10 things you can do to write better code 写好代码的十个秘诀

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10 Things You Can Do To Write Better Code

写好代码的十个秘诀

林斌Development Manager

Microsoft Research, China

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一流代码的特性

• 鲁棒 - Solid and Robust Code

• 简洁 - Maintainable and Simple Code

• 高效 - Fast Code

• 简短 - Small Code

• 共享 - Re-usable Code

• 可测试 - Testable Code

• 可移植 - Portable Code

一流代码

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Why is this code bad?

void MyGirlFriendFunc(CORP_DATA InputRec, int CrntQtr, EMP_DATA EmpRec, float EstimRevenue, float YTDRevenue, int ScreenX, int ScreenY, COLOR_TYPE newColor, COLOR_TYPE PrevColor, STATUS_TYPE status, int ExpenseType)

{ int i;for (i=1; i<100; i++) InputRec.revenue[i] = 0;

for (i=1; i<100; i++)InputRec.expense[i]= CorpExpense[i];

UpdateCorpDatabase(EmpRec);EstimRevenue =YTDRevenue*4.0/(float)CrntQtr;

NewColor = PreColor;Status = Success;if (ExpenseType== 1) for (i=1;i<12;i++) Profit[i] = Revenue[i]-Expense.Type1[i];

else if (ExpenseType == 2) Profit[i] = Revenue[i] - Expense.Type2[i];

else if (ExpenseType==3) { Profit[i] =Revenue[i] -Expense.Type3[i];

}

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Why is this code bad?

void MyGirlFriendFunc(CORP_DATA InputRec, int CrntQtr, EMP_DATA EmpRec, float EstimRevenue, float YTDRevenue, int ScreenX, int ScreenY, COLOR_TYPE newColor, COLOR_TYPE PrevColor, STATUS_TYPE status, int ExpenseType)

{ int i;for (i=1; i<100; i++) InputRec.revenue[i] = 0;

for (i=1; i<100; i++)InputRec.expense[i]= CorpExpense[i];

UpdateCorpDatabase(EmpRec);EstimRevenue =YTDRevenue*4.0/(float)CrntQtr;

NewColor = PreColor;Status = Success;if (ExpenseType== 1) for (i=1;i<12;i++) Profit[i] = Revenue[i]-Expense.Type1[i];

else if (ExpenseType == 2) Profit[i] = Revenue[i] - Expense.Type2[i];

else if (ExpenseType==3) { Profit[i] =Revenue[i] -Expense.Type3[i];

}

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Because…

• Bad function name – Maintainability• Crash if CrntQtr equals 0 – Robustness• No comments – Maintainability• Unnecessary for loop – Performance• The function has no single purpose –

Reusability• Bad layout – Simplicity & Maintainability• None testable if ExpenseType is 1 – Testability• Many more: too many arguments, abuse usage

of 100, 4.0, etc, un-use parameters, none-documented parameters…

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代码高手十大秘诀

1. 集百家之长 , 归我所用 - Follow Basic Coding Style

2. 取个好名字 - Use Naming Conventions

3. 凌波微步 , 未必摔跤 - Evil goto’s? Maybe Not…

4. 先发制人 , 后发制于人 - Practice Defensive Coding

5. 见招拆招 , 滴水不漏 - Handle The Error Cases: They Will Occur!

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代码高手十大秘诀 (Cont.)

6. 熟习剑法刀术 , 所向无敌 - Learn Win32 API Seriously

7. 双手互搏 , 无坚不摧 - Test, but don’t stop there

8. 活用段言 - Use, don’t abuse, assertions

9. 草木皆兵 , 不可大意 - Avoid Assumptions

10.最高境界 , 无招胜有招 - Stop writing so much code

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• Your code may outlive you or your memory!• Think about the maintainer• Comment your code

– File Header– Function Header– Inline Commenting

• Pick a good name for your functions and variables• Set Tab/Indent to 4 characters• Align your code!• Less arguments

1. 集百家之长 , 归我所用 - Follow Basic Coding Style

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Coding Style (Cont.)

• Use all uppercase with underscores for macro.#define MY_MACRO_NUMBER 100

• Declare all your variables at the start of function.• Avoid hard coding constant. Use enum or macro.

#define MY_MAX_LENGTH 1024

• User braces for one line codeIf (m_fInitialized) {

hr = S_OK;

}

• Limit the length of a single function

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Spot the defect

DWORD Status = NO_ERROR;

LPWSTR ptr;

Status = f( ..., &ptr );

if( Status isnot NO_ERROR or ptr is NULL ) goto cleanup;

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Spot the defect


LPWSTR ptr;


if( Status isnot NO_ERROR or ptr is NULL ) goto cleanup;

is??? isnot??? or???new C/C++ keywords? No.overloaded operators? No.just some confusing macros …

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A better version


LPWSTR ptr = NULL;


if( (Status != NO_ERROR) || (ptr == NULL) ) goto cleanup;

• Make your intent explicitUse existing language constructs

Everybody understands them

• Avoid future problems: Initializeparenthesize

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What’s the maximum length of a function?

• Look at this example

• Watch out for functions > 200 lines!

• Study in 1986 on IBM’s OS/360: the most error-prone routines => longer than 500 lines.

• Study in 1991 on 148,000-line of code: functions < 143 lines => 2.4 times less expensive to fix than longer functions.

Omsg_cxx.tlkOver 1400 lines!!!

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Look at these codes

• Let’s look at these codes from our own projects:– Small functions:– Larger functions:

• Then look at those from Windows 2000 source tree:– NT Kernel Mode Code:– NT User Mode CPP File:– NT User Mode Header File:

align_cpp.tlk

variable_cpp.tlk

Event_c.tlk

write_cpp.tlk

Write_h.tlk

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2. 取个好名字 - Use Naming Conventions

• Hungarian Notation– [Prefix]-BaseTag-Name

• Standard [Prefix]:p – A pointer. CHAR* psz;rg – An array. DWORD rgType[…];c – A count of items. DWORD cBook;h – A handle. HANDLE hFile;

• Standard “BaseTag”void -> v int -> iBOOL -> f UINT -> uiBYTE -> b CHAR -> chWCHAR -> wch ULONG -> ulLONG -> l DWORD -> dwHRESULT -> hr fn -> functionsz -> NULL str USHORT, SHORT, WORD -> w

• C++ member variables start with: m_• Global variables start with: g_

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Let’s try these…

• A flag indicates whether a C++ object has been initialized:• BOOL m_fInitialized;

• A Session ID:• DWORD dwSessionID;

• A ref count in a C++ object:• LONG m_cRef; // skip the ‘l’

• A Pointer to BYTE buffer:• BYTE* pbBuffer;

• A global logfile filename buffer:• CHAR g_szLogFile[MAX_PATH];

• A pointer to a global logfile:• CHAR* g_pszLogFile;

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3. 凌波微步 , 未必摔跤 - Evil goto’s? Maybe Not…

• Why goto is bad?– Creates unreadable code…– Causes compiler to generate non-optimal

code…

• Why goto is good?– Cleaner code– Single entry, single exit– Less duplicate code

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Spot the gotos…

START_LOOP:If (fStatusOk) { if (fDataAvaiable) { i = 10; goto MID_LOOP; } else { goto END_LOOP; }} else { for (I = 0; I < 100; I++) {MID_LOOP: // lots of code here … … } goto START_LOOP;}END_LOOP:

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BAD gotos!!!

START_LOOP:If (fStatusOk) { if (fDataAvaiable) { i = 10; goto MID_LOOP; } else { goto END_LOOP; }} else { for (I = 0; I < 100; I++) {MID_LOOP: // lots of code here … … } goto START_LOOP;}END_LOOP:

BAD!!!

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How about this one?

pszHisName = (CHAR*)malloc(256);

if (pszHisName == NULL) {

free(pszMyName);

free(pszHerName);

return hr;

}

free(pszMyName);

free(pszHerName);

free(pszHisName);

return hr;

}

HRESULT Init(){ pszMyName = (CHAR*)malloc(256); if (pszMyName == NULL) { return hr; } pszHerName = (CHAR*)malloc(256); if (pszHerName == NULL) { free(pszMyName); return hr; }

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Duplicate code…



free(pszMyName);

free(pszHerName);

return hr;

}

free(pszMyName);

free(pszHerName);

free(pszHisName);

return hr;

}

HRESULT Init(){ pszMyName = (CHAR*)malloc(256); if (pszMyName == NULL) { return hr; } pszHerName = (CHAR*)malloc(256); if (pszHerName == NULL) { free(pszMyName); return hr; }

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Harder to maintain…



free(pszMyName);

free(pszHerName);

free(pszItsName);

return hr;

}

free(pszMyName);

free(pszHerName);

free(pszHisName);

free(pszItsName);

return hr;

}

HRESULT Init(){ pszMyName = (CHAR*)malloc(256); if (pszMyName == NULL) { return hr; } pszHerName = (CHAR*)malloc(256); if (pszHerName == NULL) { free(pszMyName); return hr; } pszItsName = (CHAR*)malloc(256); if (pszItsName == NULL) { free(pszMyName); free(pszHerName); return hr; }

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How about this one?

… …

Exit:

if (pszMyName)

free(pszMyName);

if (pszHeName)

free(pszHeName);

if (pszHiName)

free(pszHiName);

return hr;

}

HRESULT Init(){ pszMyName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszMyName == NULL) goto Exit; pszHeName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszHeName == NULL) goto Exit; pszHiName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszHiName == NULL) goto Exit;

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Single entry, single exit. No duplicate code…

… …

Exit:

if (pszMyName)

free(pszMyName);

if (pszHeName)

free(pszHeName);

if (pszHiName)

free(pszHiName);

return hr;

}

HRESULT Init(){ pszMyName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszMyName == NULL) goto Exit; pszHeName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszHeName == NULL) goto Exit; pszHiName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszHiName == NULL) goto Exit;

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Easy to maintain…

… …

Exit:

if (pszMyName)

free(pszMyName);

if (pszHeName)

free(pszHeName);

if (pszItName)

free(pszItName);

if (pszHiName)

free(pszHiName);

return hr;

}

HRESULT Init(){ pszMyName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszMyName == NULL) goto Exit; pszHeName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszHeName == NULL) goto Exit; pszItName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszItName == NULL) goto Exit; pszHiName =(CHAR*)malloc(…); if (pszHiName == NULL) goto Exit;

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Use the following goto guidelines

• Single entry, single exit? – use goto

• Don’t use more than one goto labels

• Use goto’s that go forward, not backward

• Make sure a goto doesn’t create unreachable code

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4. 先发制人 , 后发制于人 - Practice Defensive Coding

• Initialize variables• Check return values• Keep it simples

– Usually, simplicity = performance

• Keep it clean– Multi-thread clean– Minimize casts

• Avoid miscalculations– Divide by Zero– Signed vs. Unsigned

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Spot the defect

HRESULT hr;

LPSTR str = (LPSTR)LocalAlloc(LPTR, size);

if (str){

... // process appropriately

hr = S_OK;

}

return hr;

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Spot the defect

HRESULT hr;


if (str){


hr = S_OK;

}

return hr;

Returning a random status on failure

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A better version???

HRESULT hr = S_OK;


if (str){


hr = S_OK;

}

return hr;

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Probably not

HRESULT hr = S_OK;


if (str){


hr = S_OK;

}

return hr;

Return success if nothing happened?• Think before you fix!

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A better version!

HRESULT hr = S_OK;


if (str){


hr = S_OK;

} else {

hr = E_OUTOFMEMORY;

}

return hr;

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Spot the detect

BOOL SomeProblem(USHORT x)

{

while (--x >= 0) {

[…]

}

return TRUE;

}

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Spot the detect

BOOL SomeProblem(USHORT x)

{

while (--x >= 0) {

[…]

}

return TRUE;

}

• Infinite loop! Unsigned never negative!

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Spot the detect

wcscpy(wcServerIpAdd, WinsAnsiToUnicode(cAddr, NULL));

Note: WinsAnsiToUnicode is a private API which allocates a new UNICODE string given an ANSI string.

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Spot the detect

wcscpy(wcServerIpAdd, WinsAnsiToUnicode(cAddr, NULL));

WinsAnsiToUnicode can return NULL … which will cause a program crash

WinsAnsiToUnicode can return allocated memory … which will cause a leak

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A better version

LPWSTR tmp;

tmp = WinsAnsiToUnicode(cAddr, NULL);

if (tmp != NULL) {

wcscpy(wcServerIpAdd, tmp);

WinsFreeMemory((PVOID)tmp);

} else {

return(ERROR_NOT_ENOUGH_MEMORY);

}

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5. 见招拆招 , 滴水不漏 - Handle The Error Cases: They Will Occur!

• Common examples:– Out of memory– Exceptions being thrown– Registry keys missing– Networks going down

• This is the hardest code to test …– … so it better be right!

• Don’t fail in C++ object constructor, you can’t detect it!

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Error cases (continued)

• In an error case, the code should– Recover gracefully

• Get to a consistent state• Clean up any resources it has allocated

– Let its caller know• Interface should define and document the behavior (return

status, throw exception)• Code should adhere to that definition

• What not to do– Ignore the error– Crash– Exit

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Spot the detect

CWInfFile::CWInfFile() {

m_plLines = new TPtrList(); // ...

m_plSections = new TPtrList(); // ...

m_ReadContext.posLine = m_plLines->end();

. . .

}

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Spot the detect

CWInfFile::CWInfFile() {




. . .

}

MFC’s operator new throws an exception– … causing a leak when out of memory

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A better version?

CWInfFile::CWInfFile() {try { m_plLines = new TPtrList(); // ... m_plSections = new TPtrList(); // ... m_ReadContext.posLine = m_plLines->end(); . . .} catch ( . . . ) { if (m_plLines) delete m_plLines; if (m_plSections) delete m_plSections; }}

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No!

CWInfFile::CWInfFile() {try { m_plLines = new TPtrList(); // ... m_plSections = new TPtrList(); // ... m_ReadContext.posLine = m_plLines->end(); . . .} catch ( . . . ) { if (m_plLines) delete m_plLines; if (m_plSections) delete m_plSections; }}

Values may be uninitializedValues may be uninitialized Think before you fix!Think before you fix!

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A better version

CWInfFile::CWInfFile() : m_plLines(NULL), m_plSections(NULL) {

try {




. . .

} catch ( . . . ) {

if (m_plLines) delete m_plLines;

if (m_plSections) delete m_plSections;

}

}

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But wait, there is more

CWInfFile::CWInfFile() : m_plLines(NULL), m_plSections(NULL) {

try {




. . .

} catch ( . . . ) {

if (m_plLines) delete m_plLines;

if (m_plSections) delete m_plSections;

}

}

When not use MFC, When not use MFC, operator newoperator new may may return NULL…return NULL…

46

Spot the defect

Class foo {

private:

CHAR* m_pszName;

DWORD m_cbName;

public:

foo(CHAR* pszName);

CHAR* GetName()

{return m_pszName;}

…

};

foo::foo(CHAR* pszName){ m_pszName = (BYTE*) malloc(NAME_LEN); if (m_pszName == NULL) { return; } strcpy(m_pszName, pszName); m_cbName = strlen(pszName);}

47

Spot the defect

Class foo {

private:

CHAR* m_pszName;

DWORD m_cbName;

public:

foo(CHAR* pszName);

CHAR* GetName()

{return m_pszName;}

…

};

foo::foo(CHAR* pszName){ m_pszName = (BYTE*) malloc(NAME_LEN); if (m_pszName == NULL) { return; } strcpy(m_pszName, pszName); m_cbName = strlen(pszName);}

If malloc() fails, this code will crash:foo* pfoo = new foo(“MyName”);if (pfoo) { CHAR c = *(pfoo->GetName());}

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A better version

Class foo {private: CHAR* m_pszName; DWORD m_cbName;

public: foo(); HRESULT Init(CHAR* pszName);…};

foo::foo(){ m_cbName = 0; m_pszName = NULL;}

HRESULT foo::Init(CHAR* pszName){ HRESULT hr = S_OK; if (pszName) { m_cbName = lstrlen(pszName); m_pszName = (CHAR*)malloc(m_cbName+1); if (m_pszName == NULL) { hr = E_OUTOFMEMORY; return hr; } strcpy(m_pszName, pszName); } else { hr = E_INVALIDARG; } return hr;}

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6. 熟习剑法刀术 , 所向无敌 - Learn Win32 API Seriously

• Learn Win32 APIs, from MSDN• Why Win32 APIs?

– Well designed– Well tested– Easy to understand– Improve performance dramatically

• Understand the ones you use, read the SDK doc in MSDN

• Pick the best one based on your need

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Spot the defect

for( i=0; i< 256; i++) {

re[i] = 0;

im[i] = 0;

}

for( k = 0; k < 128; k++)

AvrSpec[k] = 0;

… …

#define FrameLen 200

for(k=0; k<5*40*FrameLen; k++)

lsp[k] = lsp[k + 40*FrameLen];

… …

for(k = 0; k < FrameLen; k++) {

audio[k] = vect[k];

}

… …

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Better version

for( i=0; i< 256; i++) {

re[i] = 0;

im[i] = 0;

}

for( k = 0; k < 128; k++)

AvrSpec[k] = 0;

… …


for(k=0; k<5*40*FrameLen; k++)

lsp[k] = lsp[k + 40*FrameLen];

… …

for(k = 0; k < FrameLen; k++) {

audio[k] = vect[k];

}

… …

ZeroMemory(re, 256);

ZeroMemory(im, 256);

ZeroMemory(AvrSpec, 128);

… …


MoveMemory(lsp, &(lsp[40*FrameLen]), 5*40*FrameLen);

… …

CopyMemory(audio, vect, FrameLen);

… …

52

Spot the defect

TCHAR WindowsDir[MAX_PATH];TCHAR WindowsDir[MAX_PATH];

TCHAR DriveLetter;TCHAR DriveLetter;

GetWindowsDirectory(WindowsDir, MAX_PATH);GetWindowsDirectory(WindowsDir, MAX_PATH);

DriveLetter = WindowsDir[0];DriveLetter = WindowsDir[0];

......

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Spot the defect



GetWindowsDirectoryGetWindowsDirectory(WindowsDir, MAX_PATH);(WindowsDir, MAX_PATH);

DriveLetter = DriveLetter = WindowsDir[0]WindowsDir[0];;

......

Missing return value check …Missing return value check …

Operating on a random drive if Operating on a random drive if GetWindowsDirectory() failsGetWindowsDirectory() fails

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Can GetWindowsDirectory fail?

• MSDN has always said “yes”

• Implementation has always said “no”…• …Until Terminal Server!

– Computing GetWindowsDirectory may allocate memory

– If allocation fails, the call returns FALSE

• Result: potential catastrophic errors on Terminal Server

55

A better version



if (!if (!GetWindowsDirectory(WindowsDir, GetWindowsDirectory(WindowsDir,

MAX_PATH)) MAX_PATH)) {{

return E_OUTOFMEMORY; // proper recoveryreturn E_OUTOFMEMORY; // proper recovery

}}

DriveLetter = WindowsDir[0];DriveLetter = WindowsDir[0];

......

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7. 双手互搏 , 无坚不摧 - Test, but don’t stop there

• Step through in the debugger– Especially the error code paths

• Test as much of your code as you can– If you haven’t tested it, it probably doesn’t work

– If you don’t know how much you’ve tested, it’s less than you expect

• So find out!

• Code review– Have somebody else read it

– And read somebody else’s code!

57

Spot the defect

HRESULT hr = NOERROR;

// Make sure the arguments passed are valid

if (NULL != m_paConnections) {

... // do the right thing

}

else hr = S_FALSE;

if (SUCCEEDED(hr)) {

if (NULL != m_paConnections[0].pUnk) . . .

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Spot the defect





}

else hr = S_FALSE;



• SUCCEEDED(S_FALSE) == TRUE• Crash if m_paConnections == NULL

– Easily simulatable in the debugger

59

Better version





}

else hr = E_INVALIDARG;



60

Spot the defect

//

// Get file size first

//

DWORD dwFileSize = GetFileSize( hFile, NULL );

if ( dwFileSize = -1 ) {

// what can we do ? keep silent

ErrorTrace(0, "GetFileSize failed with %d", GetLastError());

return;

}

Note: GetFileSize returns –1 if it fails.

61

Spot the defect

//


//


if ( dwFileSize = -1 ) {



return;

}


Always return as errors occur without Always return as errors occur without proceedingproceeding

62

Better version

//


//


if ( -1 == dwFileSize ) {



return;

}


Compiler will catch the error if you miss “=“Compiler will catch the error if you miss “=“

63

8. 活用段言 - Use, don’t abuse, Assertions

• Use Assertions because– Useful for documentation

• Describe assumptions• Describe “impossible” situations

– Useful for debugging• Help diagnose problems• May detect problems earlier

• Don’t abuse Assertions because– Assertions are usually no-ops in a free/release build

• Don’t use Assertions in situations that can occur in practice

64

Spot the defect

CHAR * pch;

pch = GlobalAlloc(10);

ASSERT(pch != NULL);

pch[0] = 0;

65

Spot the defect

CHAR * pch;


ASSERT(pch != NULL);

pch[0] = 0;

• ASSERT is (usually) a no-op in a free build– And asserts should not be used for things that will

happen in practice

Program crash when out of memory

66

A better version!

CHAR * pch;


If (NULL == pch) {

return E_OUTOFMEMORY;

}

pch[0] = 0;

67

9. 草木皆兵 , 不可大意 - Avoid Assumptions

• Don’t assume good behavior– There will be badly-written apps

• Don’t assume you can trust data– Validate data you can’t trust

• Public interfaces• User input• File contents

– Test your validation code!

• Don’t assume you know all your users– An interface may have unexpected clients– … and not all of them are friendly

• Document the assumptions you make, use ASSERT

68

Spot the defect

CIRRealExtractor::CIRRealExtractor( HRESULT* hr,

const BITMAPINFOHEADER *lpbmi, const void *lpvBits, const RECT *prectBlock)

{

… …

*hr = ContainDIB(lpbmi, lpvBits, prectBlock);

};

69

Spot the defect



{

… …


};

• Crash if “hr” is passed in as NULL!– Crash in a C++ constructor is the last thing

you want to do…

70

A better version



{

… …

if (hr) {


}

};

71

But wait, a even better version…

CIRRealExtractor::CIRRealExtractor()… …HRESULT CIRRealExtractor::Init( const BITMAPINFOHEADER *lpbmi, const void *lpvBits,

const RECT *prectBlock){… … // lpbmi, lpvBits, and prectBlock can never be NULL ASSERT( lpbmi != NULL); ASSERT( lpvBits != NULL); ASSERT( prectBlock != NULL);

return ContainDIB(lpbmi, lpvBits, prectBlock);};

72

Spot the defect

• Random reboots in low memory situations– Immediate cause: services.exe exits.– Why would services.exe exit?

• Would you believe …– … that services often call wscicmp (and other

string functions)?– … that calling these functions can cause your

program to exit?

73

Code inside wscicmp()

… …

if ( _locktable[locknum] == NULL ) {

if ( (pcs =

_malloc_crt(sizeof(CRITICAL_SECTION)))

== NULL )

_amsg_exit(_RT_LOCK);

… …

74

The defect

… …

if ( _locktable[locknum] == NULL ) {

if ( (pcs =

_malloc_crt(sizeof(CRITICAL_SECTION)))

== NULL )

_amsg_exit(_RT_LOCK);

… …

• Wscicmp assumed the lock allocated successfully, or it’s ok to exit!

• Good or bad, I am the one with the bug!

75

10. 最高境界 , 无招胜有招 - Stop writing so much code

• More code is not better!• Do you really need your own …

– Memory allocator? global operator new?– Assertion macro?– String/Handle/Smart Pointer class?– Hash table?– …

• Think twice before you cut-and-paste– Copied code is copied bugs

76

Some highlights…

• In the Win2K code base:– Over 100 different global operator news– Over 80 different string implementations– Hundreds (thousands?) of copied functions– 9 different JPEG implementations– 3 copies of atlimpl.cpp (3 different versions)– Exactly duplicated ANSI/UNICODE files – …

77

欲练神功 , 端正态度It’s all about attitude

• Take pride in your code– Want it to be perfect

• Correct, reliable, clean, simple, high-performance (speed, memory, …)

– Want it to be a “role model”

• Don’t get your ego wrapped up in it– Admit that your code’s not perfect– Actively seek out problems– Strive to improve it

78

Spot the detect

Comment from PREfix source code:/* In theory it might be possible to create the data

with the right scope, but my attempts to do so have all created crashes of one sort or another. Since we only use this information to improve the clarity of our output, I'm just not creating it in this situation. */

79

Spot the detect

Comment from PREfix source code:/* In theory it might be possible to create the data

with the right scope, but my attempts to do so have all created crashes of one sort or another. Since we only use this information to improve the clarity of our output, I'm just not creating it in this situation. */

i.e., “I know the right thing to do but I couldn’t make it work so I gave up.”

80

Happy Coding

10 things you can do to write better code 写好代码的十个秘诀

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