident(round)TypeA *ãos Ident(round)TypeB
pãos *!
pães *
Indexed constraints
If the grammar is itself variable, we can have some words whose behavior is variable (Huback 2011 example)
/sidadão+s/TypeC Ident(round)TypeC
weight: 100
*ãos
weight: 98
sidadãos *
sidadães *
Where to go from here: R and regression
Download R– www.r-project.org
Download Harald Baayen’s book Analyzing Linguistic Data: A Practical INtroduction to Statistics using R
– www.ualberta.ca/~baayen/publications/baayenCUPstats.pdf
Work through the analyses in the book– Baayen gives all the R commands and lets you download
the data sets, so you can do the analyses in the book as you read about them
Where to go: Optimality Theory
Read John McCarthy’s book Doing Optimality Theory: Applying Theory to Data
– A practical guide for actually doing OT If you enjoy that, read John McCarthy’s book
Optimality Theory: A Thematic Guide– Goes into more theoretical depth
There is a book in Portuguese, João Costa’s 2001 Gramática, conflitos e violações. Introdução à Teoria da Optimidade
Download OTSoft– www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/otsoft– If you give it the candidates, constraints, and violations, it
will tell you the ranking
Where to go: Stochastic OT and Gradual Learning Algorithm
Read Boersma & Hayes’s 2001 article “Empirical tests of the Gradual Learning Algorithm”
Download the data sets for the article and play with them in OTSoft– www.fon.hum.uva.nl/paul/gla, under part 3– Try different GLA options– Try learning algorithms other than GLA
Where to go: Harmonic Grammar and Noisy HG
Unfortunately, I don’t know of any friendly introductions to these
Download OT-Help and try the examples– people.umass.edu/othelp/– The OT-Help manual might be the easiest-to-read
summary of Harmonic Grammar that exists!– Try the sample files
Where to go: MaxEnt
The original proposal to use MaxEnt for phonology was Goldwater & Johnson 2003, but it’s difficult to read
Andy Martin’s 2007 UCLA dissertation has an easier-to-read introduction (chapter 4)– www.linguistics.ucla.edu/general/Dissertations/
Martin_dissertationUCLA2007.pdf You could try using OTSoft to fit a MaxEnt
model to the Boersma/Hayes data
Where to go: MaxEnt’s Gaussian prior
To use the prior (bias against changing weights from default), download the MaxEnt Grammar Tool
– www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/MaxentGrammarTool– In addition to the usual OTSoft input file, you need to make a file
with mu and sigma2 for each constraint (there is a sample file)
Good examples to read of using the prior– Chapter 4 of Andy Martin’s dissertation– White & Hayes 2013 article, “Phonological naturalness and
phonotactic learning” /www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/grads/jwhite/documents/HayesWhitePhonologicalNaturalnessAndPhonotacticLearning.pdf
Where to go: lexical variation
Becker’s 2009 UMass dissertation, “Phonological Trends in the Lexicon: The Role of Constraints”, develops the lexical-indexing approach
– www.phonologist.org/papers/becker_dissertation.pdf
Hayes & Londe’s 2006 paper “Stochastic phonological knowledge: the case of Hungarian vowel harmony” uses another approach (Zuraw’s UseListed)
– www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/HungarianVH
Thanks for attending!
Stay in touch: [email protected] Working on a phonology project (with or
without variation)? I’d be interested to read it.
Day 5 references
Becker, M. (2009). Phonological trends in the lexicon: the role of constraints (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Boersma, P. (1997). How we learn variation, optionality, and probability. Proceedings of the Institute of Phonetic Sciences of the University of Amsterdam, 21, 43–58.
Boersma, P., & Hayes, B. (2001). Empirical tests of the gradual learning algorithm. Linguistic Inquiry, 32, 45–86.
Goldwater, S., & Johnson, M. (2003). Learning OT Constraint Rankings Using a Maximum Entropy Model. In J. Spenader, A. Eriksson, & Ö. Dahl (Eds.), Proceedings of the Stockholm Workshop on Variation within Optimality Theory (pp. 111–120). Stockholm: Stockholm University.
Hayes, B., & Londe, Z. C. (2006). Stochastic Phonological Knowledge: The Case of Hungarian Vowel Harmony. Phonology, 23(01), 59–104. doi:10.1017/S0952675706000765
Day 5 references
Hayes, B., & MacEachern, M. (1998). Quatrain form in English folk verse. Language, 64, 473–507.
Hayes, B., & White, J. (2013). Phonological Naturalness and Phonotactic Learning. Linguistic Inquiry, 44(1), 45–75. doi:10.1162/LING_a_00119
Huback, A. P. (2011). Irregular plurals in Brazilian Portuguese: An exemplar model approach. Language Variation and Change, 23(02), 245–256. doi:10.1017/S0954394511000068
Martin, A. (2007). The evolving lexicon (Ph.D. Dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles.
Pater, J. (2008). Gradual Learning and Convergence. Linguistic Inquiry.
Pater, J. (2009). Morpheme-specific phonology: constraint indexation and inconsistency resolution. In S. Parker (Ed.), Phonological argumentation: essays on evidence and motivation. Equinox.
Yang, C. (2010). Three factors in language variation. Lingua, 120(5), 1160–1177. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2008.09.015