Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Higher Education

Salman bin Abdualaziz University

College of Science and Humanities

Course Code: BIO 2010

Course Title: General Biology(l)

Department of Biology + Chemistry

Dr . Amina AL-Mushhin

http://faculty.sau.edu.sa/a.almushhin

-Definition of Biology

Biology(from the Greek words bios = life and logos = science or studying). It research at the science study of living organisms in terms of Beginning structure, function, distribution, adaptation, interactions, and all vital activities, including their interactions with the surrounding environment as well as their relation to humans and the extent to

which infer .

Lecture (1)

Life Properties-Despite the difficulty of defining life and determine their characteristics accurately, but the secret of life lies in the protoplasm living material that make up the body cells of the organism . structure which has the

capacity to carry out the metabolism of catabolism and anabolism , and the all the requirements of the multiplication of

the organism and the continuity and stability .Although the protoplasm consists of organic compounds the most important of nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and fats, but it is characterized by life than other organic compounds have a structure

and the same qualities, but non-living . Perhaps the most important characteristic of living organisms ability to

conduct operations next vital:

 1-Nutrition

A vital process that enables the organism to obtain the necessary energy to carry out operations other vital .

2-RespirationVital process by which the energy production of organic food compounds, carbohydrates, fats, proteins and by enzymes destroyed by

a specialized body cells contain the object.  

3-Growth and ReproductionConstitutes a total growth of the biological processes that lead to increase the size of the organism . The reproduction is increasing the

number of organisms .

4 -LocomotionMeans the ability of the organism to move from one place to another in the middle which they live and know the movement of virtual movement which is found in the majority of animals . And sometimes exercise some plants of this type of movement as a movement of plants insect-eaters . But this does not mean that the organisms Atmars such as the movement of virtual it lacked this feature, if we look closer under the microscope, we see the movement of organelles that are found in cells of this movement is known as cytoplasmic movement . There is also the movement of blood heart for

animals and the movement of food and water in the vessel in plants .  

5 -Response to the external effector Object responds to external stimuli triggered passionate and this is the direction or moving away from the source and as a result of persistent exposure to this externality arises the so-called adaptation. Over time,

produces the so-called evolution .

Biological Sciences branches

Ecology Morphology Taxonomy Anatomy Histology Cytology Genetics

Embryology Physiology

Animal Behaviour Microbiology Parasitology

Phycology Mycology Virology

Entomology Pathology

Protozoology Ornithology

Vertebrates zoology Invertebrates zoology

Marine biology Animal

hormones(Endocrinology) Plant hormones(Auxinology)

 

Ecology research the relation of organisms with each other and with the center where you live.

 Morphology

research at the shape and outer structure of the organism .  Taxonomyresearch in the classification of organisms and arranged in groups to facilitate the study and deal

with them .Anatomy

research at the internal structure of the organism .  Histology

research at the composition and function of tissues of the organism .

 

Cytologyresearch in the molecular composition of cells and its biological processes .

 Genetics

research in the genetic material and genetic traits and how they are transmitted across generations .  Embryology

research in the formation of embryos and the growth of organisms . Physiology

research at the physiology of the body of the organism . Animal Behaviour

research at animal behavior in response to external effector . Microbiology

research in the study of different microorganisms .

Parasitologyresearch at the biological characteristics and environmental of parasites and diseases

caused by organisms . Phycology

research at the biological characteristics and environmental of algae and the extent to which human .

Mycology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of fungi and their relation to

humans .  Virology

research at the biological characteristics and environmental of viruses and diseases caused by .

  

 Entomology

research at the biological characteristics and environmental of insects and their relation to economic and pathological human being .

 Pathology

research at the causes of different diseases, and methods of treatment . Protozoology

research at the biological characteristics and environmental of protozoa .  Ornithology

research in the study of biological characteristics and environmental of birds .   

Vertebrates zoology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of vertebrate animals .

Invertebrates zoology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of invertebrate animals .

 Marine biology

research at the biological characteristics and environmental Marine biologist .   Animal hormones(Endocrinology)

research at the biological characteristics of animal hormones .  Plant hormones(Auxinology)research at the biological characteristics of the plant hormones.

1 -Organic compounds2 -Inorganic compounds

 1 -Organic compounds

 Organic compounds include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, nucleic acids and hormones

All share and to contain the element carbon, which is associated with hydrogen and oxygen .

1-1 CarbohydratesWord means carbohydrate hydrolysis of carbon, which consists of basic elements combine together in a fixed rate is 1:2:1, and thus the general molecular formula for this family is (CH2O)n .Resulting combination of these elements raw materials known monosaccharides which in turn combine together to give disaccharides and polysaccharides Summarized the function of

carbohydrates in it are the first source of energy in the cell .

Chemical basis of life

Carbohydrates are classified into the following sections:

Carbohydrates

monosaccharides disaccharides polysaccharides

-MonosaccharidesIs one of the simplest kinds of sugars and sugar which consists of a certain number of carbon atoms ranging from three, as in the sugar Dihydroxyacetone Or such as four or five

such as ribose or six such as glucose, fructose and galactose . the molecular formula C6H12O6 .

-DisaccharidesThey produce for the Union of the two parts of monosaccharides Bakdan accompanied by a water molecule, including maltose and lactose, sucrose ,

all bearing the molecular formula C12H22O11 .

  -Polysaccharides

Produced by the process of farm monosaccharides called polymerization process after the loss of water molecule, where the resulting complex compounds

in the form of chains such as cellulose and glycogen, starch, and bear the molecular formula( C6H12O6)ⁿ .

Composition of disaccharides

 1-2 Lipids

  Fat consists of three basic elements are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in addition to the element phosphorus, and combine these elements to gether to be the so-called fatty acids

which are of general formula R-COO , Which in turn combine with alcohol to be lipid Quality of which dependson the number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen in them and so know we have unsaturated fat such as vegetable oils liquid fats

and saturated fat such as solid fatA fat second source of energy in the cell ,

Also contribute to fat in the vital building materials such as phospholipids components of the membranes And fat is burned in metukondria .

 

 1-3 Proteins

Proteins form the basic structural material of the cells because their function is linked to growth and renewal of tissues and thus interference in the composition of various tissues in the body . as an infrastructure for the installation of some enzymes and hormones

necessary for the occurrence of different biochemical reactions in the cell.  The protein is composed of four basic elements are C,N,H,O, . In addition to other secondary elements are P, S, Fe . And the resulting combination of these elements together

so-called amino acids which are the basic units of composition and function in proteins.  Amino acids are divided in terms of their importance to the two division basic amino acids

such as : Leucine , Lycine , Methionine , Treptophaan And non-essential amino acids such as Glycine, Cysteine , Arginine , Proline .

  

1 -4 Nucleic acids There are in nature two types of nucleic acids are (DNA) Deoxyribonucleic acid and (RNA) Ribonucleic acid . DNA is composed of double helix while the RNA consists of a single

strand and thus the first (DNA) molecule with a weight than the second (RNA) .

1 -5 VitaminsVitamins are classified with the secondary nutrients which are not possess energy are not manufactured in the body, but they affect the metabolism of food and help protect the

body from certain diseases .  

 2 -Inorganic compounds

Include inorganic compounds on the chemical elements, including oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen carbon and other chemical elements.

 Constitutes the bulk water from the bodies of living organisms and the proportion of water in the human body is

between 20% in the bone to 85% in the cells of the brain.  Water and is characterized by physical attributes are very important for the system Dynamic property of cohesion and adhesion and surface tension and Osmotic pressure in addition to high quality temperature . In addition, he

is a good solvent for salts and organic compounds Where a compromise of the transfer.  As for the chemical elements where the only item on the definition of material that can not be analyzed into

simpler substance by chemical reaction .  It contains a universe of 92 element vary from Lenient hydrogen to uranium heavily addition to the 17 element

manufactured possible atomic interactions and thus a total of 109 elements .  

Cells and Tissues

-Cells:  Cell is a unit of the basic structure and function in the body of the

organism . Divided cells in general to Prokaryotes and where the internal structures is distinct within its own membranes, including cells of bacteria and blue-green algae . And Eukaryotes, and are distinct internal structures within the membrane of each particular include all

types of cells.

 Cellular structure :

 1 -Cell wall (plant cells only) :

•Is a wall of protective material consists of cellulose private parts . •Summarized the functions of the cell wall to protect the cell and give it form the hard .

. 

2-Cell membrane : •A cell membrane the outer perimeter of all cells .

•And cell membrane function is to regulate the passage of water inside and outside the cell .   

3 -Endoplasmic reticulum :Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane tube and put a dent in the spread cytoplasm form of a reticulum

connected from the outside with the cell membrane and the inside with the nuclear membrane .

Endoplasmic reticulum is divided into two:  A- Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum: Do not carry Ribosomes Contribute to the transfer of materials and building of

fatty.

B- Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Bear Ribosomes 4 -Ribosomes :

•Ribosomes are packets of RNA and protein . •They are the site of protein synthesis .

  

5 -Golgi apparatus :Is a device that works on the concentration of cell secretions in the form of granules or drops suitable

for storage within the cell or for export within .6 -Mitochondria : •Mitochondria provide the energy a cell needs to work •Mitochondria have double membrane . •The outer membrane is fairly smooth . •But the inner membrane is highly convoluted

 

 7 -Plastids :

•Are major organelles found in the cells of plants and algae

•Plastids often contain pigments .used in photosynthesis •Represents the center of the building in the cell and the production of food compounds

 8 -Cytplasm :

•Is the basic material protoplasm in prootoblast They are found outside the nucleus and lies there all the cell organelles .

9 -Vacuoles :

•Membrane structures in the form of bags and vesicles containing liquid or juice made from organic materials and inorganic But if the contractile vacuole working to get rid of excess waste or food vacuole is

working to store food  

•Animal cells contain a few very small these vacuoles or Athtwea at all while the plant cells contain a large vacuoles to increase in size increase of cell maturation .

 

 10 -Nucleus

•Installation of cellular circular shape is the center of the cell nucleus to control various biological activities .

•It is structurally composed the nucleus of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus, nuclear plasma and chromatin reticulum .

•Nuclear membrane is usually double and works to protect the internal parts and peppered with multiple openings to help the passage of materials to and from the

nucleus .Nucleolus is composed of protein and RNA . It is responsible for making t-RNA .

•nuclear plasma A transparent liquid and dense textures

•chromatin reticulum of reticulum filaments of high

•consists of chromatin material of (DNA35%+RNA5%+Protein 60%) .

 

Plant Cell

Animal Cell

Tissues: -

Meristematic Tissues This tissue is composed of relatively small cells with thin walls and large nuclei and small vacuoles.

The main function of division and growth .  Confined to the production of new cells in certain areas of the plant known of the Apical meristems and that

are present in the tops of the roots and stems .

Apical meristem in stem Apical meristem in root

Permanent TissuesPermanent

Tissues

Dermal tissue system

-Epidermis

Ground tissue system

-Paranchyma tissue

- Collenchyma tissue

- Sclerenchyma tissue

Vascular

tissue system

-Xylem tissue

phleom tissue-

 -Epidermis

is the outer layer of cells of the body in plant Found in leaves, stems and roots .  

-Paranchyma tissue His function the production and storage .

  -Collenchyma tissue

His function the mainstay and production . -Sclerenchyma tissue

His function the only mainstay .  

-Xylem tissue His function the transporting of water and salts and the mainstay of the plant .

phleom tissue-

His function the transporting food to various parts of the plant .

Main roads of Genetics:Structure of the gene:

DNA is formed of double helix according to Watson and Kreig model.

Nucleotides are the structural unit of DNA.

Every nucleotide consists of:1 -Deoxyribose sugar

2 -Phosphate group3 -Nitrogenous base

The nitrogenous bases are of two types:

Purines (Adenine A or Guanine G)Pyrimidines (Cytosine C, Thyamine T)

Adenine and Thyamine are connected by 2 hydrogen bonds A T

Cytosine and Guanine are connected by 3 hydrogen bonds C G

The genetic material (DNA) is found inside

the nucleus.

DNA wraps around Protein to form

nucleosomes which is the structural unit

of chromosomes.

Double helix DNA wrapes

around proteins

nucleosomes

Chromosome consists of 2 chromatids

Cell spend most of their lives in interphase.

Interphase includes 3 stages:

1-G1 (Gap 1)Cell growing

2 -S (synthesis)DNA duplication

3 -G2 (Gap2)Cell growing and preparation of next cellular

division.

The cell undergoes 2 types of divisions1 -Mitosis2 -Meiosis

Mitosis

►Mitosis occurs in somatic cells. ►It leads to the growth of living organisms.

►It involves one nuclear division ►It results in 2 genetically identical daughter

cells ►Both daughter cells are diploid (2n)

Mitosis includes 4 stages:1 -Prophase2 -Metaphase3 -Anaphase4 -Telophase

1 -Prophase: -Chromosomes condenses and become visible.

-Each chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids. -Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappears.

-Spindle fibers extends between the 2 centrioles at the opposite poles of the cell.

Early Prophase Late Prophase

Anaphase:Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell

Early Anaphase Late Anaphase

4 -Telophase: -Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform .

-Spindle fibers disappears -Chromosomes becomes long thin filaments (chromatin)

Telophase

Daughter Cells

Plant Mitosis -- Review

Prophase

                                                        

    

Interphase

                                                        

    

Anaphase

                                                        

    

Metaphase

                                                        

    

Interphase

                                                        

    

Telophase

                                                        

    

►Meiosis occurs in sex cells. ►It leads to the production of sexual

gametes. ►It involves 2 nuclear division.

) Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2 ( ►It results in 4 daughter cells

►daughter cells are haploid (n) i.e containing half the number of parent cell.

Meiosis:

Each meiotic division includes 4 stages:

Meiosis 1 -Prophase 1 -Metaphase1 -Anaphase 1 -Telophase 1

Meiosis 2 -Prophase 2

-Metaphase 2 -Anaphase 2 -Telophase 2

Prophase 1

►Chromosomes condense and become visible. ►Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.

►Chromosomes forms homologous pairs (tetrads) where synapsis occurs followed by crossing over.

►Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell where spindle fibers extend across the cell.

Metaphase 1Homologous pairs of chromosomes (Tetrads) line up along the equator and attached to the spindle fibers by centromeres.

Anaphase 1Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase 1 -Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform.

- Spindle fibers disappear.- Cytokinesis occurs.

-Result in 2 daughter cells each containing one of the homologus pairs of chromosomes (haploid n).

Prophase 2

►Chromosomes condense and become visible as two chromatids join at centromere.

►Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.

►Centrioles move to the opposite poles of the cell to extend spindle fibers across the cell.

Metaphase 2Chromosomes (2 sister chromatids) line up along the equator.

Sister chromatids

Anaphase 2Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase 2 -Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform

around the new chromosomes. -Spindle fibers disappear.

-Cytokinesis occurs. -Final Result is 4 haploid daughter cells with

half the chromosomal number of parent cells.

Biodiversity 

What is biodiversity ? -Biodiversity (or biological diversity) is used to refer to the variability among living

organisms . 

-We mean the differences in plant and animal species, and its associated genetic diversity

-and assemblages of organisms. Therefore, the meaning of biodiversity is much more than numbers of plants and animals, it goes beyond that to serve as a pillar of human life .

-Includes biodiversity on :

genetic diversity species diversity

ecosystem diversity 

 Principles of the division and classification of

viruses -bacteria - algae - plant - animal 

1-Classification of Viruses (virus) A - DNA viruses

Nucleic acid type Capsid symmetre Examples Virus Family

ds ComplexSmallpox virus,

Cowpox virus

Poxviridae

ds Icosahedral Hepatitis B virus Hepadnaviridae

ds Icosahedralpapillom

virusPapovaviridae

 

B- RNA viruses

Nucleic acid type

 Capsid symmetre Examples Virus Family

ss)+( Icosahedral Yellow fever virus Flaviviridae

ss)-( HelicalMeasles virus, Mumps

virus Paramyxoviridae

ss)+( Icosahedral Rhino virus Picornaviridae

  

2 -Classification of Bacteria kingdom Monera (Prokaryotes)  

A – Gram negative bacteria B – Gram positive bacteria

A- Gram-negative bacteria

Family Genus Characteristics Cell Shape

Neisseriaceae Neisseria , Veilonella Aerobic Cocci

EnterobacteriaceaeShigella,

Salmonella 

Facultative anaerobic Bacilli

B- Gram- Positive bacteria

Family Genus Characteristics Cell Shape

Micrococcaceae

staphylococcusMicrococcus

cells in irregular clusters Cocci

Bacillaeceae Bacillus Clostridium

Aerobic Sporing Anaerobic Sporing Bacilli

Shapes Cells bacteria

Fungi

-Fungi have distinctive adaptations.

-A typical fungus is a mushroom, which is actually the reproductive part of a more extensive organism .

-Fungi feed off dead material by secreting digestive fluids that break down their food outside of their bodies.

-The body of a fungus is called a mycelium and is one-cell thick .

-The mycelium is made up of extensive numbers of filaments called hyphae, which grow across a food source.

Fungi

(b) Hyphae(a) Mycelium

3 -Classification of Fungi

Chytrids

Zygomycetes(zygote fungi)

Glomeromycetes(arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungi)

Ascomycetes(sac fungi)

Basidiomycetes(club fungi)

A proposed phylogenetictree of fungi

Fungi Fungi affect humans and other organisms.

Fungi play a major role in the destruction of dead plant tissue by being able to digest both lignin and cellulose, the molecules that make up wood.

Fungi are saprophytes (feeding on dead organisms) and consume the dead of all kingdoms.

The activities of fungi and bacteria return nutrients and minerals to the environment.

Antibiotics (such as penicillin, oleandomycin, and cephalosporin) are made from fungi to combat bacterial diseases.

Fungi

Fungi attack plants that are important to people.

Fungi cause the majority of plant diseases, and some of the plants that they infect are important to humans.

Especially damaging are plant pests called rusts and smuts, which cause billions of dollar’s worth of damage to grain crops annually.

Corn smut

Fungi

Fungi include parasites that attack humans directly.

Some of these are athlete’s foot, jock itch, vaginal infections, and ringworm.

Fungi can produce toxins.

Molds of the genus Aspergillus produce highly toxic, carcinogenic compounds known as aflatoxins.

Some foods, such as peanuts, seem to be especially susceptible to attack by Aspergillus.

4-Classification of algae

Storage products Pigments Chlorophyll Taxonomic group

Fats , oils, volutinβ-carotene

phycoxanthinxanthophyll

a,c Bacillariophyta

Starch, oilsβ-caroteneLycopene

Luteina,b

Chlorophycophyta(green algae)

Fats , oils β-carotenexanthophyll a,c

Xanthophycophyta(yellow green algae)

Starch, oils β-carotenephycocyanin a,c

Cyanophycophyta 

(blue green algae)Laminarin

Mannitolβ-carotene

phycoxanthin a,cPhaecophycophyta

(brown algae)Floridean

starchoils

β-carotenephycoerythrinphycocyanin

a,bRhodophycophyta

(red algae)

forms of algae

5-Classification of plant

dicotyledonae

Kingdom plant

Non - vascular plantsVascular plants

Bryophyte Spermatophyta

AngiospermmatophytaGymnospermmatophyta

monocotyledonae