Philippine Normal University

The National Center for Teacher Education

College of Teacher Development

FACULTY OF EDUCATION SCIENCES

Taft Avenue, Manila

“Andragogy: History,

Definition, Principles and

Criticisms”

A Written Report in

Alternative Education (Prof Ed 11)

Submitted by:

CABILAO, John Carlo B.

III-4 BSE Filipino

Submitted to:

Prof. Thelma Bayot

December 2015

History of the term „Andragogy‟

The term andragogy was originally formulated by a German teacher,

Alexander Kapp, in 1833. He used it to describe elements of Plato‘s education

theory.

Andragogy (andr– meaning ‗man‘) could be contrasted with pedagogy

(paid/ped- meaning ‗child‘ and agogos meaning ‗leading‘). Kapp‘s use of andragogy

had some currency but it was disputed, and fell into disuse.

It reappeared in 1921 in a report by Rosenstock in which he argued that adult

education required special teachers, methods and philosophy, and he used the term

andragogy to refer collectively to these special requirements.

That may have been the case in North America, but in France, Yugoslavia and

Holland the term was being used extensively to refer to the discipline which studies

the adult education process or the science of adult education.

Two primary understandings of ‗andragogy‘ currently exist:

1. The science of understanding (a theory) and supporting (a practice) lifelong

and life-wide education of adults.

2. In the tradition of Malcolm Knowles, a specific theoretical and practical

approach, based on a humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous

learners and teachers as facilitators of learning.

Malcolm Knowles defined andragogy as “the art and science of helping

adults learn”.

Who is Malcolm Knowles?

Malcolm Sheperd Knowles was born on April 24, 1913 in Livingston, Montana.

Knowles earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from Harvard University in 1934. In the

graduate school of University of Chicago, Knowles' adviser was Cyril Houle, the

leading adult educator in the United States at that time. Houle mentored and guided

Knowles during his studies at the University of Chicago.

It was at the University of Chicago where Knowles states that he also

discovered the difference between being a "teacher" and a "facilitator of learning."

Andragogy is a concept popularized by Malcolm Knowles in his 1970

book, The Modern Practice of Adult Education. Knowles‘ theory of andragogy was an

attempt to create a theory to differentiate learning in childhood from learning in

adulthood.

In his book, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to

Andragogy, Knowles (1980, p. 43) contrasts andragogy as ―the art and science of

helping adults learn‖ with pedagogy, ―the art and science of helping children

learn.‖ The second edition of his book, however, marked a rethinking in Knowles

original conception of andragogy as characterizing only adult learners—as indicated

in the change in subtitles from Andragogy Versus Pedagogy to From Pedagogy to

Andragogy. His most recent conclusion was that the use of andragogical and

pedagogical principles is to be determined by the situation and not by the age of the

learner.

He initially related four basic assumptions and added a fifth in later publications:

1. Self-concept: As people mature, they move being a dependent personality

toward being more self-directed

2. Experience: As people mature, they amass a growing set of experiences that

provide a fertile resource for learning

3. Readiness to learn: As people mature, they are more interested in learning

subjects that have immediate relevance to their jobs or personal lives

4. Orientation to learning: As people mature, their time perspective changes

from gathering knowledge for future use to immediate application of

knowledge. As such, adult learners become more problem-centered rather

than subject-centered (Knowles, 1980)

5. Motivation to learn: As people mature, they become more motivated by

various internal incentives, such as need for self-esteem, curiosity, desire to

achieve, and satisfaction of accomplishment

Relevance: As people mature, they need to know why they need to learn something

(Knowles, 1984). Furthermore, because adults manage other aspects of their lives,

they are capable of directing or, at least, assisting in the planning and

implementation of their own learning.

Self-direction

Self-directed learning describes a process ―...in which individuals take the

initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs,

formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning,

choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating

learning outcomes.‖

Knowles asserted three reasons for fostering self-direction.

First, he argues that convincing evidence reveals that proactive learner, those

who take the initiative in learning, learn more and learn better than passive or

reactive learners, who wait to be taught by a teacher. ―They enter into

learning more purposefully and with greater motivation. They also tend to

retain and make use of what they learn better and longer than do the reactive

learners‖ (1975, p. 14).

Next, self-directed learning parallels the natural processes of psychological

development. ―An essential aspect of maturing is developing the ability to

take increasing responsibility for our own lives—to become increasingly self-

directed‖ (p. 15).

Finally, many new developments in education place significant responsibility

on the learner to take the initiative in their own learning. ―Students entering

into these programs without having learned the skills of self-directed inquiry

will experience anxiety, frustration, and often failure, and so will their

teachers‖ (p. 15).

Not everyone can be a successful self-directed learner. There are

competencies that are required in order to be successful at using this type of

learning strategy. Knowles lists some of these competencies in his 1975, Self-

Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers, book. Some of these

competencies include: "... 2) A concept of myself as being non-dependent and a self-

directing person, 3) The ability to relate to peers collaboratively, to see them as

resources for diagnosing needs, planning my learning, and to give help to them and

receive help from them..., and 5) The ability to translate learning needs into learning

objectives in a form that makes it possible for their accomplishment to be assessed"

(Knowles, 1975).

Andragogy assumes that the point at which an individual achieves a self-

concept of essential self-direction is the point at which he psychologically becomes

adult. A very critical thing happens when this occurs: the individual develops a deep

psychological need to be perceived by others as being self-directing.

It is axiomatic for Knowles that the role of the teacher is to provide

opportunities for individuals to learn, and that the teacher cannot accept

responsibility for their failure or refusal to do so: the task of learning itself is

therefore owned by the learner, and with this there can be little argument.

According to Boggs (1981) adult educational experiences should enhance

personal growth to make it easier for adults to adapt to internal and external

changes until the end of life. Boggs considers adult education as life enhancing when

it meets the following criteria:

1. Promotes skill-development and positive self-concept,

2. Helps alleviate fears, prejudice, illusions, and promotes critical thinking about

stereotypes, cultural myths, and biased thinking,

3. Promotes creativity,

4. Helps the individual move toward personal goals,

5. Helps the individual become more tolerant, generous, sensitive, discerning

and understanding,

6. Provides access to greater opportunity,

7. Moves the person closer to his/her full potential,

8. Contributes toward revitalization of positive cultural ideals and traditions.

A comparison of the assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy following Knowles

(Jarvis 1985: 51)

Pedagogy Andragogy

The learner

Dependent. Teacher directs

what, when, how a subject

is learned and tests that it

has been learned

Moves towards

independence.Self-

directing.Teacher

encourages and nurtures

this movement

The learner‟s

experience

Of little worth.Hence

teaching methods are

didactic

A rich resource for

learning. Hence teaching

methods include

discussion, problem-

solving etc.

Readiness to learn

People learn what society

expects them to. So that the

People learn what they

need to know,so that

curriculum is standardized. learning programmes

organised around life

application.

Orientation to learning

Acquisition of subject

matter.Curriculum

organized by subjects

.

Learning experiences

should be based around

experiences, since people

are performance centred

in their learning

Process Elements of Andragogy

Element Pedagogical Approach Andragogical Approach

1. Preparing Learners Minimal Provide Information

Prepare for participation

Help develop realistic

expectations

Begin thinking about content

2. Climate Authority-oriented

Formal

Competitive

Relaxed, trusting

Mutually respectful

Informal, warm

Collaborative, supportive

Openness and authenticity

Humanness

3. Planning By teacher Mechanism for mutual planning

by learners and facilitator

4. Diagnosis of Needs By teacher By mutual assessment

5. Setting of Objectives By teacher By mutual negotiation

6. Designing Learning

Plans

Logic of subject matter

Content units

Sequenced by readiness

Problem units

7. Learning Activities Transmittal techniques Experiential techniques (inquiry)

8. Evaluation By teacher Mutual re-diagnosis of needs

Mutual measurement of program

Developed from Knowles (1992) and Knowles (1995)

Adult learning styles

A learning style refers to how a person learns, categorizes, and processes

new content. Each person may have multiple preferred learning styles. The three

primary learning styles are: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic.

1. Visual learners tend to learn by looking, seeing, viewing, and watching.

Visual learners need to see an instructor‘s facial expressions and body

language to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to sit at the

front of the classroom to avoid visual distractions. They tend to think in

pictures and learn best from visual displays. During a lecture or discussion,

they tend to take detailed notes to absorb information.

2. Auditory learners tend to learn by listening, hearing, and speaking. Auditory

learners learn best through lectures, discussions, and brainstorming. They

interpret the underlying meaning of speech by listening to voice tone, pitch,

and speed and other speech nuances. Written information has little meaning

to them until they hear it. They benefit best by reading text out loud and using

a tape recorder.

3. Kinesthetic learners tend to learn by experiencing, moving, and doing.

Kinesthetic learners learn best through a hands - on approach and actively

exploring the physical world around them. They have difficulty sitting still for

long periods of time, and easily become distracted by their need for activity

and exploration.

Critique

Knowles' theory has aroused much controversy and debate. One of the points

of controversy is his inference that andragogy with all its implications for adult

instruction, is fundamentally different than pedagogy, which has implications for

education of children. Knowles has subsequently clarified his position and now

claims that andragogy-pedagogy represents a continuum rather than a dichotomy.

Use of techniques from both are appropriate at at different times and in different

contexts regardless of age.

Knowles himself changed his position on whether andragogy really applied

only to adults and came to believe that "pedagogy to andragogy represents a

continuum ranging from teacher-directed to student-directed learning and that both

approaches are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation."

Hanson (1996) argues that the difference in learning is not related to the age

and stage of one's life, but instead related to individual characteristics and the

differences in "context, culture and power" within different educational settings.

J.R. Kidd goes further by claiming that principles of learning have to be

applied to lifelong development. He suggested that building a theory on adult

learning would be meaningless, as there is no real basis for it.

Knowles himself mentions that andragogy is a "model of assumptions about

learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory."

There appears to be a lack of research on whether this framework of teaching and

learning principles is more relevant to adult learners or if it is just a set of good

practices that could be used for both children and adult learners.

Knowles was questioned at times about what exactly is this subject that he is

teaching? Knowles' response was, "Adult education faces a task of immense

proportions in the immediate years ahead," in Informal Adult Education, "the task of

helping millions of grown-up people all over the world to transform themselves into

mature adults. By perfecting its science now, it will be equal to the task" (University,

N.L. (2005, 2004).

References:

_______________. (2015). The Adult Learning Theory - Andragogy - of Malcolm

Knowles. [http://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-

malcolm-knowles. Retrieved: December 1, 2015]

Smith, M. K. (1996; 1999, 2010) ‗Andragogy‘,the encyclopaedia of

informal education. [http://infed.org/mobi/andragogy-what-is-it-and-does-it-help-

thinking-about-adult-learning/. Retrieved: December 1, 2015]

Keesee, Gayla S. (2010). Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory.

[http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com/w/page/30310516/Andragogy--

Adult%20Learning%20Theory. Retrieved: December 1, 2015]

Jarvis, P. (1985) The Sociology of Adult and Continuing Education, Beckenham:

Croom Helm.