jesse hudecki - mos 4423
TRANSCRIPT
Liquid Gold – How Different Advertising Appeals Affect Bottled Water Purchase Intentions (Based on Contextual vs. Intrapersonal Factors)
Western University Jesse Hudecki
250590027 Dr. Mark Cleveland
March 31, 2015 MOS 4423
1 Pro-‐environmental behaviour is a difficult construct to measure, and even harder to predict. Existent literature has studied a wide range of factors related to pro-‐environmental behaviour, and has attempted to develop many different working models to understand the constructs that best predict behaviour. By focusing on two variables related to pro-‐environmental behaviour (context and intrapersonal factors), conceptualized using the locus of control and level of involvement constructs, this study will attempt to understand different advertisement appeals – and their affect on consumer purchase intention. Effective communication strategies, and marketing campaigns alike can go a long way to changing consumer perception – an integral step in changing global consumption patterns in the long run. By focusing on the bottled water industry, pro-‐environmental behaviour can be specific, and results can be generalized to a specific industry.
Climate change and environmental sustainability are solidified as mainstream
issues in our day and age. It is a reality we need to face head on, and although many of us
identify as being “concerned” with the environment, this concern is not a good predictor
of our behaviour. This North American culture of consumption is providing grave
consequences in terms of our impact on the environment: the United States only contains
5% of the world’s population, but contributes 22% of the worlds carbon emissions.1 20 of
the warmest years on record have occurred since 1981, the polar ice caps are melting, and
these heightened temperatures are causing global sea levels to rise by more than 200%
over the last century - which will likely impact 70% of the world’s coastlines by the end
of the century.2 So given the national attention and public scrutiny surrounding global
warming and climate change, we’re constantly surrounded by “eco friendly, green and
certified organic” product claims – so much so that consumers are becoming increasingly
skeptical these environmentally friendly product’s are really even environmentally
sustainable. To effectively address climate change from a mass consumption perspective,
these companies that emphasize sustainability and source from environmentally friendly
manufacturers need to focus on consumer behaviour. In the increasingly complex world 1 http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/urgentissues/global-‐warming-‐climate-‐change/help/facts-‐about-‐climate-‐change.xml 2 http://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
2 of advertisements, marketers need to fundamentally understand the persuasiveness of
environmental advertising to get through to end consumers in an efficient manner – or
risk being lost among the clutter.
A growing area of research among social psychologists and marketing research
professionals alike is to understand consumer motivation to behave in an environmentally
responsible manner and purchase those products that relate to their beliefs. Taking into
account a holistic perspective, and focusing on the underlying factors that shape
behaviour is key to determining how to manipulate content and product claims to
motivate that certain type of purchase behaviour. In conjunction with renewable energy
infrastructure, changing consumption patterns is key to battling climate change. For the
purpose of this study, the bottled water industry will be targeted. The bottled water
industry is an incredibly lucrative and growing industry in North America worth more
than $170 billion3 – and ironically (given the actual product is key to everyday life) it has
one of the biggest carbon footprints in the world. The bottled water industry is also
growing rapidly, with global consumption growth of 10% yearly – and North America is
still growing the fastest.4 Producing bottled water to satisfy American demand uses more
than 17 million barrels of oil annually, which is enough to fuel 1.3 million cars for a
year.5 Americans consume on average 50 billion plastic water bottles a year, however the
recycling rate is merely 23%, which means that more than $1 billion worth of plastic
bottles are wasted each year – the majority of which ending up in the ocean.6 At the
recommended level of eight glasses a day, yearly tap water would cost roughly $.50
compared to over $1,500 for bottled water – and yet many consumers still elect to
3 http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/bottle-‐vs-‐tap-‐7-‐things-‐to-‐know-‐about-‐drinking-‐water-‐1.2774182 4 http://www.businessinsider.com/facts-‐bottled-‐water-‐industry-‐2011-‐10?op=1 5 http://www.banthebottle.net/bottled-‐water-‐facts/ 6 Refer to appendix 1
3 purchase bottled water.7 One of the most common reasons for purchasing bottled water
is because of the belief it is higher quality, better tasting and more naturally sourced than
local tap water. However there are many different factors that shape a consumer’s
rationale for purchasing bottled water; ranging from convenience, to preference and even
scarcity.
There is existent literature on the phenomenon of bottled water, ranging from
explaining the preference as opposed to tap water, to attempting to rationalize the social
phenomenon and even taking an in depth look at branding a commodity. These topics
will be discussed in the following section, however there is a gap in the existent literature
by way of refined, specific focus on what influences a consumer’s purchase decision of
bottled water from a motivational standpoint – and in a broader sense understanding how
to encourage pro-environmental behaviour. Ideally this study will help with building a
theoretical framework showing the relationship between different variables, and their
influence when it comes to bottled water purchase intentions (primarily focusing on
context and intrapersonal factors). In addition, using this understanding and the possible
resulting framework to modify communication messages (advertisement appeals) to
encourage pro-environmental behaviour is one of the main goals of this study. Applying
this framework to communication models and marketing campaigns aimed at reducing
the consumption of bottled water, and promoting more environmentally friendly
behaviour could have a significant impact on climate change. Social campaigns are not a
new phenomenon, however many of their advertisement appeals are outdated and ignored
by the general population. The following sections will touch on the existent literature and
secondary data relating to the subject, followed by an articulation of the main hypotheses
7 http://www.banthebottle.net/bottled-‐water-‐facts/
4 of the study in addition to the proposed methodology and intended analytical
procedures. Any managerial or practical implications and limitations will be discussed in
the conclusion.
Existent Literature
Many studies have attempted to understand the phenomenon of consumer
behaviour towards bottled water. One such study looked at the branding of a commodity
(in this case water) to try and understand the underlying processes that shape consumers
perceptions toward bottled water. In his paper Richard Wilk argues that there is a contrast
between tap water and bottled water and it can be seen as a “reflection of contest for
authority and public trust” between the government and corporations – with heightened
worry about risk and health. This deteriorating relationship with government and private
corporations alike can help to partially explain the preference for bottled water, which
plays into the worry of risk and harm to health. However through his studies Wilk
concluded that ultimately bottled water is a case where “sound cultural logic” leads to
environmentally destructive behaviour. In less developed and poverty ridden countries,
bottled water is a necessity and has many tangible benefits. However in industrialized
nations, where billions of dollars have been invested to provide the infrastructure capable
of facilitating clean drinking water, consumers still purchase drinking water for prices
that often exceed that of gasoline. Bottled water is a significant source of trade, and some
countries act as dual import/export partners with another (for example Sweden and US
both export to each other while importing a different brand). This preference for branded
water is deeply rooted in consumer perception - however in blind taste tests participants
can’t tell the difference between tap water and bottled water. Wilk argues that Perrier - a
brand synonymous with mineral water, and a symbol of status and taste - introduced the
5 branding of this commodity. These brands are advertised through use of imagery;
focusing on images of natural landscapes from glaciers to mountains and emphasizing
deep blue colouring. The uses of “buzzwords” such as pure, pristine and fresh re-
emphasize this image of nature.
Another study looking to understand consumers’ preferences for bottled water
expanded on the findings of this previous study. Maria Doria and her team were
fascinated by the fastest growing segment of non-alcoholic beverages in North America,
and were interested in understanding what shaped preference for these products. Demand
for bottled water is linked to the consumer’s growing interest in understanding where
their drinking water comes from. Their study reiterates the notion that there is a
perception that bottled water is of better quality; yet again their findings concluded there
was no difference in the minds of consumers when it came to taste. An interesting point
that Doria and her team brought into discussion was the logic behind preference for more
expensive options than tap water. Consumer surveys usually stress two main factors:
dissatisfaction with tap water organoleptics (taste) and health/risk concerns. Now we can
start to see this inherent link between bottled water and perceived health/risk concerns of
the alternative tap water. In Canada and USA (the geographic focus for our study),
organoleptics and health/risk are the number one and two reasons for Canadians
preference for bottled water. Neither one of these reasons have to do much with
convenience. Interestingly, growth of the bottled water industry follows the growth of
sales of “healthy foods”, and a study revealed that organic food buyers are much more
likely to drink bottled water than tap water (Doria, 2006). It was found that issues of
public trust and past problems pertaining to local drinking water have a serious, long
lasting impact on public behaviour – an outbreak in Sydney of two viruses found in their
6 tap water led to 50% increase in bottled water sales (Doria, 2006). Lastly this study
reiterates the need to consider the fact that bottled water industry spends a large sum of
money on advertisements, whereas tap water doesn’t at all. These bottled water
companies can effectively influence the purchaser and attract new purchasers by
reflecting their desired or perceived personal image.
The existent literature on the subject of bottled water and consumer preference
has provided real, empirical evidence to further the understanding of this social
phenomenon. Catherine Ferrier and her team at the University of Geneva looked at social
trends affecting the increase in bottled water consumption. They found that among other
variables, increases in standard of living, urbanization, consumer choice among brands,
and changing work habits have each shaped “the greatest example marketing success”
that is bottled water (Ferrier, 2001). Increasing global trade of this commodity, and
transporting bottled water all over the world has a huge impact on the environment, and
given current market trends, transporting bottled water is expected to continue to grow.
One of the key takeaways from this paper is the idea that drinking bottled water is a habit.
A habit is formed over time from repetitive behaviour, and usually requires little to no
cognitive involvement to perform the behaviour. As we will investigate further in this
study, is there a type of advertising communication appeal that resonates most with the
typical bottled water drinker? And which type of appeal is most effective for increasing
consumer awareness and recognition?
According to the Journal of MacroMarketing, consumers “realize” that their
consumption activities may have a direct effect on the environment – particularly in terms
of environmental degradation. In the article titled “An International Comparison of
Environmental Advertising (substantive vs. associative claims)”, the authors cite that
7 people today are likely to use their purchasing power as an environmental protection
tool (Carlson, Kangun & Polonsky, 1996). Given this assertion, why has this
environmental protection tool not extended to the bottled water market? The authors even
went as far as to cite that Western countries reveal a consumer willingness to pay a
premium of up to 10% for environmentally friendly goods (Carlson, Kangun & Polonsky,
1996). Yet, as shown earlier, bottled water can sell for a mark up of 280,000%8. Carlson
and his team focused on two types of information claims when it comes to environmental
marketing, with an emphasis on substantive claim vs. associative. Substantive claims
present concrete, tangible benefits reflecting intent to maintain consumer perceptions of a
product as environmentally responsible - whereas associative are more related to
presenting actual facts and images, and are inherently more intangible. Another study
done by Schuhwerk and Lefkoff-Hagius in the Journal of Advertising took appeal type a
step further; green (emphasizing environmental attributes of a product) vs. non green
(focusing on cost savings attributes of a product). Their findings were tied to a
consumer’s level of involvement in the environment and their purchasing decision. They
found that those highly involved with the environment had no significant differences in
purchase intent, attitude toward ad and support arguments between appeals. However
those less involved with the environment reacted more significantly to green appeals than
non-green appeal. The method they used to test different appeals was unique, facilitating
focus group discussions and using coding schemes for answers to enable statistical
processing. Our study will play off of this experimental design, presenting different
methods of advertising appeals and processing responses to understand relationships
among variables and pre-existing dispositions.
8 http://www.zerohedge.com/news/2013-‐07-‐29/280000-‐mark-‐water-‐look-‐inside-‐bottled-‐water-‐industry
8 Perceptions of drinking water quality are deeply rooted in personal attitudinal or
dispositional factors. Syme and Williams investigated a wide breadth of factors affecting
personal perceptions in the Psychology of Drinking Water, and there were some key
takeaways that can be manipulated and applied to our discussion. Risk perceptions, and
attitudes towards the addition of fluoride proved to be the most prominent considerations
in drinking water, especially in areas where neighbourhood water quality and water
supply were clean and abundant (Syme and Williams, 1993). Environmental concerns
were broken down into three different subsections, each with four item scales to measure
attitude variables; personal concern for the environment, belief in human control of
environmental problems and social desirability/social norms affect on attitude. Citing the
historic work of Rotter in 1966 on the locus of control construct, they theorized that those
who felt that humanity was more in control with the environment would be more content
with their water supply. They actually measured for external locus of control relating to
feelings that the external environment controlled ones destiny, as well as internal locus of
control in which a subject believes they have control over their actions, and control over
their own destiny. They were able to show those with internal locus of control would be
more inclined to use reusable water bottles and not purchase disposable bottles, but also
these people would be the first to buy bottled water if they perceived the quality of tap
water was not up to par (Syme and Williams, 1993). While this study provided a key
understanding to perception of water quality, they only considered one side of the
equation by focusing on personal perceptions. Context plays a crucial role in encouraging
pro-environmental behaviour, which was not considered until recently.
In 2010, Linda Steg and Charles Vlek published a thorough integrative review of
existing literature and a research agenda for encouraging pro-environmental behaviour.
9 They took an integrative perspective on environmental motivation, and found that pro-
environmental behaviour research often involve three different antecedents of behaviour.
Each proved to be somewhat predictive and it was not clear which perspective is most
useful in which situation. The three antecedents are not mutually exclusive however, and
proposed that two are most effective in predicting pro-environmental behaviour:
contextual/dispositional variables and intrapersonal attitudinal/habitual variables. They
focused on goal theory9 - showing that motivations are rarely homogenous and that one
goal is focal and influences information processing the most (referred to as the goal
frame). Other goals operate in the periphery, with multiple active at a given time.
Contextual factors at this point have not been systematically examined or included in
many previous theoretical approaches to understanding pro-environmental behaviour.
They argued that contextual variables generally operate in four different ways (Steg and
Vlek, 2010):
• There needs to be availability for behaviour to occur
• The relationship between the contextual factors may be mediated by attitudes,
affect, norms (ex. The introduction of recycling might result in more positive
attitudes toward recycling)
• Context may moderate the relationship between motivation and behaviour
• Contextual factors may determine which type of motivations most strongly affect
behaviour
They also argued that multiple analyses in measurement and statistics will be useful to
examine what extent behaviour depends on context, motivation and the interaction
between them. The authors hoped that furthering the discussion may ideally lead to
9 refer to Appendix 2 for an explanation on goal theory
10 intervention programs aimed at behaviour changes, for which external “barriers” are
eliminated, and where feasible alternatives are put into place. Finally they were able to
make an inherent connection between habitual behaviour and intrapersonal dispositions,
and show that goals have a major influence in shaping habits (Steg & Vlek, 2010).
Construct Definitions and Operationalization
This study will focus on understanding consumer’s motivation to perform pro-
environmental purchase decisions, in terms of either intrapersonal (dispositional) factors
or contextual factors. Pro-environmental behaviour can be referred to as “behavior that
consciously seeks to minimize the negative impact of one’s actions on the natural and
built world.”10 In our study, pro-environmental behaviour will be looked at from the
bottled water industry perspective, and pro-environmental behaviour will be synonymous
with drinking tap water and using a reusable water bottle. As touched on in the previous
section, both of these factors (contextual, intrapersonal) have been linked to pro-
environmental behaviour, and we will investigate the impact various ad appeals have on a
typical consumer based on which of these two factors they identify with more.
Intrapersonal factors can be defined as attitudes, beliefs or pre-existing habits that shape
motivation and influence bottled water consumption. Contextual factors can be classified
as availability, price, and barriers, for example. We will use the locus of control
construct, as well as level of involvement to determine which of the two factors have
more of an influence on consumer’s purchase decisions – internal locus of control and
high involvement will be linked to intrapersonal factors, and external locus of control
with low involvement will be related to contextual factors. With external locus of control
subjects believe; they are more so controlled by external forces, that they don’t have
10 http://psychsustain.voices.wooster.edu/files/2014/01/Mind-‐Gap.pdf
11 control over their own life or actions, have little influence over what happens to them,
the issue of bottled water and it’s impact on the environment is out of their control, and
that they have little to do with it. Internal locus of control is the exact opposite; the
subject believes they have control over their actions, and control over their own destiny.
However we will take it a step further and use an updated locus of control framework
proposed by Levenson, which includes two different types of external loci: chance and
powerful others.11
The different types of communication appeals in the advertisements will be
related to both intrapersonal factors and contextual factors, the first being an
informational appeal. These are aimed at increasing knowledge, and while information
campaigns have rarely resulted in behaviour changes, prompts appear to be effective in
changing behaviour (Steg and Velk, 2010). The second will be a localized, targeted social
marketing approach. This will include information tailored to the needs, wants and
perceived barriers of individual segments of the population (Steg and Velk, 2010). Goal-
oriented appeals will promote the goal of switching from bottled water consumption to
tap water consumption. Goal theory can help explain these appeals: when activated it
influences what a person thinks of at the moment, what information they are sensitive to,
what alternatives they perceive, and how they will act (Steg and Velk, 2010). Three other
appeals will take a different, more simplistic approach, focusing on availability (or
targeting barriers), price and cost/benefit considerations and role model/social support
appeals. These social support appeals will look to strengthen social norms and inform
actions about the “perceptions, efficacy and behaviour of others” to model behaviour and
provide information about the behaviour of others (Steg and Velk, 2010). The benefits
11 http://www.hannalevenson.com/publications.html
12 will focus on health/risk factors and how it benefits the environment. All three of these
appeals can be considered as “structural strategies”, which Steg and Velk outlined in their
paper as having a significant impact on influencing pro-environmental behaviour.
Hypotheses and Conceptualization
Given the probability that social desirability will bias subjects’ responses to the
questionnaire, we would theorize those subjects that rank higher on the bottled water
consumption scale would appropriate their behaviour to situational (context specific)
factors rather than those that rank lower on the bottled water consumption scale. This
behaviour can theoretically be explained using the fundamental attribution error, which
refers to “people's tendency to place an undue emphasis on internal characteristics to
explain someone else's behavior in a given situation, and external factors when analyzing
their own.”12 We would assume those ranking higher on internal locus of control would
associate more with intrapersonal factors when determining their pro-environmental
behaviour, and vice versa for external locus of control.
In terms of ad appeals, we would hypothesize (H1) that the three appeals linked
more directly to intrapersonal factors (informational, localized social marketing and role
model) would be more positively received by the group associating with intrapersonal
factors. In addition:
• H1a: goal seeking appeals will have the highest ratings
• H1b: informational will have the least extreme ratings
The same would hold true for the remaining three appeals and contextual factors (H2).
Additionally:
• H2a: social support appeals will have the greatest (most positive) ratings
12 http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/fundamental_attribution_error.htm
13 • H2b: availability appeals will have the lowest magnitude (least positive)
However out of the six communication appeals, we believe the goal seeking appeal
would have the highest positive ratings (H3). Lastly, on average those that rate higher on
internal locus of control will respond more positively to the advertisements than those
ranking higher on external locus of control (H4).
Proposed Methodology and Analytical Procedures
Measuring Instruments
Using a survey method for data collection in questionnaire format, we would
develop different interval scales (7-point likert scales) to evaluate the two different
motivational factors, as well as previously developed scales for measuring locus of
control and level of involvement.13 The surveys would be distributed in a laboratory
setting using computer software (Qualtrics online) and the advertisements would also be
presented this way. The content of the advertisements would range based on the type of
appeal, with different images present given the different appeals and different overall
tone.14 We would consider incentives to be provided to subjects to participate in the
study, mainly financial. Measurements would be based on self-report, in the laboratory
setting, creating self-report measures. To measure high or low involvement, subjects
would rate their level of agreement with the following statements: I am concerned about
the environment, the condition of the environment will affect the quality of my life, I am
willing to sacrifice for the environment, my actions impact the environment. These
statements had been developed and implemented for a previous study cited in secondary
research (Schuhwerk & Lefkoff-Hagius’s “Green or Non Green”) and had a Cronbach
Alpha of 0.9 implying reliability. Mean splits would need to be computed as a way to 13 Refer to appendix 3 for a sample questionnaire/survey 14 Refer to appendix 4for sample advertisement
14 differentiate between high & low involvement. These surveys would also be used to
measure the advertisements impact on subjects on a variety of variables; purchase
intention, attitude toward the ad, support argument and counterargument. Purchase
intention and attitude toward the ad would be measured using pre-existing Likert scales.15
The last two responses would be open-ended questions, and the range of
responses would be coded to effectively input the data for statistical analysis. Using the
coding scheme developed by Cacioppo, Harkins and Petty, each of these two cognitive
responses generated from the advertisements could be classified among three dimensions:
target (where the focus of the response is directed) origin (primary source of the info
contained in the response) and polarity (positive or negative). We would generate a priori
(an up front coding scheme) to develop the coding frame – independent of the data. A
hierarchical (quasi) coding scheme would be the end result, and help with editing and
inputting the data for statistical processing.16 Two independent coders blind to the
hypotheses would need to be solicited, and we would need to calculate R2 (or take an avg
of the responses) to ensure reliability.
Sample and Sampling Methodology
To minimize extraneous variables (availability, quality of water) our population
frame for this study would extend to those with access quality municipal drinking water,
in areas without previous controversy over water quality. The population could be
segmented according to availability of water supply (reservoirs and water towers for
example) as well as water quality (based on published tests by the ministry of health).
Given health risks and lack of availability were noted as two factors influencing bottled
water purchasing, segmenting the population to mitigate both of these factors is 15 Refer to appendix 5 for example scale 16 http://www.surrey.ac.uk/sociology/research/ coding_schemes_application_to_data.htm
15 important. Canadian cities with major universities in them have the necessary
infrastructure to support and facilitate clean drinking water with little controversy, and
thus would be most appropriate to target. For the purpose of this study, eight major
Canadian university towns would be targeted. With the express permission of the
Universities’, student directories would be used as the sample frame, and a direct email
campaign soliciting offers to participate in the study (with a stipend) would be circulated.
Pre-screening questions related to the geography of respondents (postal code and city for
example) would influence whether or not we administered the survey to the participants.
If their postal code fell in a catchment with poor water quality or access, the survey
would conclude.
As such, clustered sampling based on geographical areas would be the most
appropriate sampling methodology. As studies have shown, those in more affluent areas
consume more bottled water, as well as younger as opposed to older consumers (Hu,
Morton and Mahler, 2011). Accordingly, cluster samples using simple random sampling
targeting university students in different major cities would render the demographic we
would be most interested in – based on the assumption university students are from high
income households and are of the right age bracket. In addition, university students have
strong beliefs/attitudes when it comes to purchasing decisions, and also identify as more
pro-environmental on average.17 The majority of this age group is also living on their own
for the first time, and shaping purchasing habits/patterns that will most likely continue
past university.
Analytical Procedures
17 http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?pid=S0120-‐05342013000300013&script=sci_arttext
16 First and foremost median splits would need to be computed to separate respondents
into groups based on environmental involvement and locus of control constructs. Those
respondents identify more with the internal locus of control and high involvement
constructs would be assumed to cite intrapersonal factors as shaping pro-environmental
behaviour. Accordingly, those that identify more with external locus of control and low
involvement would be assumed to respond better to context factors.
To test the hypotheses about one of the factors (context vs. intrapersonal) leading
to more positive or negative ratings of different types of appeals, we would need to run
analysis of variance to process the data and test for significance of findings. ANOVAs are
useful for comparing (testing) three or more means for statistical significance. The test
looks to see whether or not the means of several groups are equal, and generalizes
standard t-tests to more than two groups. Statistically significant results will relate to
probability (p values) less than given significance levels. Given our study will aim for a
five percent sampling error, we are looking for 95% confidence levels or p values < 0.05.
The null hypothesis for our study would be that all groups respond the same to
advertisement appeals. Whereas the alternative hypothesis would imply that different
appeals result in different responses. For our study, multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) would be necessary given our study would operate with two or more
dependent variables. The dependent variables correspond with subject’s ratings of the
different advertisement appeals: purchase intention, positive/negative attitudes toward ad,
agreement and counterargument. The independent variables have to do with locus of
control and consumer involvement constructs, as well as the various advertisement
appeals.
17 We could also look at multiple regression analyses, looking at the R2 statistics to
show the explained variability of the dependent variables. Multivariate analysis can
attempt to determine how changes in some variables respond simultaneously to changes
in others. Multiple regression analysis can incorporate two or more explanatory variables
in a prediction equation for a response variable. We would need to run different multiple
regression tests for our hypotheses predicting the combination of our independent
variables that would have the greatest affect on the different dependent variables:
purchase intention, positive/negative reaction, agreement and counter argument. Our
statistical processing software of choice would be IBM’s Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS). As with the ANOVA, we would be looking for a 95%
confidence level for the coefficients, with statistical significance occurring when the p
values were less than 5% (p < 0.05). The standardized beta coefficients could help us
understand the relationship between independent variables and their correlation with the
dependent variables.
Managerial/Theoretical Implications
As Wilk alluded to in his study on bottled water, “…ultimately controlled by
corporations, brands can never fully substitute for the kinds of culturally meaningful
objects and categories they seek to replace.” Brands are forming a formidable substitute
to local tap water, and are growing at a rapid pace. Water brands and products are
entering the US market at a rate of eight per month (outpacing the five per month of soft
drinks) (Wilk, 2006). As was touched on in the introduction, bottled water corporations
are owned by some of the most powerful organizations in the world, from Coca-Cola to
PepsiCo. As such, the advertising budgets regularly approach the 60 million dollar
18 mark.18 Primarily, the parties that would be most interested in these findings are
government agencies/policy makers, as well as NGO, non-profit social enterprises. Social
marketing campaigns similar to the dairy farmers of Ontario (Drink More Milk) related to
bottled water consumption could benefit society as a whole.
As with many different products and commodities, there appears to be disconnect
between concern for the environmental impact of consumption and actual consumption
behaviour. As alluded to in the section on background literature, consumers are aware of
the impact their consumption habits have on the environment, and see their purchasing
power as a tool to combat climate change. However these feelings have evidently not
extended to the bottled water industry. Take for example what is happening in California
at this very moment – heading into a fourth straight year of record-breaking drought, with
no relief in sight – the most conservative forecasts estimate there is three years of water
left in California’s water reservoirs.19 Local governments have imposed sanctions and
regulations related to industrial and public consumption of water in these areas, however
one industry has managed to continue pumping water at an alarming rate. Any guess
which industry that might be?20 With or without government oversight and regulation,
product demand is the one dominant factor that drives these companies to continue
producing at such high rates. Bottled water is merely an example of the type of
consumption that is proving to be so detrimental to natural resources, and the findings
from studying different advertisement appeals and their effect on purchase decisions of
bottled water can hopefully be generalized to many different types of consumer purchase
decisions. This type of consumption might benefit a consumer initially, but sharing
18 http://www.bottledwater.org/economics/bottled-‐water-‐advertising 19 http://www.wired.com/2015/03/californias-‐run-‐water-‐act-‐now/ 20 Refer to appendix 5
19 insight form the theory of marginal utility, is ultimately a product that fits with
decreasing marginal utility of consumption.
Two theories have been linked to over-consumption and climate change. The first
of which has to do with the theory of the diffusion of responsibility. Individual consumers
do not feel personally responsible for their actions in the grand scheme of things, or do
not see how their actions will explicitly help to solve a much larger problem (for example
combatting climate change). Yosef Brody, in Psychology Today, touched on the way
organizations use advertising to influence consumers – by “manipulating emotions and
changing social narratives” to ensure behaviours become more likely (Brody, 2013). This
needs to extend to advertisements that articulate the negative effect and impact of bottled
water, implemented by governments and NGO’s. However, consumers have a hard time
seeing how reducing their own bottled water consumption will benefit society as a whole.
The idea of a reverse commons has also been linked to certain pro-environmental
behaviour, an inconvenience that is immediate, whereas benefits of the particular
behaviour are communal and enjoyed at some point in the future (Cleveland & Kalmas,
2015). As bottled water consumption is a convenient method for drinking water, and
purchasing a reusable bottle while finding refillable stations are immediate
inconveniences, this theory can potentially help to explain behaviour. These extraneous,
situational factors cannot be overlooked in future discussions on bottled water and
climate change.
Limitations
First and foremost, this study will take place in a lab setting, with forced exposure
to an ad and immediate response measures. These parameters will limit generalizability,
as we would absolutely need to consider selective exposure to advertisements. Our
20 sampling method would also affect generalizability. Ideally the composition of
universities would reflect the general population to a degree (male/female ratio, ethnicity)
however we realize this might not be the case. For the purpose of this study we are more
interested in the link between those contextual/intrapersonal factors, and less interested in
demographic variables. When it comes to the sampling method it will also be a very
expensive study to administer given the geographical coverage, as well as a timely
process given the bureaucracy and policies associated to psychological testing within
educational institutions. Also affecting generalizability is the fact that we are relying on
self-report measures for our data collection methods. Self-report measures are prone to
image/impression management, and it leads to socially desirable responses. The
fundamental attribution error can quite possibly predict subjects’ responses to bottled
water consumption, linking their own consumption to contextual factors more than when
rating a different subject. They also rely on the introspective ability of respondents, as
well as understanding of the concepts articulated. The questionnaires would be pre-tested
for reliability and validity, however there is still the possibility of misunderstanding –
especially given the abstract nature of the constructs. We would also have to consider
central tendency and response bias – participants could on average respond more
conservatively or more positively related to attitudes about the environment as a social
cause.
Given the nature of the study, assumptions and inferences about behaviour
motivation will be made, as with any observation of “purchase intention”. Forming an
understanding of the factors that affect purchase intention is not without the potential for
error, as it is really hard to estimate causality given the wide variety of variables at play
in any given purchasing situation. Contextual factors may facilitate or constrain pro-
21 environmental behaviour and influence individual motivations. This study would also
be concentrated on the typical North American consumer, without taking cross-cultural
implications into account. As Canada is notably a diverse, multicultural demographic
(universities are no exception) the effect of different cultural values/beliefs cannot be
overlooked. Especially given the fact that China ranks as the number two country of per-
capita bottled water consumption, and has a population equivalent to 19.24% of the total
world population, advertising appeal effectiveness could very well depend on cultural
factors.21 For the purpose of our study, cultural implications would not be taken into
consideration, a factor that will absolutely have an effect on generalizability of findings.
However, ideally the findings of the study related to ad appeal and purchase intention can
be used in subsequent studies related to pro-environmental behaviour – taking into
consideration a wider variety of underlying variables.
Furthering the discussion of pro-environmental behaviour, primarily bottled water
consumption is a key step in changing the harmful effects of mass global consumption.
By considering purchasing decisions related two to factors (contextual, intrapersonal) and
understanding which ad appeals are more effective for the two, effective communication
strategies can be developed to inform the average consumer just how harmful a simply
purchasing decision can be. On the eve of Earth Hour - a campaign that represents the
knowledge that we all must work together to combat climate change – seven thousand
cities across 162 countries are set to participate. This social awareness campaign is the
model future studies should work to duplicate, and is a perfect example of just how far
climate change marketing campaigns have come.
21 http://www.worldometers.info/world-‐population/china-‐population/
22
Works Cited
Brody, Y. (2013). Obedience, Consumer Culture and Climate Change. Psychology Today. Retrieved January 8, 2015, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/limitless/201309/obedience-consumer-culture-and-climate-change Cacioppo, John T., Stephen G. Harkins and Richard M. Petty (1981). The Nature of Attitudes and Cognitive Responses and Their Relationships to Behavior. In Cognitive Responses to Persuasion, Ch. 2, Richard M. Petty, Thomas M. Ostrom and Timothy C. Brock, eds., Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 31-47. Carlson, L., Grove, S. J., Kangun, N., & Polonsky, M. J. (1996). An international comparison of environmental advertising: substantive versus associative claims. Journal of Macromarketing, 16(2), 57-68. Cleveland, M., & Kalamas, M. (2015). Environmental Locus of Control. In J. Robertson & J. Barling (Eds.), Psychology of Green Organizations (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 187-215). Toronto: Oxford. Doria, M. (2006). Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers-preferences. J Water Health, 271, 276. Ferrier, C. (2001). Bottled water: understanding a social phenomenon. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 30(2), 118-119. Levenson, H. (1974). Activism and powerful others: Distinctions within the concept of internal-external control. Journal of personality assessment, 38(4), 377-383. Pichert, D., & Katsikopoulos, K. V. (2008). Green defaults: Information presentation and pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(1), 63-73. Schuhwerk, M. E., & Lefkoff-Hagius, R. (1995). Green or non-green? Does type of appeal matter when advertising a green product?. Journal of advertising,24(2), 45-54. Steg, L., & Vlek, C. (2009). Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of environmental psychology,29(3), 309-317. Syme, G. J., & Williams, K. D. (1993). The psychology of drinking water quality: an exploratory study. Water Resources Research, 29(12), 4003-4010. Wilk, R. (2006). Bottled Water The pure commodity in the age of branding.journal of Consumer Culture, 6(3), 303-325.
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Appendices 1. Great Pacific Garbage Patch: 80% of the debris comes from land based activities in North America and Asia. Trash from the coast of North America takes about six years to reach the garbage patch. Plastic makes up the majority of the debris, and given it’s durability, low cost and malleability, more and more consumer products are used. Plastic goods do not biodegrade but instead break down into smaller pieces (microplastics). Marine animals are at high risk, as these microplastics disturb food webs and also block sunlight from reaching plankton and algae below. Scientists agree that limiting or eliminating the use of disposable plastics and increasing biodegradable resources are the best way to clean up the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. - http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/great-pacific-garbage-patch/?ar_a=1 2. Goal Theory: when activated it influences what a person thinks of at the moment, what information they are sensitive to, what alternatives they perceive, and how they will act. Framing of the goals: hedonic goal frame à feel better right now, gain goal frame à guard and improve ones resources, and normative goal frame à act appropriately 3. Sample Questionnaire (locus of control)
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4. Sample Advertisement 5. Scale measuring purchase intention and attitude
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Spears, N., & Singh, S. N. (2004). Measuring attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 26(2), 53-‐66. 6.