income distribution and poverty ( 所得分配和貧窮 )

Chapter 15

Income Distributionand Poverty

( 所得分配和貧窮 )

( 一 )The Utility Possibilities Frontier( 效用可能疆界 )

效用可能疆界是以一個圖形，表達在一個兩個人的世界，所有的生產可能點，在這些點上，如果A 的效用要增加，必須 B 的效用被減少的現象。

( 一 )The Utility Possibilities Frontier ( 效用可能疆界 )

•任何在效用可能疆界以下的任何在效用可能疆界以下的一點，表示無效率。例如在一點，表示無效率。例如在 AA點上，點上， II 和和 JJ 皆可經由資源的皆可經由資源的重新配置而變得更好。重新配置而變得更好。•BB 點是優於點是優於 AA 點的選擇。點的選擇。•BB 點和點和 CC 點皆表示效率，但點皆表示效率，但是並不表示二點皆是分配公平是並不表示二點皆是分配公平的。的。

( 二 )The Sources of Household Income( 家計單位所得的來源 )

Households derive their incomes from three basic sources: ( 家計單位的所得主要來自於以下三種 )

– from wages or salaries received in exchange for labor( 薪資 )

– from property—that is, capital, land, and so forth( 財產 ); and

– from government.( 政府的補助 )

Wages and Salaries

于２０００年時，美國的６０ % 的個人所得是由薪資而來。于１９９９年時，在中華民國約７６ % 的個人所得是由薪資而來。

中華民國所得收入者平均每人所得分配按區域別，１９９９

總平均台北市高雄市台灣省

所得收入人數　　 10.739475 人　　 1.454.268 人　 782.108 人　　 8.503.099 人

1. 受僱人的報酬 N.T$374.277 N.T$543.442 N.T$410.611 N.T$342.004

( 本業薪資 , 兼業薪資和其他收入 ) (76%) (78%) (75%) (75%)

2. 產業主所得 N.T$107.635 N.T$102.136 N.T$118.110 N.T$107.612

( 含農業淨收入 , 營業淨收入和執行業務淨收入 )

3. 財產所得收入 N.T$37.569 N.T$74.197 N.T$51.773 N.T$29.998

( 含利息收入 , 投資收入 , 和其他如租金等 )

4. 利息支出 N.T$26.994 N.T$27.040 N.T$35.457 N.T$23.882

( 含房屋貸款利息和其他等 )

已分配要素所得 (1+2+3-4) N.T$492.487 N.T$692.735 N.T$545.036 N.T$453.406

資寮來源：行政院主計處第三局 (2001)88 年家庭收支調查報告 ,http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/

Wages and Salaries

為什麼人們會有薪資可領 ? 為什麼有些人的薪資較高 ?

有些人的薪資較低 ?

解釋 1 ：市場的角度分析

如果我們所存在的市場是完全競爭的市場 (perfectly competition market) ，則在長期的均衡狀況時，所有的生產要素 (factors of production) 應是被支付其所生產的邊際收入(marginal revenue product) ，此時所有的公司賺得的經濟利潤等於零 (economic profit = 0) 。

若以數學模型說明，如果生產要素只涉及資本 (K) 和勞動力 (L) ，且 m 表示資本的價格， w 表示工資和薪資 ( 即勞動力的價格 ) ， Q 表示產出， p 表示產出的價格，當 economic profit = 0 時 :

TR-TC=0 => pQ-mK-wL=0 => pQ=mK+wL

Taking partial derivatives, we get

表示額外投入資本所造成額外產出的部分，就等於資本的價格佔總產出價格的部份；而額外投入勞動力所造成額外產出的部份就等於工資佔價格的部分。

p

w

L

Q

p

m

K

Q

;

Human capital( 人力資本 ) 指人們所擁有的知識、技巧、和才幹；有些是天生的，有些則是由受

教育、和訓練而獲得。例如﹔ Men’s professional basketball is extremely popular,thus,the t

op NBA players make millions of dollars per year, 而 Women’s professional basketball is less popular,thus,these women’s skill go comparatively unrewarded, 但是在 tennis 上，則 Men’s and women’s 皆有眾多的人喜歡看，所以男、女網球賽的獎金很相近。

Rare skills can make enormous salaries 例如： Luciano Pavarotti 擁有百萬人所喜愛的 voice, 因此人們願為

聽到他的歌聲支付許多 Tapes and CDs 的錢。

解釋２﹔由解釋２﹔由 the rewards of a skill the rewards of a skill 分析分析

解釋３： Differences in working conditions

因此給予不同的報酬 (compensating differentials) 。較危險的工作，經常被支付較高的工資，較輕鬆，較被喜歡的工作，經常被支付較低的工資。

例如﹔ publishing and television 方面的工作， tend to be low-paying ，許多人在初入演藝圈時，被支付一個較其他工作低的薪資，也許他們認為此工作有其他非薪資方面的報酬（如個人的名聲），也許他們認為雖然一開始薪資低，但可藉由工作經驗不斷學習，增進這方面的 Human capital, 本來可賺更多錢。相反的，坐在雲梯上清洗摩天大樓的工人，其工資就較一般工資高。

解釋４﹔ multiple Household income 亦是家庭所得高低的原因之一。有些家庭有二人以上在工作，所以所得較高。有些家庭只有一個人在工作，甚至有些家庭，所有的成員都無工作，所以所得較低。

解釋５﹔ minimum wage( 最低工資 ) 指政府對工資設定的最低下限，要求公司支付工資高於此下限。百年來，政府們為了減少工資收入不均的一個重要政策方法是設定 minimum wage 。但是就如前章節中對勞動市場的分析，最低工資的設定，往往高於市場的均衡工資，因此增加失業人口，對失業人口而言，最低工資的設定並無法使其增加收入。

解釋６﹔ Unemployment( 失業 )People earn wages only when they have jobs.

Rate11%

9%

3.9%

1975 1982 2000

5.3%

2.7%

2.6%

1.8%

1.5%1.5%

year

1992 200120001994 1996 1998

Rate

year參考來源：行政院主計處資料庫 ,2002

unemployment in U.S.A unemployment in R.O.C

Income from Property( 由財產來的所得 )

Property income is income derived from ownership of real property and financial holdings. It takes the form of profits, interest, dividends, and rents. ( 財產包含實質的資產和有價證券等，當人們擁有實質的資產，如房屋、土地等，出租後可賺取租金；當擁有有價證券，如股票和債券等，可賺取股利，或利息收入，銀行的存款亦可帶來利息收入。 )

The amount of property income that a household earns depends on:

– how much property it owns, and– what kinds of assets it owns.

Income from Government( 由政府轉移來的所得 )

Transfer payments are payments by the government to people who do not supply goods or services in exchange. (移轉性支付：指政府給付人民的無償性支出。例如：政府給貧窮及弱勢團體的補助和對健康保險的補助等等。 )

Transfer programs are part of the government’s attempts to offset some of the problems of inequality and poverty.( 政府藉由移轉性的方案，企圖想減低社會中所得分配不平等及貧窮的問題。 )

Income from the government

舉美國 2000 年為例，個人所得中有 16% 來自於其政府的移轉支出。

舉中華民國 1999 年為例，最低 20％的所得戶，收到政府的移轉性支付佔其所得的 16.7% ；而最高 20% 的所得戶，收到政府的移轉性支付佔其所得的 1.9% 。

Not all transfer income goes to the poor 在 U.S.A, 其聯邦政府的最大移轉性支出方案是 Social Sec

urity 方案 (社會保障方案 ) 。在 R.O.C ，政府最大的移轉性支付是社會保險 (目前以對農民其他弱勢團體的健保補助為主要內涵。而國民年金的健立亦在 1996 年被行政院提出討論，但至目前仍未實施。 )

The Distribution of Income( 所得的分配 )

Economic income is the amount of money a household can spend during a given period without increasing or decreasing its net assets. ( 經濟所得﹔指一個家計單位在一段給定的時間內，在資產不變的狀況下，可支出的金額。 )

Wages, salaries, dividends, interest income, transfer payments, rents, and so forth are sources of economic income.( 例如﹔工資、薪資、股利、利息所得，收到政府給予的移轉性支付，租金收入等等，皆是經濟所得的來源。 )

Economic Income Inequality in the United States ( 美國經濟所得分配不平等的狀況 )

Distribution of Total Income and Components in the United States, 1997 (Percentages)( 經濟所得的分配及其組成要素的分配 )

HOUSEHOLDSTOTAL

INCOMEWAGES AND

SALARIESPROPERTY

INCOMETRANSFER

INCOME

Bottom fifth 6.0 5.7 1.0 27.6

Second fifth 9.1 11.9 4.0 26.1

Third fifth 14.7 19.9 8.4 18.7

Fourth fifth 23.6 27.3 16.4 13.9

Top fifth 46.6 35.2 70.2 13.7

Top 1 percent 10.0 3.2 29.7 1.5

Source: Brookings Merge File and authors’ estimates.

中華民國可支配所得 (disposable personal income) 的分配，１９９９

家計單位 ( 五等分位組 )

可支配所得分配比(%)

　　１

( 最低所得組 )

　　２

　　３

　　４

　　５

　　 7.1

　　 12.9

　　 17.5

　　 23.2

　　 39.2

註：個人可支配所得(Disposable personal income) 指個人所得減去賦稅及一些非賦稅的開支 ( 例如支付交通罰單等 ) 。

資料來源：行政院主計處第四科國民所得統計 (2001) ，國民所得統計及國內情勢展望 (新聞稿 ) 。( 最高所得組 )

Money Income( 貨幣所得 )

Money income is a measure of the income used by the Census Bureau. Because it excludes noncash transfer payments and capital gains income, it is less inclusive than “economic income.”( 貨幣所得：是統計部門用以衡量所得的另一種方法，其計算所得內涵不包括非現金的移轉性支付，也不包括非現今的資本獲得。相較於 Economic income,Money income 所包含的所得項目較少。 )

Changes in the Distribution of Income( 美國貨幣所得分配的狀況 )

Distribution of Money Income of U.S. Families by Quintiles, 1947 – 1997 (Percentages)

1947 1960 1972 1980 1984 1994 1997

Bottom fifth 5.0 4.8 5.4 5.2 4.7 4.2 4.2

Second fifth 11.8 12.2 11.9 11.5 11.0 10.0 9.9

Third fifth 17.0 17.8 17.5 17.5 17.0 15.7 15.7

Fourth fifth 23.1 24.0 23.9 24.3 24.4 23.3 23.0

Top fifth 43.0 41.3 41.4 41.5 42.9 46.9 47.2

Top 5 percent 17.2 15.9 15.9 15.3 16.0 20.1 20.7Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, various editions; Department of Commerce, HHES Division.

The Lorenz Curve( 羅倫茲曲線 )

The Lorenz curve is a widely used graph of the distribution of income, with cumulative percentage of families plotted along the horizontal axis and cumulative percentage of income plotted along the vertical axis.

The Lorenz Curve for U.S.A,1997 ( 羅倫茲曲線 )

If income is equally distributed, there is no shaded area.

• More unequal More unequal distributions of income distributions of income produce Lorenz Curves produce Lorenz Curves that are farther from the that are farther from the 45-degree line.45-degree line.

Figure 15.2 此圖是依美國 1997 之貨幣所得畫出

The Gini Coefficient( 吉尼係數 )

The shaded area

由吉尼係數，我們可以觀察出所得的分配公平與否，當吉尼係數等於 1 時，全國的所得是集中於一個家庭，表示所得的分配極不平等，而當吉尼係數等於 0 時，表示全國各家庭擁有同樣所得，所得分配達到最平等。

B

比較非洲來的美國人家計單位、白人家計單位、西班牙語系家計單位和單身的家計單位的貨幣所得分配狀況

Distribution of Money Income of Households, 1997 (Percentages)

ALLHOUSEHOLDS

AFRICAN-AMERICAN

HOUSEHOLDSWHITE

HOUSEHOLDSHISPANIC

HOUSEHOLDSONE-PERSONHOUSEHOLDS

0-10,000 11.0 21.4 9.5 16.8 25.4

10-15,000 8.1 10.5 7.8 10.7 15.8

15-25,000 14.9 17.9 14.6 19.7 20.7

25-35,000 13.3 14.2 13.2 15.0 14.0

35-50,000 16.3 14.9 16.5 16.6 11.6

50-75,000 18.1 13.1 18.8 12.2 7.7

75,000 + 18.4 7.9 19.7 9.1 4.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Note: Totals may not add to 100 due to rounding.Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1999, Tables 742 and 744.

Poverty( 貧窮 )

In simplest terms,poverty is the condition of people who have very low income.

The official poverty line( 法定貧窮臨界線 ) 指政府所定的貧窮所得程度。一個家計單位的所得若低於此所得程度被稱為貧窮戶。

U.S 的 official poverty line

= the cost of minimum food budget *3 原由：在 1960 年代初期，美國政府估計一般的 poor famil

ies 約將其 1/3 的所得用來買食物。因此，當時設計 poverty line 的原則即以基本食物乘以 3 。

Poverty in the United StatesSince 1960

Percentage of Persons in Poverty by Demographic Group, 1964 - 1997

OFFICIALMEASURE

1964

OFFICIALMEASURE

1997

ADJUSTED FORIN-KIND TRANSFERS

AT MARKET VALUE, 1997a

All 19.0 13.3 10.0

White 14.9 11.0 8.4

African-American 49.6 26.5 19.3

Hispanic NA 27.1 19.6

Female householder – no husband present 45.9 35.1 NA

Elderly (65+) 28.5 10.5 NA

Children under 18 20.7 19.9 NA

aIncludes food, housing, and medical benefits.Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1999, Tables 760, 763, 766, and 770.

註：註： in-kind transfer(in-kind transfer( 實物的移轉性支付實物的移轉性支付 )) ：政府以：政府以實物實物 , , 包括食物、房子或醫療照顧的方式，補助家計單位。包括食物、房子或醫療照顧的方式，補助家計單位。

Table 15.4

The Distribution of Wealth( 財富的分配 )

The distribution of wealth is much more unequal than the distribution of income. Wealth is passed from generation to generation and accumulates.

Some argue that unequal distribution of wealth is a natural consequence of risk taking (承擔風險 ) in a market economy.

The Distribution of Wealth ( 財富的分配 )

Percentage of Different Assets Owned by Households, 1998 Survey of Consumer Finances( 家計單位擁有各種資產的百分比 )

PERCENTAGE OF OWNERS

COMMON STOCK

EXCLUDING PENSIONS

ALL COMMON

STOCKNONEQUITY FINANCIAL

ASSETS

HOUSING

EQUITY

NET WORT

H

Top .5 percent 41.4 37.0 24.2 10.2 25.6

Top 1 percent 53.2 47.7 32.0 14.8 34.0

Top 10 percent 91.2 86.2 72.2 50.7 68.9

Bottom 80 percent

1.7 4.1 14.0 29.3 18.5

Source: James Poterba, “Stock Market Wealth and Consumption,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(2), 99 – 118 , Spring 2000.

The Redistribution Debate( 所得重新分配的爭議 )

Philosophical arguments against redistribution( 反對所得重新分配的哲理 ):– The market, when left to operate on its own, is fair. “One i

s entitled to the fruits of one’s efforts.”(讓市場自由去運作，讓買者、賣者自己去決定，自己去承擔其決定的風險與其努力付出的成果，這就是公平的。 )

– Taxation of income for redistribution purposes is against “freedom of contract” and the protection of property rights.( 政府由個人的所得中課稅，再將所課的稅收分配給其他人，此種行為是如同強制剝奪個人的財產以分配他人，違反了「契約自由」和「個人的財產權應被保護」的原則。 )

The Redistribution Debate( 所得重新分配的爭議 )

Practical arguments against redistribution ( 反對所得重新分配的實務論點 ):

• Taxation and transfer programs interfere with thTaxation and transfer programs interfere with the incentives to work, save, and invest(e incentives to work, save, and invest( 干預干預 ).).

• Bureaucratic waste and inefficiency is inevitable Bureaucratic waste and inefficiency is inevitable in the administration of social programs(in the administration of social programs( 社會方社會方案的運作，在行政過程中，官僚的浪費和無效率案的運作，在行政過程中，官僚的浪費和無效率是不可避免的。是不可避免的。 ). ). For example, Professors Edgar K. Browning and WilFor example, Professors Edgar K. Browning and William R. John (1984) estimated the cost of redistribution. They concluded that about liam R. John (1984) estimated the cost of redistribution. They concluded that about 71% of income is lost in redistributing it. 71% of income is lost in redistributing it.

The Redistribution Debate

Arguments in favor of redistribution (贊成政府進行所得重新分配的理論 ):

1.A wealthy country has the moral obligation to 1.A wealthy country has the moral obligation to provide all its members with the necessities of liprovide all its members with the necessities of life. The Constitution does carry a guarantee of fe. The Constitution does carry a guarantee of the “right to life.”the “right to life.”

一個富有的國家，應有道德上的義務，提供其全一個富有的國家，應有道德上的義務，提供其全民生活中的必須品；美國憲法明言政府要保護全民生活中的必須品；美國憲法明言政府要保護全民的“生活權”。民的“生活權”。

Arguments in favor of redistribution:

– 2.Utilitarian justice2.Utilitarian justice is the idea that “a dollar in the h is the idea that “a dollar in the hand of a rich person is worth less than a dollar in the and of a rich person is worth less than a dollar in the hand of a poor person.” If the marginal utility of incohand of a poor person.” If the marginal utility of income declines with income, transferring income from tme declines with income, transferring income from the rich to the poor will increase total utility.he rich to the poor will increase total utility.

– ( ( 效用主義者的論點：效用主義者的論點：效用學說認為，如果人們擁有效用學說認為，如果人們擁有所得的邊際效用是遞減的，則給富人額外所得的邊際效用是遞減的，則給富人額外 $1$1 ，帶給，帶給此富人的滿足感是小於給窮人額外此富人的滿足感是小於給窮人額外 $1$1 所帶給窮人的所帶給窮人的滿足感。因此，若將富人的滿足感。因此，若將富人的 $1$1移轉給窮人，則可增移轉給窮人，則可增加整體社會的效用加整體社會的效用 ((滿足感滿足感 )) 。。 ))

解釋 Diminishing Marginal Utility of Income

Utility

Income0 1 2 3

U poor

U rich

Q poor Q rich

U

Arguments in favor of redistribution:

3. Rawlsian justice3. Rawlsian justice is a theory of distributional justice that concludes is a theory of distributional justice that concludes that the social contract emerging from the “original position” would cthat the social contract emerging from the “original position” would call for an income distribution that would maximize the well-being of tall for an income distribution that would maximize the well-being of the worst-off member of society.(Rawlshe worst-off member of society.(Rawls 的論點：的論點： John Rawls(1997)John Rawls(1997)強調，身為社會中的一份子，我們與他人之間有了一個契約，此契強調，身為社會中的一份子，我們與他人之間有了一個契約，此契約即所謂的約即所謂的「社會契約」「社會契約」 (social contract)(social contract) ；而此種人生下來就被；而此種人生下來就被給予的契約狀況稱之“給予的契約狀況稱之“ original position”original position” 或“或“ state of nature”,state of nature”, 如果如果人們不善加保護此社會，則可能使此社會走向一個次佳的選擇。人們不善加保護此社會，則可能使此社會走向一個次佳的選擇。 RaRawlswls 強調，在此社會裡，每個人都有機會成為一個富有的人，也有機強調，在此社會裡，每個人都有機會成為一個富有的人，也有機會成為無殼流浪漢。因此，如果人們皆為“會成為無殼流浪漢。因此，如果人們皆為“ risk averse(risk averse( 避險的行避險的行為為 )”)” ，則皆將對社會中的不幸者給予重視，因為自己也有機會有不，則皆將對社會中的不幸者給予重視，因為自己也有機會有不幸的遭遇，因此讚同所得分配給社會中的弱勢者，以極大化他們的幸的遭遇，因此讚同所得分配給社會中的弱勢者，以極大化他們的社會福利，如此，萬一有一天自己也落到不幸的狀況，亦可經由社社會福利，如此，萬一有一天自己也落到不幸的狀況，亦可經由社會的所得重新分配，使自己的基本生活無憂。會的所得重新分配，使自己的基本生活無憂。 ))

The Works of Karl Marx(卡爾馬克司的著作 )

Marx did not write very much about socialism or communism.

He wrote a critique of capitalism, but was not very clear about what would replace it.(馬克司對資本主義做了一些批評，但是卻無法具體的陳述什麼方式可替代資本主義。 )

In one essay he wrote, “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”( 不過他倒有指出，這個社會較理想的運作方式應是由各盡所能，到各取所需。 )

The Works of Karl Marx

The labor theory of value, stated most simply, is the theory that the value of a commodity depends only on the amount of labor required to produce it.( 勞動價值論：英國經濟學家 -亞當 .斯密 (1723-1970) 和大衛 .李嘉圖 (1772-1823)提出的，後經馬克斯 (1818-1883) 進一步發展的一種學說，該學說認為，一種商品的價值等於生產該商品時所使用的所有勞動力的成本，即工資。 )

The owners of capital are able to extract “surplus value” out of labor.( 他認為資本的所有者支付給勞工的工資是低於勞工所創造出來的價值，因此可以說資本家是剝取勞工所創造出來的部份價值，稱“” surplus value” 。 )

因此，認同馬克司理論的人視財產所得分配為造成今日社會分配不均的主要來源。

Effective Rates of Federal, State, and Local Taxes, 2000 (Taxes as a Percentage of Total Income)

Bottom 20% 34.0 %

Second 20 31.2

Third 20 32.3

Fourth 20 32.6

Top 20 33.9

Top 10 34.5

Top 5 34.9

Top 1 37.0

註﹕ Effective tax rate( 有效稅率或稱實際稅率）是指納稅人除去免稅優惠額之後，按其總收入支付所得稅的平均稅率。Source: Authors’ estimate.

Expenditure Programs to eliminate poverty

(1) The Social Security system( 社會保障系統 )

is a federal system of social insurance programs. It includes three separate programs that are financed through separate trust funds:

– the Old Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) program ( 支付終身現金給 62歲以上的投保退休者，或過世退休者的配偶。以 1999 為例，保費是薪資稅率 12.4% ）

– the Disability Insurance (DI) program ( 支付終身現金利益給因殘障而無法工作者）

– the Health Insurance (HI, or Medicare) program ( 為 65歲以上的老人所做的健康保險，以 1998 為例，保費是薪資稅率 2.9% ） .


(2) Public assistance or welfare

consists of government transfer programs that provide cash benefits to:

– families with dependent children whose incomes and assets fall below a very low level, and

– the very poor, regardless of whether or not they have children.


(3) The Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program (追加的社會安全所得方案）

is designed to take care of the elderly who end up very poor.


(4) Unemployment compensation (失業救濟金）政府支付現金給非自願性的失業者，例如被裁員。 1996 年主要國家失業保險指標

Japan USA Germany France UK ROC

Unemp. Rate

3.4 5.4 11.5 12.3 7.6 2.9

Payment/Previous wage

60-80 % 37 % 60 % 57.4-75 %

80 % 60%

Period of payment

90-300 days

About 5-6 months

15-52 weeks

--- --- 6 months


(5) Medicaid and Medicare are in-kind government transfer programs that provide health and hospitalization benefits:

– Medicare to the aged and their survivors and to certain of the disabled, regardless of income, and Medicaid to people with low incomes.


(6) Food stamps are vouchers that have a face value greater than their cost and that can be used to purchase food at grocery stores.

(7) Housing programs are designed to improve the quality of life for low-income people.

(8)The Earned Income Tax Credit is an important program that allows lower income families with children a credit equal to a percentage of all wage and salary income against their income taxes.

income distribution and poverty ( 所得分配和貧窮 )

Documents