The impact of culture on web sitecontent, design, and structure

An international and a multiculturalperspective

Richard FletcherSchool of Marketing and International Business, University of Western Sydney,

Sydney, Australia

Abstract

Purpose – The paper highlights the need for cultural sensitivity in designing web sites that are likelyto be read by different cultural groups within one’s own country or by people outside one’s owncountry.

Design/methodology/approach – The link between culture and communication is established viaresearch and this relates to the web as the web is an increasingly important vehicle for communication.A literature review is undertaken into the variables that impact on both culture and cross-culturalcomparison in terms of likely impact on web site content, design and structure.

Findings – Cultural sensitivity is a critical factor in communication and must be taken into account ifthe web site is to be an effective vehicle for communication in a cross-cultural context.

Practical implications – Those designing web sites should adopt a structured approach of firstlyassessing the extent to which it is necessary to take culture into account in designing the web site.Then they need to determine the communication objectives and establish whether there is a need todesign sites specifically for the target group in each country. Then they need to cluster such markets interms of cultural similarities to see whether the same web site can be an effective communicationvehicle in more than one country.

Originality/value – Managers with an international focus can benefit from the focus in the paper onthe linking of culture to web site content design and structure in improving its communicationeffectiveness taking into account the under exploited potential of the global and multicultural medium.

Keywords Culture, Communication, Services marketing, Worldwide web, Multicultural societies

Paper type Conceptual paper

IntroductionThe issue of the impact of culture on web site content, design and structure isparticularly important in the field of tertiary education. Education is the second largestservices export for Australia after tourism and the financial survival of a number ofAustralian tertiary institutions is dependent on this export activity. All universitieshave web sites to which potential students might refer. One of the issues relates towhether there is a need to have the site in a number of languages or whether a site inEnglish is sufficient. On the one hand, there is the view that on the grounds ofexpediency the site should only be in English as its major focus is to appeal to studentsand other stakeholders of a predominantly Anglo-Australian background. Thecontrary arguments are firstly that this approach ignores the fact that the watershedserved by many Australian universities contains large percentages of population of anon-English speaking background (NESB). According to the latest census, in Australiaoverall 40 per cent of the population are migrants or children of migrants, 24 per cent of

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Journal of CommunicationManagement

Vol. 10 No. 3, 2006pp. 259-273

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited1363-254X

DOI 10.1108/13632540610681158

the population were born overseas and of those, 61 per cent were born in non-Englishspeaking countries. Parents of students from multicultural backgrounds in Australiaoften do not speak English in the home and by contrast with Anglo-Australians have agreater influence on the selection of tertiary studies for their offspring and are,therefore, are more likely to respond to web sites in their original language. Secondly,the need for foreign language web sites is underscored by the fact that the long-termfinancial viability of the university will be influenced by attracting increasing numbersof overseas students, the vast majority of which would come from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds. In many cases, the students from such countries come toAustralia to study English before proceeding to tertiary studies. These students as wellas their parents are likely to also be more responsive to sites in their own languagedespite the fact that the ultimate course of study will be in English.

Standardisation vs differentiation of web sitesUnderlying the expediency approach is often the view that trade offs are necessary so asto get the site up and running without delay. Also there is a perception that in suchcircumstances, “one size will fit all”. This concept has a theoretical marketingjustification in the work of researchers such as Levitt (1983) who argue thatstandardisation is a desirable aim in view of resulting economies of scale andconvergence of tastes as a consequence of globalisation. As far as web sites areconcerned, the position of English as a lingua franca in international business has beenstrengthened by the internet and this is assisted by the widespread use of English as asecond language in many countries. While only half of internet users are native speakersof English, 78 per cent of all web sites and 96 per cent of e-commerce sites are in English(State of the Internet, 2000). Levitt (1983) and other supporters of standardisation ininternational marketing reject the opposing view that an effective customer-basedapproach, requires tailoring the offer specifically to the needs of each market segmentand that the additional costs of such an approach can be recouped because the segmentwill be prepared to pay a premium for an offer specifically targeted to their needs. Evensupporters of the standardisation approach concede that with promotions overseas, theyshould be in the language of the overseas country. Highlighting the need for localisationare the expensive mistakes made by firms adopting the standardised approach ofhaving the same English language site for all markets. As cited by Shenkar and Luo(2004), e-Bay had to withdraw from the Japanese market when it found that the Japanesemarket did not mirror the US – in the latter, collectibles were considered more attractivethan new goods whereas the reverse was true in Japan. Cultural mistakes have becomecommon on internet sites with the posting of wrong currencies and using phrases thatwhen translated convey a hilarious or offensive meaning. There is, however, anincreasing acceptance of a compromise position between these two extremes – that of“glocalisation”. With “glocalisation” there is consistency of underlying themes,structures and strategy in the approach adopted, but there is a “local look and feel” as faras execution of the promotion is concerned.

Web sites and national boundariesThe web is a global medium and it crosses national boundaries. However, for messagesto be relevant, they must appeal to the specific target audience. Traditionally, however,the above debate has focussed on the national boundary as the variable for segmenting

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markets overseas (Hofstede, 1980; Levitt, 1983). More recent research has questionedwhether the basis for such international market segmentation should be political orethnic (Low and Fletcher, 2003). This research argues that ethnicity provides a moreuseful basis for defining international market segments. This is because in manycountries there are a number of different ethnic groups within the one politicalboundary due to historical reasons (e.g. Malaysia where there are Malay, Chinese, andIndian Groups) or recent immigration (e.g. Australia). In these latter circumstances,despite assimilation, the preferences of potential students including those born andschooled in Australia, are likely to be influenced by the original cultural background ofthe family as well as by that of the culture in the host country. Furthermore, potentialstudents from these backgrounds, may well be raised in a home environment whereEnglish is not the spoken language and by parents whose English speaking abilitiesare limited. To treat all within a national boundary the same, results in the approachbeing of declining relevance to an increasing percentage of the population. Based onthe above, it is argued that from the perspective of the university, an English languageweb site will be of limited relevance to two of its major target student segments –international students and local students from a non-Anglo Australian background.

The above discussion, however, only addresses the use of the web as an informationmedium and the need for customisation solely in terms of translating the site into oneor more foreign languages. An effective web site from a marketing perspective needs togo further and take into account the unique features of the web site as a promotionalvehicle, the specific characteristics of international services marketing and the need toappeal to the cultural sensitivities of the ethnic group being targeted. If the universityaccepts the need for web sites in different languages, should it go to the additionalexpense of ensuring that the site is culturally sensitive as well as linguistically relevantso as to improve its promotional effectiveness?

The web as a promotional vehicleThe web presents a unique challenge to the marketer as by its very nature, it has aglobal reach. This means that unlike most other forms of promotion where reach isconstrained by technology (e.g. TV footprint), cost (e.g. audited circulation) orgovernment (e.g. regulations on media ownership/censorship), these constraints do notapply to the same extent to web sites which are likely to be seen by people well outsidethe area of intended focus. Although this global reach is often claimed to be anadvantage of the medium, it has a downside in that the messages received in manyNESB locales from Australian web sites are underscored by Australian cultural normsthat may give offence or be off putting to those who log onto the site.

The web has the potential to take the marketing function further along the chain ofactivity that leads to consummation of the transaction than do other forms ofpromotion. This is because of its interactive nature and ability to transact the purchaseon line. Although direct marketing also has this feature, it does not have theinteractivity of the web and ability to interrogate the potential purchaser. This abilityto interact illustrates another feature of the web – that of customising the offering tothe expressed need. It is via this customisation that the web enables “glocalisation” asopposed to globalisation, and at the same time builds buyer loyalty. It does this byattracting the attention of clients to the site, engaging their attention once they log ontothe site, retaining the visitor’s interest in the site following the first encounter, learning

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about the preferences of the visitor to the site and finally relating to that visitor viabuilding a relationship.

In the traditional model of communications, there are clear distinctions between thesender, the message and the recipient and control of the message is with the sender. Withthe internet, control of the message is shared between sender and recipient because of theinteractivity of the medium and the ability of the medium to carry back a message inreply to that which is sent. Unlike many other forms of media, with the internet, there isan active intent on the part of the potential customer to log onto the site and this results ina greater degree of attention to the content of the communication. Research by Kennedy(2000) indicates that the web in contrast to other forms of promotion tends to be high oninformation, low on generating an emotional response and of limited value in reinforcingexisting behaviour. Research by Sutherland (1999) shows that the web is also different inthat it is a high involvement medium because it requires a continual stream of decisionsfrom the user and each click represents a decision. Web advertisements can and are oftentargeted to a user profile that in turn affects the way the message will be received. Wherethis is not the case, as the user proceeds through the web site, the user’s interests areprogressively revealed and their degree of engagement with the site increased, thusfacilitating a tailored approach. The above factors point to the need to proactively usethe site to fit the approach to the needs and background of the group being targeted.From the perspective of the university, this is especially important when the web is usedto market a service to ethnic groups.

Characteristics of services marketing and the webIn business to consumer marketing, a majority of web usage to date has involvedservices rather than goods, which is in large measure due to the nature of services. Thisis relevant for a university web site as it is the service of education that is beingmarketed. Services are characterised by intangibility and this is reflected in theoften-used description of services as anything that you cannot “drop on your foot”. Theweb in these circumstances can be used to provide tangible cues as happens whenairlines selling tickets on the web provide confirmation by electronic means. Services arecharacterised by simultaneity between production of the service and its consumption asin education when the lecture is “consumed” as it is delivered. This simultaneity leads torequests for customisation that the web can facilitate. Services are also characterised byheterogeneity and due to their high dependence on labour there is variability with theservice outcome from one service delivery to another. The web can reduce some of theresulting problems by standardising customer treatment to a degree (e.g. the same formof greeting when logging onto the web site) and it can reduce the variability of treatmentthat arises when a number of different personalities are encountered. Another feature ofservices marketing is perishability in that a service cannot be saved or stored and theairline seat that remains vacant when the aircraft departs has no future value (Lovelocket al., 2001). Web sites address this by enhancing ability to better manage supply anddemand (in airline parlance this is referred to as “yield management”). On the supplyside, the web gives the marketer the ability to provide the service 24 hours a day, 7 days aweek anywhere in the world. On the demand side, the firm can use the web forpromotion, pricing and service bundling so as to stimulate demand. It is because of itsdependency on people, that the marketing of services is culturally sensitive and thiscultural sensitivity needs to be taken into account when marketing services on the web.

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Because of the above factors, especially the greater dependency on people, the servicesoffered by universities are less amenable to standardisation than is the case with eitherconsumer or industrial products. This may explain why the adoption of the web fordelivery of education had been limited. The above underscores the need for culturallysensitive web sites when targeting ethnic groups.

Cultural sensitivityA working definition of culture is that it is the total way of in a specific society (Fletcherand Brown, 2002, p. 72). Ethnic groups in societies differ in terms of cultural dimensionssuch as time, space, consumption patterns, and adoption of innovation – all of which,either directly or indirectly impact on the desirability of customisation of web sites.

TimeAlthough formally most cultures adopt a common model of time (the clock),assumptions about time are deep seated and vary considerably with the result thatmore time is needed to transact business in some markets than in others. Cultures alsodiffer in temporal orientation with some focusing on the past when evaluating currentevents (e.g. Southern Europe), some only focussing on the present as the past is goneand the future is too far away to contemplate (e.g. Middle East) and others (such asAustralia) being willing to plan forward and establish realistic lead times. There is alsothe difference between cultures where time is mono-chronic (here time is linear, havinga beginning and an end and only one thing is done at a time), and where time ispoly-chronic (here time is cyclic and people do a number of things at the same timesuch as seeing several visitors in one’s office simultaneously as in Libya). Culturaldifferences from a temporal perspective will impact on the appropriateness of thecontent of a web site directed at a particular market.

SpaceThis is both physical and abstract from a cultural perspective. In the physical domain,space can denote status as indicated by the size of one’s office in Australia. In othermarkets, however, this is not the case and it is not uncommon for senior executives towork in the midst of a large room surrounded by others for whom they are responsible(e.g. Korea). Personal proximity is another manifestation of culturally influencedphysical space and in emerging markets in the Middle East, for example, acceptableproximate distances are much closer than in Australia. Space is also abstract and caninvolve being an insider or outsider as far as a group of persons is concerned and the easeor difficulty of gaining insider status. Insider status is likely to much more difficult toachieve in many emerging markets where the rights and obligations of group membersare more stringent. These factors will need to be taken into account as far as the wordsused and graphics employed on web pages targeted to an international audience.

Consumption patternsThese are reflected in attitudes towards material possessions and dress. In somecultures these are displayed in an ostentatious manner (e.g. India) and in others (e.g.UK) these symbols are often understated. Issues, that in Australia are deemed to beprivate (“how much do you earn?”), are not viewed the same way in some othercultures. Underlying differences in consumption patterns is variability in the hierarchy

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of needs and these differ from one culture to another. As an example, Figure 1 showsthat that this hierarchy differs between the west and Asia, especially at the level ofhigher order needs.

As the hierarchy of needs differs between cultures, appeals on web sites will need totake this into account when the site is tailored for a particular overseas audience.

TechnologyWhilst some cultures welcome technological innovation, others are less enthusiastic,often due to their being more risk averse. As far as the web is concerned, adoptionvaries due to technology and reasons related to level of development – lack ofnecessary infrastructure, the dominance of English as the language used on the web,the dependence of the medium on interactivity, and its 24 hour: 7 days a week attribute(24/7). Adoption is also due to cultural factors such as reluctance to innovate, focus onthe past as opposed to the present or the future, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance,and the high degree of dependency on context.

These cultural variables of time, space, consumption patterns, and technology, needto be taken into account when designing the content of a web site aimed at a specificethnic group. To do otherwise is to exhibit cultural insensitivity.

Culture and communicationThe web site is a medium for communication and the effectiveness of communicationin the different language versions of the site will to be influenced by sensitivity toculture. This influence is likely to be greater for active marketing sites than for passiveinformation sites. However, research in the field of culture and communication islimited, especially as far as developing countries are concerned. Such developingcountries are the origin of many ethnic groups in Australia and target markets for theexport of education. A study in Thailand by Fletcher (2003), showed that culturaldifferences impact on effective communication and the way in which each stage of thecommunication process requires modification to render it effective in developingcountry markets. This study examined all forms of communication including web

Figure 1.Hierarchy of needsbetween different culturalgroups

Upper level needsPERSONAL

SOCIAL

SOCIAL

Status

Admiration

Affiliation

Safety

Physiological

Lower level needs

Source: Schutte and Ciarlante (1998)

PHYSICAL

Self-actualisation

Prestige

Belonging

Safety

Physiological

WEST ASIA

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sites. A typical communications model was explored in terms of likely differences (asreported in the literature), in its application to developed countries compared todeveloping countries, using Thailand as an example of the latter. There are a numberof stages in the communications process – sender, medium and receiver – all of whichwere analysed in this connection. The process also must cater for interference andfeedback as well as factors in the general environment in which the act ofcommunication occurs. In summary:

. Sender oriented. From both the research and the literature (Thomas, 1996), itappears that the sender will need to tailor the message according to the culturalnorms.

. Medium oriented. The marketing infrastructure that most developed-countrycompanies would consider basic, is often absent in emerging markets.

. Receiver oriented. One of the factors that will impact on how the message isreceived is whether there is a general acceptance of marketing and the conventionsassociated with it. In emerging markets this is not as likely to be the case.

. Interference factors. Interference may disrupt communication to a greater extentin international than in domestic marketing because of the complexity of theinternational environment. The communal environment in which messages areoften received in emerging markets, may result in the message as received, beinginfluenced by the opinions of others.

. Feedback. Willingness to provide feedback and the form the feedback is likely totake, will be influenced by culture. The research in Thailand showed thatfeedback was not viewed as being easy to obtain, possibly due to a culturalreluctance to respond to questions posed by strangers.

. Environmental factors. The research showed that the environment in which thecommunication of the message occurs is likely to impact on the communicationprocess (Thomas, 1996).

Although this research indicates that cultural differences impact on the style andcontent of promotion in media including the web, this impact can vary according to theform of promotion employed. For example, Kwok and Uncles (2003) in comparingChinese Australian with Anglo-Australian consumers found that cultural differenceshad no impact on consumer responses to sales promotions, although they were of moreinfluence with other forms of marketing. This issue needs further analysis and it isnecessary to consider ways of profiling the cultural characteristics of ethnic groupswhen designing web sites aimed at such audiences.

Profiling the cultural characteristics of ethnic groupsTechniques for cross-cultural comparison can be categorised as on either an etic(culture general) or emic (culture specific) basis.

The etic approachThe two most influential etic studies have been by Hofstede (1991) and Trompenaarsand Hampden-Turner (1997). Hofstede found four underlying dimensions. These werepower distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, andmasculinity-femininity. Trompenars found five underlying dimensions. These were

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universalism-particularism, individualism-communitarianism, neutral-affective,specific-diffuse, and achievement-ascription.

However, the etic approach is based on the notion that underlying culturaldifferences between nations are a set of variables that can be applied uniformly andcover all dimensions of difference between one culture and another. This isquestionable as the etic studies referred to above were undertaken before the recentrevolution in cross border communication, the accelerated movement of peoplesbetween countries, the rising level of globalisation and the information revolution ledby the internet. This raises the question as to whether their resulting dimensions are asrelevant in the new millennium as when they were originally developed?

The emic approachUnlike the etic approach that seeks dimensions of cultural variability, the emicapproach is culture specific. It endeavours to seek out the idiosyncracies of individualcultures. Advocates of this approach like Fang (1999) argue that an emic approach isnecessary to discover the indigenous cultural values that underlie people’s behaviourin that culture. As an example, Fang (1999, p. 67) modelled the business culture ofChina on the basis of three forces – the PRC condition, confucianism and Chinesestratagems. Although developed to describe Chinese culture, this framework can beapplied to any culture to uncover its idiosyncracies along the above three dimensions,which might be more appropriately described as local situation, socialconventions/belief systems, and negotiation strategy.

Considering the above, there may well be a middle ground between the eticapproach of global variables of cultural difference and the emic approach of viewingcultures in terms of their idiosyncratic natures. In this alternative approach, it may bepossible to apply the emic approach to individual cultures and then on the basis ofperceived commonalities, cluster cultures into groups along similar lines to that ofRonen and Shenkar (1985). They came up with a series of clusters as follows: Nordic,Germanic, Anglo, Latin American, far Eastern, Arab and near Eastern. Such anapproach would provide general guidance to firms when contemplating the content ofweb sites targeted at ethnic groups be they in Australia or in other countries.

Culture and web site design and contentFrom the above, it is apparent that culture is important in effective communication andthat when communicating with different ethnic groups, the cultural background of thegroup will need to be taken into account. As also previously discussed, the web is ameans of communication. The extent to which culture will need to be taken into accountin design and content of the web site will depend on whether the purpose of the site is tomerely provide information or whether it is to be used as a vehicle for marketing. It willalso be influenced by whether the site is intended to be interactive or passive.

Language is the first issue to be considered. In catering for the needs of differentethnic groups, simple translation from the English is rarely sufficient. This is becausea culturally sensitive approach requires that the underlying concepts rather than justthe words be rendered in the other language. If this does not occur, then meaning canbecome distorted and result in offence which is counterproductive, or in hilaritywhich diminishes the serious attention being given to the message. A related issue isthat the patterns of discourse vary from language to language. For example, whereas

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in one language the main point of the communication may be at the beginning of thesentence and the qualifiers follow, in other languages the qualifiers come first and themain point comes at the end of the sentence. Understanding the pattern of discoursein the language will assist in ensuring that the web site is more effective in conveyingthe desired meaning. Apart from language, there are two other culturally influencedaspects that impact on web site design. These relate to structure and content. Whenthe language to be used on the local web site is not English, back translationtechniques should be employed to ensure that the intended meaning and its nuancesare correctly conveyed. Even when the site for the other market is in English a checkon the way the meaning has been interpreted is necessary in case it means somethingdifferent when interpreted by the overseas customer.“Getgift.com” may make sense inAustralia, but its Swedish translation is “go get poison for goats” (Shenkar and Luo,2004, p. 487).

Many firms have realised the need for customisation and having local web sites, asfar as language in concerned. Yahoo! has 21 different online sites in 12 languages andSony has 13 country specific sites (Shenkar and Luo, 2004, p. 488). Figure 2 showstarget countries for foreign web sites for US companies as at 2000.

As far as structure is concerned, if the relative balance in the English language webpage is to be replicated in the foreign language version, the following need to be takeninto account:

. In some ethnic groups colours have different images than they do in Australiaand greater significance is attached to their auspicious nature. This requires areview of the colours used in the Australian web site to ensure that the colours donot detract from the effectiveness of the version of the site in the other language.To illustrate, Table I shows meanings attributed to four colours in four differentcountries.

Figure 2.Target countries for

foreign web sites by USinternet companies (March

2000)

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Source: Koth et al. (2001)

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. A similar situation prevails with the use of numbers. Whilst in many Englishspeaking countries, negative vibes attach to the number 13, these areinsignificant compared, for example, to the negative vibes attaching to thenumber 4 in Mandarin. The use of inauspicious numbers on web sites, especiallyin pricing, is to be avoided. Conversely the use of auspicious numbers is positiveand in Mandarin, these would be 8, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, 29, 31, 32 and 39.

. Different ethnic groups are likely to espouse different values. There needs to beconsistency on the web site between the symbols employed, the persons (heroes)used to illustrate the collective or social activities referred to and the values thatthe ethnic group prize. Luna and Peracchio (2000) researched the above inrelation to the experiences of people from different cultures in navigating websites and concluded that the site should both include content and have a structurethat is consistent with the symbols, rituals, heroes and values of likely visitors tothe site. The relationship between these elements is shown in Figure 3.

. Word of mouth is an effective marketing tool and is more important in somesocieties than in others. A study by Lam and Lin (2003) exploring this factor inrespect of Chinese and Anglo-Australians found that the Chinese engaged insignificantly more word of mouth behaviour and attributed this to their guanxinetworks. This suggests that when designing sites for ethnic groups where wordof mouth is important, then the site should be linked to chat rooms and the likewhere visitors to the site can exchange views with others of a similar ethnicbackground.

. The pattern of reading is also important and this has implications for web sitedesign. Whereas in most western countries, the pattern is from left to right, thisis not always the case and if not taken into account, problems can arise. Theseoccurred when a detergent manufacturer used the same illustration as in the UK

Country Grey Blue Green Red

China Inexpensive High quality Pure HappyTrustworthy LoveDependable AdventurousSincere

South Korea – Powerful Pure LoveHigh quality Adventurous Good-tastingAdventurous Sincere AdventurousSincere TrustworthyTrustworthy

Japan Inexpensive Sincere Pure LoveTrustworthy Good-testing Good-tastingHigh quality Adventurous HappyDependable Adventurous

US Expensive Dependable Good-testing LoveHigh quality High quality Adventurous AdventurousDependable Sincere Happy

Trustworthy Good-tastingExpensive InexpensivePowerful

Table I.The differing image offour colours in fourcountries

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(of a dirty pile of clothes on the left, a packet of its detergent on top of a washingmachine in the middle, a pile of clean clothes on the right) in a advertisement inan Arab country where the pattern of reading is from right to left. Although thetext of the advertisement was in the local language, the illustration wasinterpreted as implying that the detergent made a clean pile of clothes, dirty.Figure 3 shows the difference in page layout between Japan and the US, whichalso has implications for web site design (Figure 4).

As far as web site content is concerned, the following underlying dimensions of culture(Hofstede, 2001; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1997) need to be taken intoaccount.

Figure 4.Differences in page layout

Japanese paper(15 horizontal columns)

US paper(six vertical columns)

Source: Griffin (1994)

Figure 3.The “Onion Diagram” –

expressions of culture

Symbols

Heroes

Rituals

Source: Hofstede (2000)

VALUES

Practices

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. High vs low context – in high context cultures where much of the meaning isimplicit in the context of the communication, more attention needs to be paid toensuring that the web site graphics, layout and typefaces are selected with an eyeto appealing to the ethnic group inhabiting the culture. In low context culturesthis is not as important and the emphasis should be on ensuring the text isculturally sensitive to the ethnic group.

. One of the cultural factors of Hofstede was that of masculinity vs femininity. Inthe former, it is material success and assertiveness that is stressed whereas in thelatter, the focus is on quality of life and caring for the weak. The content of theweb site and the way things are phrased needs to reflect the degree ofmasculinity/femininity as in many cultures, aggressive approaches are reservedfor point of sale activities not promotion via media such as the web.

. Another of Hofstede’s factors is that of individualism vs collectivism. Thisreflects the extent to which people in a culture primarily look after their owninterests as opposed to people seeing themselves as a member of a group andhaving a responsibility to look after the interests of that group. For example, intargeting ethnic groups where the focus is on individualism, the content of thatportion of the site promoting degrees should stress the individual advantagelikely to derive from successful completion of the degree. Conversely whentargeting groups where the focus is on collectivism, the stress should also be onhow the person having the degree can make a more effective contribution tosociety.

. Hofstede also found that power distance was a factor that discriminated betweencultural groups. This is the degree to which less powerful persons in a cultureaccept the existence of inequality and the unequal distribution of power as anormal situation. The greater the acceptance of power distance in a culture, theless persuasive will be web site approaches based on comparison and egalitarianapproaches.

. Trompenaars also found a number of factors that distinguish one culture fromanother. One of these factors was universalism vs particularism. For theuniversalist, what is good and right can be applied everywhere whereas for theparticularist, the obligations imposed by relationships are more important thangeneral rules. If the ethnic group being targeted is particularist, then the contentof the web site should not be too prescriptive and should stress the flexiblenature of academic programs.

. Another factor of Trompenaars was that of specific vs diffuse. People in specificcultures get strait to the point whereas those in diffuse cultures discuss businessonly after they have built up rapport with the other party. If targeting a groupfrom a specific culture, the site can be direct and seek commitment from thepurchaser. In a more diffuse society, the site should indicate that the approach isbut one step in developing a long-term relationship or as an element in life-longlearning. In many Asian countries that are diffuse societies, asking for the orderis considered to be bad manners.

. The third of Trompenaars’s factors is that is relevant in this connection isachievement vs ascription. In achievement-oriented societies, status derives fromwhat one has achieved by one’s own efforts as opposed to ascription-oriented

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societies where status derives from age, kinship, education and connections. Inascription-oriented societies such as Thailand, the heroes used in webpromotions should be people of rank and authority whereas inachievement-oriented societies such as Sweden, the hero figures should bepeople who have acquired fame through their own efforts.

. The price should be quoted in the currency of the target market as not to do socan discourage buyer interest in the offering as e-Bay discovered when it postedprices in US dollars on its British site.

Unfortunately customisation of such sites has a long way to go. Figure 5 shows this inrespect of leading US web sites.

ConclusionFrom the practitioner’s viewpoint, there is a need to provide specific versions of websites for ethnic groups if they are a target of the promotion within Australia oroverseas. To create an effective site for such purposes it is necessary to research boththe underlying cultural dimensions and the cultural manifestations of the ethnic groupso as to create a culturally sensitive web site as far as language, content and structureare concerned. Despite the limitations of their research, an initial starting point couldbe to assess the ethnic group in terms of the dimensions of Hofstede and Trompenaarsand to see how they rate on these largely western-based dimensions. Ideally this shouldbe followed by an emic approach based on an exploration of the values of each ethnicgroup. If a culturally sensitive web site can be created, this should provide theuniversity with a competitive advantage in a country where only one university hasvarious language versions of its site. This is Flinders University in South Australia,which has versions in Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, Japanese, Indonesian, Spanish andPortuguese. However, this site is more information than marketing-oriented and is notculturally sensitive.

Figure 5.Language used on internet

web pages (1999)Source: Anon (2000)

Japanese 2.12%

German 16.96%

Spanish 1.44%French 1.02%Chinese 0.51%

Others 11.54%

Others 66.41%

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About the authorRichard Fletcher is Chair of the School of Marketing and International Business, University ofWestern Sydney, Australia. His areas of expertise include international marketing, cross-culturalissues, emerging markets, ethics, international issues, the internet and national sovereignty. Hisresearch interests focus on social sensitivity in international business and on doing business inemerging markets including promotion in emerging markets, doing business with them viacountertrade, the macro impacts of globalisation, international ethical practices, environmentalconsiderations, and sensitivity to national sovereignty. He has published in journals such asInternational Business Review, the European Journal of Marketing, the Journal of GlobalMarketing, Industrial Marketing Management and the Australasian Marketing Journal. Fletcheris principal author of the only Australian text in international marketing, InternationalMarketing – An Asia-Pacific Perspective, published by Pearson. Now in its third edition, this texthas been adapted for the European market and International Marketing for SME’s was releasedin the UK in 2004. Also published in 2004 was the text by Fletcher, R., Bell, J. and McNaughton,R. International E-Business Marketing, published by Thompson. This is the first text to considerwhat are the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of using the internet as a vehiclefor international marketing. Prior to becoming an academic, Richard was a Senior TradeCommissioner for the Australian Government and for over 25 years represented Australia’scommercial interests in New Delhi, Bombay, San Francisco, Jakarta, Teheran, Los Angeles, andBangkok. In the late 1970s he spent two years as Australia’s ambassador to Libya. RichardFletcher can be contacted at: r.fletcher@uws.edu.au

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