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The Conquests of Samudra GuptaAuthor(s): Vincent A. SmithReviewed work(s):Source:

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Oct., 1897), pp.859-910Published by: Cambridge University PressStable URL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/25207912 .Accessed: 14/02/2012 15:59Your use of the JSTORarchive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at

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preserve and extend access toJournal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain

andIreland.http://www.jstor.org

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859 Art. XXIX.?The Conquests of Samudra Gupta By Yincent A. Smith, M.lt.A.S., Indian Civil Service. CONTENTS. paok.Prefatory Note. Section I. ('?encrai Observations . 800 ? II. The Kings of the South. 801 ? III. Tho Kings of tho North. 875 ,, JV. The FrontierKingdoms. 877 ? V. The Frontier Tribes. 882 ,, VI. Foreign Powers. 803 ? VII. Conclusion. 909 Pri?fatory Noti?. Tiik following dissertation is

the second in my series of " Prolegomena to Ancient Iudhin History," of which the first was the essay entitled " The Iron Pillar

of Delhi (Mihraul?) and the Emperor Candra (Chandra)" published in this Journal in January, 1807. The article entitled "Samudra Gupta," published in the same number of the Journal, gives in narrative form the history of the Emperor Samudra

Gupta. The present paper is devoted to the detailed technical discussion of the authorities for the statements of that narrative.

I may perhaps be pardoned for inviting attention to the proposed identification of King Acyuta ; tho justification of tho

reading Mahendragiri as a king's name ; the probable identification of the kings Visnug?pa and Ilastivurinau ; the certainidentification of the kingdom of Ptllakka ; the suggested identifications of tho kingdoms of Devari?stra and Kusthalapura ; the

probable identification of King Caudravarman ; tho location of the Abh?ra tribe; and the attempted identification and differentiation of the Subi, Sitlmnusilhi, and JDaivaputra kings. V. A. Smith, August 23, 1897. Gorakhpur.

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S(iO THE CONQUESTS OF SAM?DRA GUPTA. SECTION I.?GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Candra Gupta I(a.D. 318 to circa a.D. 345), father and predecessor of Su mudra Gupta, assumed the rank of emperor (malu?rdjddhirq/a), andestablished the Gupta Era to commemorate his assumption of supreme power in Northern India. His capital was P?taliputra

(Patna), tho ancient seat of the Maurya Empire, and his dominions appear to have included the whole of Bihar, both north

and south of tho Ganges, the eastern districts of tho North-Western Provinces, and the whole, or the greater part, of Oudh. Inother words, his territory extended from Bhi?galpur (Oanip?i) on the east, along the valley of the Ganges, to Allahabad

(Pray?ga) and Lucknow (Sitkcta) on the east.1 Our knowledge of the conquests of Samudra Gupta rests mainly on the

inscription of tho Allahabad Pillar, recorded in or about a.d. 380 b}r order of his son aud successor, Candra Gupta II. Other

inscriptions and coins supply a few additional details. 1 It is, I hope, hardly necessary now to repeat tho proof that P?taliputra was the capital of thefirst, and second*Gupta emperors. The subject has been fully dismssrd iu my various publications on the Gupta coinage. (?I.A.S.U., vol. liii, put 1, 1881, pp. l/>(Mf>3 ;

.I.R.A.S. 1880, pp. f>5, 66; J. U.A.S. 1893, p. 86. *Se abo Rubier, " On tho Gupta mid Valabhi Kra," p. 13.) The limits of the dominions of Candra (Jupia I are deduced

from the details of the conquests clfcctcd by his successors, and the laiiguago of the Pur?nas, which state th at tho Gupta territory extended from Magadha (Bihar) along

tho Gauges to Pray?ga, and included S?keta ("Wilson's *' Vishnu Pur?na, 4to edition, p. 47 9). The Pur?nic definition is altogether inapplicable to tho extended empire

of Samudra Gupta, and to the still vaster dominions of his sou and successor, Candra Gupta II. It can only be applied to the reign of Candra Gupta 1, the earliest

emperor, and to the beginning of the reign of his Hueeessor. The eastern limit of Magadha seems to have laiu in the neighbourhood of Cumpa (Rh?galpur). The site of

S?keta has not. been satisfactorily determined. The confident identification by Cunningham ("Reporta," vol. i, p. 3 17) of S?keta with Ayodhyu, the ancient Hindu city

near Fyzabad, is demonstrably erroneous, and has Ihh.ii justly criticized by Fergusson ("Archaeology in India,'* appendix R. Triibner & Co., London, 1881). Dr.

F?hrer'a identification with ttaftch?iikot (iSnjfnikot, Ramkot) in the Un?o District, of Oudli is not proved, though not, perhaps, impossible (" Monumental Antiquities

aud Inscriptions iu the North Westeru Provinces and Otulh," p. 27?). Fergusson was convinced that Lueknow itself is the true representative of S?keta, and I agreo with

him that the site of S?keta must be looked for at or near Lueknow. A full explanation o\ the reasons for this opinion would require a long dissertation. Tho general

courte of the argument is indicated by Fergusson.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 801 The first passage in tho Allahabad Pillar inscription, which deals with the

conquests, is unfortunately mutilated. It is, however, so far legible as to plainly record that the emperor, with extraneousassistance, uprooted princes named Acyuta and IN ii gasen a, and effected the capture of a member of tho family, or clan, of

the Kotas. An allusion is made to the capital city P?taliputra, under the well-known synonym of Pushpapura.1 Dr. Fleet's

hesitation to identify " the city called Pushpa " with P?taliputra appears to me quite unwarranted, and I have no doubt that

the phrase " taking his pleasure at Pushpapura " refers to the fact that the royal city of P?taliputra was the conqueror's

residence and capital. The enumeration of the moro distant conquests does not begin till line 19. Tho mention of the

subjugation of Acyuta, N?gasena, aud tho Kota prince in an earlier verse, and in a metrical passage completely detached from

the general prose list of conquests, and coupled with the allusion to the victor's capital city, may reasonably be interpreted asimplying that the victories mentioned in tho earlier passage were gained in regions not very remote from the capital. The

further inference that the first-mentioned conquests were the first accomplished likewise seems to be justified. The nameAcyuta (* Unf?llen, firm, imperishable ') is of frequent occurrence. I have noted the following examples: (1) an epithet of

Visnu or Krsna (Dowson, "Classical Dictionary," lien fey, " Dictionary ") ; (2) tho name Acyutappa in an inscription from

Tranquebar in the Tan jure District, probably dated A.n. 1627 (Ind. Ant., xxii, lift) ; (3) Acyutamya, a king of Yijayanagara(ibid., xx, 30?) ; (4) Acyuta Vijaya It?ghava Naikar, a king of 1 Fleet'? tr.inslntion of thin passage in as follows:?" (1. 13)-Uy whom.? linviiigihiiish?h?oiI, with tho lore? of the prowon?. of (his) arm Hint rose up .??? im to |mihh all houndM, uprooted Aehyuta mi?l NiiguHOiia . . . . -(by whnn?, ?.aiiHHig litm

who was horn in the latnily of the K fitas to he ?aptim-d hv (his) iiriuicM, (and) taking hi? pleusitro nt (the city) that had the name of PiHip:?, while the huh .... the

hank? .... ;?" ("Gupta Inscription*,'* p. 12).

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8(52 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. Tanjore (ibid., vii, 25) ; (5) Acyutadanti, or Acynlanti? a warrior tribe

(Pan., v, 8, 110); (G) Acyntastbala? a place in the Pailjiib (Mahdbh., viii, 2,062). The last two references are given by Burgessin his valuable, though too brief, article on "The Identification of Places in tho Sanskrit Geography of India" (Ind. Ant., x iv,

322). The quotations show that the name was in use both in Northern and Southern India. Certain curious and little known

coins hare suggested to ine the notion that tho Acyiilu, conquered by Sanuidra Uuptn, may havo been a king of Ahichatra

(liiunnagar, near Aonl? in Barell District of North-Western Provinces), the ancient capital of Pn?eh?la. These coins, of which

all the known specimens wore obtained at lt?mnagar, may be described as follows :? Type 1. Obverse. Tho legend ^P?, Acyu,

in bold characters, occupying the field, in dotted circle. Be verse. An eight-rayed wheel or sun. Type 2. Obverse. Portrait bust of king to

right ; the letter ^, A, behind king's head, and the letters ^, cyu, in front. Be verse. As in type 1. The coins are of copper, about'6 of an inch in diameter. Weight of type No. 1, 12 to 2o5 grains. These coins were first described by Messrs. Rivett-Carnac

and Carlleyle (J.A.S.R, vol. xlix, part 1, 1880, p. 87, pi. vii, 2 A and 11). Tho form of the characters on tho H coin difiera fromthat of the characters on A. Type 2 is known only from an uniquo specimen in the possession of Mr. C. S. Delmerick, who also

obtained two specimens of the A variety of type 1, one of which he presented to me. This coin in my possession appears to be

cast, and 1 have no doubt that the coin is of early date, and it may well be contemporary with Samudra Gupta. The legend canbe read only as Acyu, and nothing else, and the completion of the word to Acyuta seems inevitable.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 863 Tho characters closely resemble those of tho Samudra Gupta inscription on

tho Allahabad Pillar (D?hler, " Ind. Pal?o graphie," Tafel iv). liainnagar is distant about 430 miles in a direct line from Patna,aud about 150 miles from Lucknovv. Ahichatra, therefore, cannot have been very far from the frontier of the dominions of

Cand?a Gupta I, which included Lucknow. I am inclined to believe that the rare coins above described are those of Acyuta, a

king of Ahichatra, conquered by Samudra Gupta early in the reign of that monarch, about A.n. 345-360. These coins are not

mentioned by Cunningham in his work on the "Coins of Ancient India.9' Ten specimens of this type are in the Indian Museum

(Cat., iii, 36) ; the highest weight is 25*5 grains, the lowest weight of a complete coin being 12 grains. Three specimens weigh

16 grains each. I have failed to discover any clue to the identity of Naga sena. The family, or clan (kula), named Kota is equally

unknown. The late Dr. Bhagv?nhll Indraj? sought to identify the Kota clan with tho tribe named Koda, mentioned in aninscription found near Sopara in the Thftna District, Bombay, aud with the K?da of the Kddasa coins found near Sahiiranpur

in the North-Western Provinces (" Sopara and Padana," pamph., p. 18). Dut these identilications are obviously notconvincing. The Kddasa coin obtained by Dr. lihagvi?nhll Indraj? had a logend in characters of about the Asoka period. A

specimen of the same "snake type" is described by Cunningham, and associated with the coins of Taxila ("Coins of Ancient

India," p. 02, pi. ii, 21). Another type of Kddasa coins characterized by a " bodhi-tree " device appears to be of the same earlyage, and is grouped by Cunningham with the Kuniuda coins of the region near Sahiiranpur (ibid., p. 71, pi. v, 0). A Kota tribe

still exists in the K?lgiris in tho South of India (Ind. Ant., iii, 30, 96, 205). The principal historical passage of the inscription is

con tained in lines 19-23, and is in prose.

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864 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. The enumeration of the emporor's victories begins with a list of " the kings

of the region of the south," whom he "captured and then liberated," a phrase which is clearly meant to express the fact oftemporary subjugation, as contrasted with permanent conquest. The list of the kings of the south is as follows :? 1, Mahendra

of Kosala ; 2, Vyitghrari?ja of Mahakautilra ; 3, Mantariija of Kerala; 4, Mahendragiri of Pistaptira; 5, Svilmidatta of

Kottttra ; 6, Datnaua of Erandapalla ; 7, Yisnugopa of Ki?i?e?; 8, N?laraja of Avuinukta ; 9, llastivannan of Veng? ; 10,

Ugrasena of Palakka; 11, K uvera of Devaulstra; 12, Dhanaiiijaya of Kusthalapura. SECTION II.?TUE KINGS OF

THE SOUTH. I proceed to discuss in the order of the text the names in this list of the kings of the south. 1. Mahendra ofKosala. The above list of twelve countries and their kings is concerned solely with "the region of the south," as dis tinguished

from ?ryavarta, or Hindustan. In other words, the countries enumerated all lay to the south of tho Narmadii (Nerbudda)river. Consequently, the country Kosala must be the southern Kosala, and not tho northern Kosala, which corresponds

roughly with Oudh. The name Kosala is sometimes spelled with the dental s (gltfl^r), and sometimes with the palatal s

(?RtfT^f). Dr. Fleet considers the dental form more correct. The Brhat Samhit? places tho Kausalaka (in text Ko?) people inthe eastern division of India, and the country Kosala in the eastern division, stating that diamonds are found there.1 1 IndianAntiquary, xxii, pp. 1S1, 182.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 865 Southern, Daksina-, or " MuluVKosalu " comprised tho whole of tho upper

valley of the MalmuudI and its tributaries, from the source of the Nannada at Atnarkantak on the north, to the source of theMah?uad? itself near Kiinker on the south, and from the valley of tho Weu Gu?ga on the west to the Hasda and Joiik rivers on

the east. But these limits have often been extended, so as to embrace the billy districts of M?ndala and If?liiglmt on the west up

to the banks of the Wen-Gai?g?, and the middle valley of the Mah?uad? on the east, down to Sarabalpur and Sonpur. Under

some of the earlier rulers the supremacy of the king of Mah?-Kosala was acknow ledged by the li?jas of Orissa. Thus YaySti

Kesari .... speaks of Siva Gupta of Mahukosala as the sovereign lord of the whole country.1 Within its narrowest limits the

province was 200 miles in length from north to south, by 125 miles in breadth from east to west. At its greatest extent,

excluding the tributary province of Orissa, it formed a square of about 200 miles on each side. At the time of lliuen-Tsiatig'svisit in A.n. 039, ho describes the kingdom as 6,000 //, or 1,000 miles, in circuit, an extent which could have been attained by

the inclusion of ... . the present districts of Chanda, N??gpur, and Seoul.2 The province, therefore, comprised the southern andeastern districts of the Central Provinces, of which the capital is now N?gpur. The ancient capital was Srlpura (Sirpur) on the1 Cunningham gives tho erroneous date of a.?. 4SI for Yayftlikesarin, which I have omitted iu my quotation with reference to Dr. Fleet's observation that ''tho dato of

Yay?tikcsariii, derived from the Orissa records, is altogether unreliable, and is too early by at least about four ceuturies " ("? up ta Inscr iptions,*' p. 294).

3Cuuuinghum, "Archaeological Reports,'' xvii, p. 08. The words which I have omitted are "the great district of Vakntaka on the west, comprising?." Cunningham

supposed that the country Vuk?taka is represented by the modern lih?iiduk in the Ch?tid? district, hut Dr. Fleet shows ?hat this identification is a philological

impossibility, Ho further shows that the adjectival name Vakiltaka (derived from Vakata) is properly tho name of a people or tribe, and could only be used secondarily

as the name of a couutry. The passages in which the name has been supposed to denote a couutry do not bear the construction put on them (" Gupta Inscriptions," p.

234).

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866 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDltA GUPTA. Mah?nnd? in tho R?ipur District. From this placo Tivara dcva, " supremo

lord of Kosala," issued a grant in or about tho year A.n. 800.l In order to attack Kosala, Samudra Gupta must havo marchedfrom Prnyaga (Allahabad) across the hills and i angles of R?wi?. The direct distance from Allahabad to Sirpur is about 280

miles. Nothing more is known about King Mahendra of Kosala, who was "captured and liberated." 2. Vy?ghkak?ja of

Mah?k?nt?ka. The name Mah?k??nt?ra means " great forest or wilderness," and well describes the wilder parts of the

Central Provinces, the modern districts of Bait01, Cindw?ra, etc., which are probably the region designated by tho inscription,

bordering on the west the kingdom of Kosala. The name is equivalent to the term mah?tavi used in the Brhat Sathhit? to

designate a country in the southern division of India. The "kings of all the forest countries" (sarr?tavikar?ja), who are alleged

in the next line (1. 21) of tho inscription to have "become servants" of Samudra Gupta, must evidently be distinguished fromKing Vyi?ghrar?ja of Mali?ik$ntara, who was " captured and then liberated." These "kings of all the forest countries" ma}'be identified

with the rulers of the " eighteen forest kingdoms " (astada sit'tvir?jya) who were subject in A.n. 527 to the MaharajaiSmiiksoba of D?bala, or Dithala, the modern Bundelkhand and H?w?. This region, which was adjacent to the homo provinces

of the empire, would naturally be permanently annexed, as indicated by the terms of the inscription, while 1 lt So far as I have beenable to follow up the enquiry, all evidence seems io point to Sirpur (or Sripiira), on the Mah?iiad?, as the ancient capital of tho country. It is si tuated on the largest river

in the province; it. possesses the oldest inscriptions now existing in the couutry ; it is said by tho people to have bc.n ti n? capital of nahhriivfihau, one of the earliest

known kings of Chcdi ; while its extensive ruins prove that it must at one time have been a large city." (Ciinniiighani, op. cit., p. 70; Tivaradeva's grant is JNo. SI of

Fleet, p. 200.)

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THE CONQUESTS OF 8AM?DRA GUPTA. 8G7 the emperor was content with the temporary subjugation of the more

southern kingdom of Malm k?n t ?Ira. No other mention of King Vy?ghranlja is known. The early coin of Vyi?ghra (" CoinsMed. I.," pi. ii, 22) appears to come from Northern India. Cunningham described it with the coins of the Nagas of Narwur,

but, as Mr. Itodgers has pointed out, it seems more closely related to the coins of Sunet in the LOdiilua District of the Pa??j?b.

(?See " Catalogue of Coins in Lahore Museum/9 part iii, l?3U, for a coin of Vyi?ghra Sena from ?Sunet.) 3. Mantar?ja of

Kerala. The next name, Kerala, is a surprise, and its mention involves the assertion that the temporary conquests of Sa mudra

Gupta extended to the extremity of the Indian Peninsula. Kerala, which is placed by the Brhat Samhitd in the southern division

of India,1 is the country now known as the Malabar Coast, the narrow strip of fertile laud between the sea and the Western

Ghats. In its widest signification the name Kerala was applied to the whole territory extending from the Kangaroto river, nearGoa in North Kanara, to Cape Comorin (Kumarin). ]u its more restricted signification the name applied to the southern

portion of the coast, now comprised in the Malabar District, and in tho Cochin and Travancore States. Very little is known ofthe history of the country, and no connected story has come down to us.2 No other mention of Mantar?ja has been discovered.1 Ind. Ant.% xxii, pp. 180?1. a Scwell, " Ust* ?? Antnpiilics, Madras," i, 210; i i, 195. linlfoiir, "Cyclo pnediii of India," s.v. * Ki.riilfi * und ' Malabar.' The inscription

actually und unmistakably reads J?iHrahika- Mantara ?a, hut Dr. Fleet i? probably n'?lit in c?hh'IkI?iij? haurftljtka to Kiiiraluka in order t?j make sense. The mistake

seems a purely clerical one ("(jupia Inscriptions," p. 7, note I). Kerala is said to mean the laud of coeoaniits. Tho rare southern / i s used in tho inscription. Tim word

Kaiir?jaka, if correct, would imply tho existence of a country named Kur?ht, and none such is known. It is, however, just possible thai some reg i o il was named Kurahi

littteu centuries ago.

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808 THE CONQUESTS OF 8AMUDUA GUPTA. 4. Maiikndragiui of Pistavura. The identification of Pistapura presents no

difficulty. The kingdom of that name is certainly represented by the large zamlnddri, or chieftainship, of Pitlulpuram iu thoGodilvarl District of tho Madras Presidency. The chief town of the same name is still the residence of a Itaja, and is marked as

Pittapooram on sheet 94 of tho " Indian Atlas/' iu hit. 17? 6', long. 82? 18'. The town is "very old, with abundance of

sculptured buildings and other objects of interest. How old it may be is not as yet known, but an ancient inscription of A.n. 581

of the reign of Saly?sraya, the elder brother of Kubja Visnuvardhana, who established the Eastern Clmlukyan sovereignty,

states that in that reign ' tho fortress of Pistapura was easily taken ' " (bid. Ant., v, 67). A Ihiddhist stfipa has beeu discovered

at Timavaram within the limits of the zamlnddri (Ind. Ant., xii, 34).l Valuable inscriptions recording grants made in the Saka

years 1108, 1117, and 1124 (a.D. 118G, 1105, and 1202), and giving genealogies of tho Eastern Chi?lukya and V??ig? kings,have been found on a pillar at Pitlulpuram, but no trace of King Mahendragiri has been found.2 The construing of the passage

in question has beeu the subject of some discussion, and I venture to adopt a rendering different from Dr. Fleet's. The wordsare? " Eaurdlaka [leg. Kairdlaka"] Mantar?ja; Paistapuraka Mahendragiri ; Kauttiiraka Svdmidatta, etc." The above division of the

words, which, of course, are written in the original without division or punctuation, is unquestionably the natural one, and in

accordance with the balance of tho composition. But Dr. Fleet feels a difficulty about tho name Mahen dragiri (modernMahcndraglr), because names of that form 1 "Gupta Inscription*." p. 7, note 2. Scwoll, " Lists," i i, 262, and i, 23. 2 ' Progress Report of ArchaeologicalSurvey, Madras," Nos. 728, 729, dated Sept. 28, 18 94.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 869 appear to be nowadays restricted to Gos?ins, and it is improbable that a

ruling chief would be a Gos?in. Dr. Fleet, therefore, prefers to do violence to the obvious con struction of the text, and to linkthe word giri with the following Kauft?raka, and to translate the passage thus: ? " Mantara ja of Kerala ; Mahendra of

Pistapura ; Sv?midatta of Kottfiru on the hill." I submit that this constructian cannot be right. Tho compound Kolf?ragiri

would be normal, but the compound Girikotttira, though not perhaps absolutely impossible, would be most unusual, and

almost unprecedented. The derivative compound Girikautt?raka is even more awkward as an adjective than tho substantive

Girikottftm is. The difficulty raised by Dr. Fleet about accepting the compound Mahendragiri as the name of a king or ruling

chief is in reality unsubstantial. In the first place, we are not entitled to assume that names ending in giri were already in the

fourth century A.n. restricted to Gos?ins; and in the second place, even if such names were then so restricted, a Gos?in may be a secularchieftain. One of the most famous personages in Bundolkhand in the eighteenth century was the Gos?in, ll?j? llimmat

Bahadur. "Paja Ilimniat Bahadur, who at this time begins to play a con spicuous part in the history of Btindelkhand, was aGos?in, who commanded a body of troops in the pay of Shuj?-ud-daulah at the battle of Baksar in 170-$. On the flight of the

Va/Ar, llimmat Bahadur entered Bundelkhand, and during tho troubles that arose attained to considerable power." The

treaty of Shah pur, concluded on the 4th September, 180-5, gave ll?j? llimmat Bahadur an extensive territory with a revenueestimated at twenty-two lakhs of rupees.1 Nor was llimmat Bahadur the only powerful Gos?in chief of his time. Colonel Broughton,

writing in 1809, relates 1 " Bundolkhaud Gazetteer" (Allahabad, 1874), pp. 36, 31.

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870 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GOTTA. that Sindhin's "army lias received a considerable reinforce ment .... by the

arrival of a body of Gosaeens under Kumpta [Kamtil] Gir. This chief succeeded to the command of the corps, which consistsof nearly 1,500 men, chiefly horse, upon the death of Bam Gir, who died about a month ago. They were botb Chelas, or

disciples, of Kunchuu Gir, the Chela of Hiinmut Bahadoor, a celebrated Gosaeen in the service of Shnmsheer Bahadur, one of

the chiefs of Boondel khund. The Gosaeens are a religious order of Hindoo mendicants who attach themselves to the service of

particular chiefs, and frequently, as in the case of Himmut Bahadoor, amass great wealth, and raise themselves into

consequence. . . . . When they become numerous and wealthy, and enrol themselves as a military band in the service of some

prince, their leader is termed Muhnnt ; they then retain but little of their original manner and appearance, distinguishing

themselves alone by the Jutta, or long matted hair folded like a turban on the bead, and having some portion of their dressdyed of a kind of orange colour, called geroo, peculiar to their sect. As soldiers, they aro accounted bravo and faithful/'1 Tho

Naga and KanphatI Jog! ascetic warriors of lliija sthiln, described by Tod and other writers, are well known. No difficulty,therefore, need be felt in believing that Sa mudra Gupta found a Gosain chief in possession of tho fortress of Pistapura. 5.

SVAMIDATTA OF Ko'lTURA. Kottiira being, as Dr. Fleet observes, a very common Dravidian name, any Kott?ir of note

might be accepted as the representative of tho principality conquered by Samudra Gupta. Places with this name arc found inthe Tanjore, Malabar, and Belg.lm Districts,2 and probably elsewhere also. 1 " Letters from a Mahratta Camp," Constable'* edition, p. 95. 2 Sewcll," Lists," i, 219, 273 ; Ind. Ant., xx, l?9.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 871 The commercial importance of the Coimbatoro District in the early

centuries of the Christian era, when the beryl mines of Padiyfir attracted the attention of Roman merchants, leads mo toaccept as most probable the suggestion of Dr. Fleet that the place referred to in the inscription is the Kottur in the Coimhatore

District, marked in "Indian Atlas," sheet 61, hit. 10D 82' N. and long. 77? 2' E. Some ancient remains exist at this place, which

is eight miles south by west of Polhlci, where Boman coins of the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius have been found. Beryls to

tho valuo of ?1,200 sterling wero obtained at Padiyfir in 1819-20.l No record of Sv?midatta has yet been discovered. 6.

Damana of Eranjmpai.la. Neither Erandapalla nor its sovereigu has yet been identified. A place called Edap?di, with an old

Saiva temple, exists in the Salem District, which adjoins Coimbatoro. Many places with names beginning with Era- or Eda

occur in the Salem and Malabar Districts.2 7. Visnuoopa or K?NC?. K?fici is undoubtedly identical with the town well knownunder the modern corrupt name of Conjeeveram, which is situated in the Chingleput District, 43 miles south-west of Madras, and 20

miles west-north-west ofChingleput. It is one of the most ancient and sacred cities in India, aud was the capital of the Pallavadynasty until the overthrow of that power by the Cholas in the eleventh century A.n.3 The kingdom is called Dr?vida by

lliuen-Tsiang, who visited it, and gives a favourable account of its inhabitants.1 1 Soweit, 4< Lints," i, 2M, 222, and reference?; Thiirston,"Catalogue of Coin? iu Government ('entrai Museum, Mstdm?, No. 2,M pp. 7-11, 21. Coiiw of Tiberiua (a.j>. 14-37) appear to Iks special!) abundant. 2 Sewell, " Liais,''

i, 202, and Index. 3 Sewell, "List?," i, 176; ii, 2G4. ? Heal, " Buddhist Records of the Western World,*' ii, 223.

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872 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDltA GUPTA. Yisnugdpa is, no doubt, ono of tho early Pal la va kings, and is probably

identical with the Pallava king Visiuigopa, or Visnugopavarma", who was one of tho remote aneestors of Nandivarnul.1Visnugopa may possibly be identical with Visnuvarm??, who is mentioned in an inscription dating probably from the fifth

century a.D. as having beeu killed by a Kadamba king.2 8. N?LAU?.7A OF ?VAMUKTA. I am not able to oiler even a

conjecture as to the position of Avamukta. The word in Sanskrit means " unyoked, taken o?r." 9. Hastivarman of Veng?. The

position of the small kingdom of Vengl is known beyond doubt. The kingdom ordinarily extended for about 120 miles along

the coast of the Bay of Bengal between the Krsna (Kistna) and God?var? rivers, and corresponded to the modern God?var?

(Machlipatnam) District with part of the lxajainahendri District. It is believed that the Veiigl territory did not extend very far

inland. The capital was situated five or six miles NNW. from Ellore (.131fi r), a short distance from the Kolar (Colair) lake,and is now represented by the villages Pedda (or Greater) Vegl and Chinna (or Lesser) Vegl, where there are evidences of

extensive ancient, buildings.8 The ruling dynasty appears to have been a branch of the great Pallava family or clan which alsoruled at Kilficl. At the time of Samudra Gupta's incursion the Veiigl kingdom was apparently independent, but about a

century later it seems to have been a dependency of the moro considerable Kilficl State. The ruling families both of Kilficl and

Veiigl commonly used names ending in Vanna 1 Ind. Ant., v, 50; "South-Indian Inscriptions," ?i, 343. 2 Ind. Ant., vi, 22, 30, note. 3 Ualfour's"Cyclopaedia," s.v. Ycu-i. Scwell, " Lists," i, 36 ; ii, 239.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 873 or Varmitn, and wero probably connected by blood. The llastivarnm of

Samudra Gupta's inscriptions may well be identical, as Dr. llultzsch suggests, with Attivarm?, of the family of Kiug Kandara,who made an early copperplate grant, and was evidently a Pallava. Atti is the Tamil equivalent of llastin. The inscription of

Attivarm? was obtained at Gorantta in the Guntur District south of the Krsna river. From the same neighbourhood was

obtained a still earlier grant made iu the reign of Vijayakhandavamma (Vijayaskandavarm?), who probably belonged to the

same dynasty. A grant made by King Vijayanandivarm?, sou of King Candavarm?, of the S?laiik?yaua family, expressly

purports to have been issued from the victorious city of VcngL This grant is supposed to date from the fourth century.

Ilastivarm? was probably grandfather, or great grandfather, of Vijayanandivarm?. The kingdom of Vengl seems at times to

have exteuded to south of the Krsna river.1 10. UoitASBNA OF P?LAKKA. Though the identity of the kingdom of P?lakka hasnot previously been recognized, there can be no doubt that the ancient kingdom is now represented by the division of P?lgh?t,

in the south of the Malabar District, the name of which is more accurately spelled P?lakk?du. It was also called Nedum-Puraiyur-n?du, or, more shortly, Purai.2 The chief town of the division, P?lgh?tcherry, is situated in hit. 10? 45' 49" N. and

long. 76? 41' 48" E., at a height of 800 feet above tho sea, in the only gap in the line of mountains between tho T?pt? river and

Cape Comorin. Tho P?lgh?t Gh?ts extend southward a distance of about 170 miles almost to the Cape.3 The identification ofP?lakka is of interest as confirming the other statements in the inscription concerning tho southern extent of Samudra Gupta's

temporary conquests. ? hid. Ant.,\, 175; ix, 90-103. 2 Jlultzsch, ?'On the Grant of llhaskara Rav?varma" : Ind. Ant., xx, 285, 289, 291. 3 Ihilfour, " Cyclopaedia,''s.v. * Palgllatcllcrry., a.n.a.b. 1897. ?7

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874 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDItA GUPTA. 11. KUVKHA OF DbVAUASTUA. The kingdom of Devarastra has not yet

been identified. Perhaps the name may be an equivalent for Deogiri, tho famous fortress known to Muhummadan historiansas Daulat?bcld (lat. 19? 07' N. and long. 76? 18' 13.), which, by reason of its commanding position and natural strength, had

been from time immemorial the principal stronghold of the 11:1 j as of Malulnlstra. It is possible, indeed, that Devarastra muy

bo a synonym for Malulnlstra?tho "king dom of the gods," for the " great kingdom." Deogiri is situated in tho Nizam's

dominions, about twelve miles from Aurang?bild, and nearly thirty miles north of the Godilvari river. 12. DHANAMJAYA

OF KUSTHALAPURA. The position of Kusthalnpura is not certainly known unless the suggestion may be accepted that this

name is an abbre viation, either accidental or intentional, of Kusasthalupura, a name of the holy city Dvitriksl, at tho extremity of the

Gujarat peninsula, in lat. 22? 14' 20'' N. and long. 69? 5' E. " Anarta is known from the Mahdbhdrata and the Pur?nas. Itcorresponds to modern K?thi?vild. Its capital was Kusasthall, tho modern Dvilrkil." l The foregoing detailed examination of

the southern con quests of Samudra Gupta leaves on my mind no doubt that the emperor really effected the temporarysubjugation of all the leading chiefs and kings of the peninsula, inland and along both coasts, as far as Cape Comorin

(Kuimlrin). His southern victorious inarch finds an exact parallel in the expeditions of Malik Kaffir, the adventurous general

of1 llhagv?n?fil ludrnj?, "Tho Inscription of Iludradfuunn nt Juii?gadh" (Ind. Ant.t vii, 2?9). Henfcy ("Dictionary"), referring to Mahfthht?ratn 2, (ill, notes thattheiian.o occurs hoth in (lie neuter and feminine forms. For the omission of the syllable, compare " Kuraghnrii, which appears fivo times, I would identity witli the

village o? Kuraraghara .... Kura raihara is, of course, (lie otyinologically correct, form o? the name, aud Kurnghara a corruption by a kind of haplophony, which occurs

moro freoueut?y iu geographical and other names." (liiihler, " Inscriptions of S?nchi St?pa," Lpi'jraphia Indica, ii, 96.)

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDttA GUPTA. 875 'Ahl-ud-din, in A.n. 1?W9-10, who took tho fort of Waran gal, marched by

Deogiri, crossed the Goda var? at Paithan, and penetrated, after a great battle, to Dv?ra Samudra, the capital of Kar nata,which he captured. Ho reduced the whole of the eastern sido of the peninsula, including Ma'?bar, on the sea-coast, as far south

as li?mesvar, or Adam's Bridge, opposite Ceylon, where he built a mosque, which was still standing when Farishta wrote. He

then returned with vast golden treasures to Delhi.1 Like ?Samudra Gupta, he might havo boasted that he had " cap tured and

then liberated " the kings of the south. SECTION IIL?THE KINGS OF THE NORTH. Having completed hisenumeration of the temporary conquests in the south, our chronicler returns to the subject of the more permanent conquests

in Northern India, which had already been briefly touched upon in the poetical introduction to tho inscription. In lino 21 tho

writer records that the emperor " abounded in majesty that had been increased by violently exterminating Pud rade va, M at i la,N?gadatta, Candravarman, Ganapati N?ga, N?gasena, Acyuta, Nandin, Balavarman, and many other kings of the land of

Ary?varta." The name Ary?varta is well known to be the equivalent of the modern Hindustan, or India north of the Narmad?river. The language of the record plainly indicates that 1 Elphiustouc, 5th edition, p. 396.

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?70 TUE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. in this vast region the kings named -were thoroughly vanquished, and that

their dominions were included in the conqueror's empire. Unfortunately, the historical documents for the early history of NorthernIndia are so few and meagre that it is at present impossible to identify most of the kings named in the inscription. The names

of their kingdoms are not stated. Aeyuta was probably, for the reasons given above (ante, p. SiV2), a king of Ahiehatra in

Paficlmla, tho modern Rohilkhand. Nagasena is mentioned along with Aeyuta in the early part of tho inscription, and the two

princes may be supposed to have been neighbours. Nagasena may perhaps have been a member of the same dynasty as

Vliasena of earlier date, whose coins are tolerably common in the North-We8tern Provinces and the Punjab.1 Nilga datta may

belong to the same djrnasty as Rilinadatta and Purusadatta, whose coins are obscurely connected with those of the Northern

Satraps.2 Candravarman is probabty the Maharaja of that name whose fame is preserved by a brief inscription on the rock atSusunia in the B?nkur? District of Bengal, seventeen miles SSW. from the Ranlga?j railway station.3 Concerning the identity

of Rudradova, Matila, Nandin, and Balavarman, I am at present unable to offer oven a conjecture. The only name among thenine names in the list whicb can be identified with certaint)' is that of Ganapati Naga. Cunningham has shown that this prince

must be one of the dynasty of seven or nine Nagas, whose capital was Narwar, between Gw?li?r and Jlulnsl. Although the

coins of Ganapati, which have been found in thousands, do not bear tho word Nitga, there can bo no doubt that they 1 "Coin* ofAncient India," p. 89; "Catalogue of Coins in I.ahoro Museum/ part iii, 128; " Catalogue of Coins in Indian Museum," iii, 32. - "Coins of Ancient India,"'p. 8 8; J.lt.A.S.

for July, 1891, p. 641; "Catalogue o f Coins in Lahore Museum," iii, 122; " Catuloguo of Coins iu Indian Museum," iii, 31. 3 l'roc. A.S.B. for 1895, p. 177.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 877 wero issued by a member of tho Naga dynasty. Their practical identity in

type and style with the coins which bear the names of the Maharajas Skanda N?ga, Rrhas pati N?ga, and De va N?ga leaves noroom for scepticism. The coins of all these Naga kings are found at Narwar.1 Tho language of tho inscription which describes

Ganapati as one of the king9 who were "violently exterminated " induces me to consider him the last of his dynasty. Tho

"kings of tho forest countries" (I. 21), who wore compelled to bocomo the servants of the conqueror, and are associated in tho

text with tho "kings of Ary?varta," were no doubt tho chiefs of the Gonds and other wild tribes north of the Narmad?. To this

day there is a large extent of forest country north of the Narmad? in Bundel khand, Central India, and the Central Provinces.

The position of the southern forest kingdom of Mah? k?nt?raka has been discussed above (ante, p. 866). SECTION

IV.?THE FRONTIER KINGDOMS. Having completed the enumeration of the kings of the North and the kings ofthe South, the author of the inscription proceeds, in line 22, to extol the glories of his master as exhibited in the relations of the

imperial power with the kings and tribes outside, but immediately adjoining, the frontiers of the empire. Ho states that tho

frontier kings of Samatata, Dav?ka, K?mar?ipa, Nep?la, Kartrpura, and of other countries; and tho trilles known by thenames of M?lava, Arjun?yana, Yaudheya, M?draka, Abh?ra, Pr?rjuna, Sanak?n?ka, K?ka, and others, fully gratified the

sovereign's commands by obedience, by coming to perform homage, and by the payment of all kinds of taxes.2 These names

will now be discussed in order. 1 Cunningham, " Reports," ii, 307-310; " Coins of Mediaeval India,'' pp. 21-4. 2 l)r. Fleet (p. 14, note 1) needlessly, as it seemsto me, suchest* thnt :iu aiuhiu-uity lurks in the term ** frontier icings" (pratyanta-nrjH'ti). I think it plain that the meaning is that which has been adopted in the text.

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S78 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMU?1U GUPTA. 1. The Kingdom of Samatata. The Brhat Samhitd places this country in tbe

eastern division of India. The mimo means " the country of which the rivers have flat and level banks of equal height on bothsides," and denotes Lower Bengal.1 The Ganges and other great Indian rivers in the upper parts of their courses usually have

a high bank on one side, that is to say, on the concave side of each curve.3 The name Samatata is thus descriptivo of a marked

dil?oronco betweon tho appearance presented by the couutry iu tho swamps of deltaic Bengal aud that presented by tho drier

regions of Bihar and tho North-Western Provinces. The same name, Samatata, is used by Hiuen Tsiang in the seventh century

a.D., who describes tho country as being about 500 miles (3,000 li) iu circuit, and bordering on tho great sea. It lay 1,200 or

1,300 li (more than 200 miles) south of Kilmarfipa, and about 900 // (150 miles) east of the country of lamralipti.3 These

indications prove that tho kingdom occupied tho delta of tho Ganges and Brahmaputra, of which tho Jessore District formsthe central portion, and in which Calcutta and Dacca are now included. The main stream of the Ganges, which now separa tos

tho Patna and Farldpur Districts, must have been tho northern boundary. In the sixteenth century this region was known asBhilti, and the chief town was Bikranipur, in the Dacca District,4 The Chinese pilgrim mentions that the capital city was

between three and four miles (20 //) in circumference, but unfortunately does not mention its name, or indicate its position

with precision. The capital was probably situated on the coast, somewhere on tho tract now known as tho Sunderbnns. Thesouthern portion of this tract has long 1 Ind. Ant., 5xii, 189. 2 Kenne?, " A Bengol Atlas," p. 3. 8 Beul, " Records," ?i, 199, 200. 4 Cuuuiughaui, " lteports,"xv, 110.

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THE CONQUESTS OP SAMUDRA GUPTA. 879 been a pestilential and almost impenetrable jungle, but old Portuguese

maps show that the early European adventurers found five cities existing in it, aud surrounded by extensive cultivation.1 2.Tub Kinodom of Davaka. The situation of this kingdom is unknown, but the insertion of the name between the names of

Samatata and K?mariipa naturally suggests the infcrcnco that Dav?ka lay somewhere on tho north-eastern frontier. Possibly

the kingdom actually lay between Samatata and K?mariipa, and corresponded to the modern districts of Bogra (Bagrah?),

Din?jpur, and R?js?hi. The mere position of the name in the list must not, however, be allowed too much significance. We

have seon that in the list of the kingdoms of the south the names aro arranged without reference to their order in geographical

position. Dr. Fleet's suggestion (in Index, s.v.) that Dav?ka may be another form of Dacca, or D?ka, is inadmissible. The

correct spelling of Dacca is ph?k? (fcT^T?). 3. Thb Kingdom of K?mau?pa. Although, as is well known, thekingdom of K?mariipa corresponds roughly with the province of Assam, it must be remembered that the ancient kingdom and

the modern province do not exactly coincide. The kingdom sometimes extended as far west as the K?ratoya river and L?lBazar iu the Rangpur District of Bengal, and included the State of Kttch Bih?r, Tipar?, and parts of Maimansingh, as well as

the territory now known as tho Province of Assam. The ancient name is still preserved in the name of the district of K?mr?ip,

in the central portion of Assam, which lies between hit. 25? CO' and 26? 5*T N., and between long. 90? 40' and 92? 2' E.2 1 Halfour, " Cyclopaedia,'' s.v. ' Sunderhans.' 8 Martin, " Eastern India,*' iii, 103, 626 seqq. i Balfour, " Cyclopaedia,'' s.v. Assam,' * K?mar?pa,' aud * K ?inr?p.'

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880 TUE CONQUESTS OF SAM?DItA GUrTA. Hiuen Tsiang, three centuries later than Samudra Gupta, treats "tho great

river/' that is, the Brahmaputra, as tho western boundary of Kilmarfipa. Having described the kingdom of Pundra-vardhnna,he gives details of certain buildings in the neighbourhood of tho capital, and proceeds? " from this, going east 900 li or so ,

crossing the great river, we come to the country of Kia-mo-lu-po (Kilmarfipa)."l It is, of course, impossible to bo certain,

whether or not the kingdom of Kilmarfipa in the time of Samudra Gupta included the Rangpur territory west of " tho great

river " ; but I consider it probable that this great river, the Brahma putra, was the natural frontier of the empire, which must

have included the minor kingdoms or principalities known to Hiuen Tsiang us Pundra-vardhana, Karnasuvarna, and

Tilmralipti. The first of these certainly included part of the Dimljpur District,2 the capital of the second was at l?angam?tl in

the Miirsh?dab?d District,3 and the capital of the third is represented by the decayed port of Tamluk in the MidnapurDistrict.4 4. The Kingdom of Ni?p?la. The kingdom of Nepi?la corresponds roughly with tho modern kingdom of Nepal or

N?pi?l, but it ia impossible to say what its exact boundaries were in the days of Samudra Gupta. We know that six centuriesearlier the lowlands, or Tarai, at the foot of tho hills, now included in Nepal, formed part of the dominions of Asoka, who

personally visited that region and erected pillars as memorials of his tour. It is probable that even the valley of Nepal was

brought under the sceptre of Asoka.5 1 Real, " Records," ii, 195. 2 The references are pfivcu by Real, " Records," ii, 191, note. 3 J.A.S.R., vol. xxii (1853), p.281 ; ibid., part I, vol. lxii (1893), j>n. 315-325. 4 Heal, " Records," ii, 200, note. Fa-hian stayed two y ears at lamluk, aud sailed thence for Ceylon (eh. xxxvih. 5 Asoka in

liars h?ve been recently discovered at Nigliva, the site of Kapila~ vastn, and Riimmindei, the site of the Lumbiui Gardeu, the birthplace of Gautama Ruddha, north of

the Bast? District. There, is a tradition that the valley of

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THE CONQUESTS OP SAMUDRA GUPTA. 881 But his vast empire could not bo held together by weaker hands, and in the

time of Samudra Gupta the valley must certainly have been included in the frontier kingdom of Nepal, which lay outside theempire. The imperial boundary probably included the whole Tarai, and ran along the outermost range of hills. Hiuen Tsiang

apparently did not personally visit Nep?la. He describes the kingdom as lying among the Snowy Mountains, and says that a

traveller comes to it by "crossing some mountains and entering a valley." l This phrase shows that he did not consider the

Tarai, or lowlands, as belonging to the mountain kingdom, and I think we may safely assume that Samudra Guptas dominions

oxtonded to tho natural frontier of tho lower hills. The kingdom of Nep?la is not mentioned by Fa-hian. 5. The Kingdom of

Kartrpura. Nothing is known positively concerning the situation of this kingdom, which does not appear to be elsewhere

mentioned. It may have lain in the Western Himalayas, and have corresponded roughly to the modern Almora, Garhw?l, andKam?on. The enumeration of the frontier kingdoms seems to proceed in regular geographical order, beginning with Samatata

on the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and pro ceeding northwards through J)av?ka to Nep?la, and thence westwards toKartrpura. Tho western provinces of the empire certainly marched with the territories of the tribes, which will be considered

in tho next section. The kingdoms of the forest kings must have formed to a largo extent the southern frontier, the rest of

which seems to have been formed by tho territories of certain minor tribes. The eastern frontier Nitpftl was inelud?d in tho dominions ofAn'olca. (F?hrer, " Progress Report for 18!ir>,*' p. 2; Oldlield, " Skelehes in Nipal," pp. 21G-?.) Other pillan arc believed to exist north of the Odrakhpur District. 1

Deal, " Records," ii, 80.

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882 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. has been accounted for ; and the kingdom of Nepal must have covered a

largo portion of tho northern frontier. It is, consequently, difficult to find any possible position for Kartrpura, a frontier

kingdom, other than that suggested. SECTION V.?THE FRONTIER TRIBES. The frontier tribes who obeyed thoemperor's order and performed hoiuago are enumerated as follows :? 1. Millava, 2. Arjuntlyana, 3. Yaudheya, 4. Mi?draka, 5.

Abhlra, 6. Priirjuna, 7. Sanak?n?ka, 8. Kilka, and 9. Kharaparika. These names will now be discussed in order. 1. Tin? MX lavaTin n i?. The Brhat Samhitd correctly classes the Malavas in the northern division of India.1 The tribe has given its name to a

province which still retains it. The modern Malwil is the extensive region bordered on the east by the Bundelkhand districts

and part of the Central Provinces, on the north by parts of the North-Western Provinces and Rilj putitna, on the west by

Riljputilna, and on tho south by the Narmadil river. The name is, in fact, used loosely as an equivalent for Central ludia, thatis to say, the group of native states, comprising Gw?li?r, Indfir, Bhop?l, and many others, wdiich 1 Ind. Ant., xxii, 184.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 883 are under the control of the Goveriior-Gerioral'ff Agent for Central India.

In this sense M?lw? is distinct from R?jputa?a, which consists of the group of states under the control of the Agent for R?jputa?a. But this distinction is an arbitrary, administrative one, based on the political arrangements rendered necessary by the

chaos of the eighteenth century. In ancient times the M?lava country comprised a large part of the vast region now known as

R?jput?na, aud the M?lava tribe can bo traced far to tho north. Tho M?lava section of the Sikhs is located east of tho Satlaj,

and the Visnu Pur?na mentions the M?lavas as dwelling among the Parip?tra (or Pariy?tra) mountains, which seem to be the

same as the R?jput?na or Aravalli hills. These hills stretch across R?jput?na, and terminate at Delhi. There is, therefore,

warrant for supposing that the term M?lw?, or the M?lava country, may at times have been understood to comprise even

Northern R?jput?na. The M?lava coins have been found in vast numbers at N?gar in the Jaipur State, and this town mustcertainly have been included in the M?lava territory. But tho M?lava country, even in ancient times, appears to have been more ordinarily

understood to mean approxi mately the region which still retains the name of M?lw?, with the southern parts of R?jput?na. Inthis region Ujjain and Besnagar were tho principal cities. Ujjain, now in the Gw?li?r State (lat. 23? 11' 10" N. and long. 75?

51' 45" 15.), is one of the seven sacred cities of the Hindus, and has been famous from the dawn of Indian history. Besnagar, or

Wessanagara, is the ruined city adjoining Bhilsa in tho Bhop?l State (lat. 23? 39' N. and long. 77? 50' 15.). The famous topes ofS?nci are in the neighbourhood. Cunningham considers that Besnagar was certainly the capital of Eastern, as Ujjain was the

capital of Western, M?lava.1 The coins to which allusion has been made deserve some 1 "Coins of Ancient India," p. 99.

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884 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. further notice here, because they throw a faint light on the mention of tho

M?lava tribe in the inscription.1 These coins are found chiefly in the country about a hundred miles north of Ujjain, inSouthern R?jput?na, about Ajmer, Tonk, and Chitor. Mr. Carlleyle obtained several thousands of them at the ancient city of

N?gar in the Jaipur State, forty-live miles SS15. of Tank. They are almost all very small, ranging in weight from four 1o nine

grains, and are evidently intended to be the sixteenth and thirty-second parts of the Indian pana of 140 grains.2 ?Snne are circularand somo are square. Their historical vainc lies in the legend which occurs on many of them, and is either simply M?lav?hna, "of the

Ma lavas," or M?lav?hna jaya, "victory to the M?lavas," the genitive being in Prakrit (Hoernle). This legend shows that the

coinage is that of a tribe, not of a kingdom, and furnishes an interesting confirmation of Ilariscna's reference to the M?lavas as

a frontier tribe. The types of the coins are veiy various, and some present other legends, which have not }ret been interpreted.Another confirmation of the fact that the M?lavas were organized under some form of tribal constitution, and not governed by

inonarchs, is afforded by other inscriptions. The Mandasor (Dasor) inscription of Yasodharman and Visnu Yardhana is datedin the year 689 " from the supremacy of the tribal constitution of tho M?lavas," equivalent to A.n. 533-4.3 Mandasor is tho chief

town in the district of the same name in Sindhia's Dominions (Gw?li?r State) in Western M?lw?, and is situated on the river

Siwan?, in hit. 24? 3' N. and long. 75? 8' E., about eighty-five miles north-west of Ujjain. 1 The references for the coins arc: Cunningham,"Reports,*' vi, 165, 174 seqq. ; xiv, pp. 140-161, pi. xxxi, Nos. 19-26 ; ' Coins of Ancient India," pp. 9;>, 06; "Catalogue of the Coins of the Indian Museum" (Rodgors),

part iii. pp. 16-27, pi. i i. A few of the coins elassed by the Catalogue as Mftlava are really Nfiga coins, e.g. Nos. 12,161 and 12,462 oil page 26. - 116 grains *seem to be the

truo weight of the pana, rather than 144, tho figure adopted by Cunningham. 1This is Fleet's interpretation of the words ganattthili-ras?t, but Kielhorn takes them as

simply meaning "according to tho reckoning of.1'

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 885 A lntor inscription at Gyilrispur, twenty-four miles north-cast of Blulsa, is

dated in the " M?lava era"; and one from Konaswa, in South-Eastern R?j puta?a, is dated in the era of "the Milla va lords"(Mdlave?dndm).1 Everybody now recognises tho fact that the era indicated by these various phrases is identical with that

moro familiarly known as the era of Yikrama or Vikramilditya, roughly equivalent to u.c. 57? The earliest known dates in this

era under tho later ?amo (V.S. 428 to 898) all occur in inscriptions from Eastern Rtljputilua, chicily that part of Eastern

Riljputilna which borders on, or is included in, Millava. This fact indicates that the era, under both names, really originated in

the Millava country, which is not surprising when it is remembered that Ujjain was tho principal seat of Hindu astronomical

learning, aud the meridian from whicb longitude was calculated. All attempts to connect the establishment of the era with any

definite historical event have been hitherto unsuccessful, and scholars are now agreed that no historical foundation exists fortho common belief that the era was founded by a king Vikramilditya. Wo cannot feel any confidence that the date u.c. 57 is

that of any special crisis in tho history of the M?lava tribe. Professor Kielhoru holds that tho inscriptions which connect theera with tho Millavas merely "show that from about the fifth to the ninth century this era was by poets believed to be specially

used by the princes and people of Millava, while another era or other eras were known to be current in other parts of India." But the

inscriptions are certainly good to prove the persistence of a tradition of the existence of the Millavas as a tribe or nation. Therivers Betwa and Jumna may be fairly assumed as the eastorn boundary of tho frontier M?lava tribe, and as the western

boundary of ?Samudra Gupta's empire. The comparatively small province occupied by tho Abhlras, who 1 Thera inscriptions arcdiscussed by Fleet, " Gupta Inscriptions," Intr. p. 67 ; pp. 79, 160; aud by Kicluorn, Ind. Ant., xx, 404.

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886 THE CONQUESTS OP SAMUDRA GUPTA. will bo discussed presently, seems to have formed an enclave in the

extensive territory of the M?lavas. 2. The ?rjunayana Truie. Tho position of tho territory of this tribe is not known withaccuracy. The tribe is grouped in the Brhat Samhitd with the Madras, Yaudheyas, and other tribes of Northern India, but tho

mere collocation of names in tho Brhat S nhhit? lists does not, as Cunningham erroneously supposod that it did, give any

information as to the relativo position of the tribes named. A few very rare coins with tho legend Arjun?yan?m, "of the

?rjunayanas," in early characters have been found. Only two or thrco specimens are known, of which tho exact findspot does

not seem to bo recorded. Tho type is related to that of tho Northern Satrap coins, and the ?rjunayana country may reasonably be regarded

as corre sponding to the region between tho M?lava and Yaudheya territories, or, roughly speaking, tho Bharatpur and Alwar

States, west of Agra and Mathur?, the principal seat of the Northern Satraps.1 The frontier of Samudra Gupta's empire atthis point appears to have been practically the line which now separates the British districts from the Native States. 3. The

Yaudheya Tribe. Whether by accident or design, the enumeration of the frontier tribes by Harisena appears to bo made withsome regard to their order in geographical position. He begins with the M?lavas at the south-west frontier, proceeds

northwards to the Arjun?yauas, and goes on in tho samo direction to tho Yaudheyas and tho M?drakas. He then 1 One of the coinsis very clearly engraved in Prinsep's "Essays" (Thomas), pi. xliv, 2. Cunningham* had another specimen, which is badly figured in 44 Coins of Ancient India,*' pi. viii,

26. A specimen iu tho cabinet of the Asiatic Society of Reugal may be that figured by Prinsep.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 887 seems to return to the south-west corner, aud beginning with the Abh?ra

tribe (No. 5), to proceed eastward along the southern frontier. We have seen that although the list of southern kingdoms iserratic, the enumeration of the frontior kingdoms appears to be made in the order of geographical position. The portion of the

inscription now under discussion is in prose, and its author, being untrammelled by the difficulties of verse, would naturally

follow in his mind the frontier lines when enumerating tho frontier kingdoms and tribes. The position of the Yaudheya tribe is

known with sufficient accuracy. The name, which is Sanskrit, means ' warrior/ and is mentioned by Piinini (circa u.c. 300) as

that of a tribe in tho Punjab.1 It still survives in the form of Johiya-bilr, the name of tho tract on the border of the

Bahtiwalpur State, along both banks of the Satlaj.2 The findspots of the coins, which are all of copper or brass, with one

exception, indicate that the extensive territories of the tribe comprised the southern portion of the Panj?b, including theSikh States and the northern parts of Riljputilna. Either the Bills or the 115vi river was probably tho north-westernboundary of tho tribal territory, whieh abutted on the territory of the Mildrakas in tho Central Punjab. The cities of Lahor,

Balulwalpur, B?kau?r, LOdii?na, and Delhi roughly indicate tho limits of the tribal position. The tribe appears to have beenof an active and aggressive temper. Tho Satrap Rudradiltml of Surilstnl, in A.n. 150 (72 ftaka), records that "ho annihilated

tho Yaudheyas, who had become arrogant and disobedient in consequence of tbeir receiving from all Ksatriyas the title of ' theheroes.' " 3 A quantity of votive tablets bearing tho proud legend "of the Yaudheyas, who know how to devise victory," wasfound a fow years ago at Sunit in the L?diana 1 Bliandarkar in Ind. Ant., i, 23. 2 Ciinniiigliaui, "Reports," xiv, 140. * ' earvva-kfatravieki'tU'Vlra s'abda" (Ind. Ant., vii, 262).

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888 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. District. These seem to date from the third century A.n., and to be

contemporary with tho coius of the Warrior Type. The coins occur in several divergent types, and certainly extend over aperiod of several centuries. Their dates may be roughly defined as extending from B.c. 100 to A.n. 400. Tho tribe must have

been included within tho limits of the extended empire of Candra Gupta II, the son and successor of Samudra Gupta, and the

tribal coinage probably thon ceased. Ono class of coins, which majr bo conveniently called the " Warrior Type," is closely

related to the coinage of the great Kus?n kings Kaniska and Huviska, and exhibits the legend Jaya Yaudheya gaiiasya, "

victory of tho Yaudheya tribe." Theso coins are designed and executed with remarkable boldness and skill, and seem to date

for the most part from tho third century a.D. Some may possibly be as late as the time of Samudra Gupta. Certain coins of this

class have in the obverse field the syllable dvi (apparently a contraction of dvitiya, ' second '), or, more rarely, the syllable // (acontraction for trtlya, ' third '). These syllables are usually interpreted to mean that tho coins in question were issued

respectively by tho second and third sections of the tribe.1 The similar coins without any numeral may have been struck by thofirst section. Another class of coins, more rudely executed and perhaps later in date, exhibit on the obverse the six headed effigy of the god

K?rtikeya, and the name of a chief, Sv?ni? Br?hmana Yaudheya. The earliest coins are small brass pieces, with an elephant on

one side and a humped bull on the other, accompanied by Buddhist symbols.2 Probably the tribe, in common with the rest ofIndia, gradually abandoned Buddhism and reverted to orthodox Hinduism. 1 Rubier agrees with Cunningham iu this interpretation ("Origiuof Brahm? Alpha bet," p. 46). -The liest published account of the Yaudheya coins is that in Cunningham'a " Reports," xiv, 1.19-145. The account in "Coins of Ancient

India," pp. 75-0, is more confused, but the plate in that work ?a better than that of tho ' Reports?." I possess a line set of Yaudheva coina. Tho seals, or votiv e tablets,

are described by llocrule iu Proc. A.S.ll. for 1884, p. 137.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 880 4. The M?draka Tribe. The M?draka tribe is plainly the same as that called

Madraka or Aladra in the Brhat Samhitd1 and the Mahd bhdrata. The capital of the country was the famous city Sangala, orSilkala, the S?lgala of the Milinda Panha. Tho tribe seems also to have been known by the names Jilrtika and Bithika. The

tribal territory is still known as Madra de&, the country between tho Rilvi and Cawlb rivers. According to nomo authorities, Mddra-tles

extended on the west to tho Jholani mid on the oust to the Bias river. In lb? narrower signification tho country so named is equiva

lent to the lllchiiil Dual) only. In the wider signification it comprises also the BilrrDuiib between the Bias and Rilvi, nnd the

Caj Duiib between tho Catislb and Jhelam. The Mildrakas wore, therefore, the immediate neighbours of the Yaudheyas, and

occupied the central parts of the Punjab. Cunningham's identification of the Mildraka capital, San gala or Silkala, with a hill

called Sangla Tibba in the Gujiilnwilla District, was undoubtedly erroneous. The true site of tho city is probably eitherChuniot or Shilhkot in the Jhang District, east of tho Rilvi, in the Bar? Duiib. The Bills, therefore, may be accepted as the

boundary between the Yaudheyas east of that river and the Mildrakas to tho west.2 The Jalandhar Duilb, betweeu the Satlaj andthe upper course of the Bills, was probably included in Samudra Gupta's empire, of which the Bills wrould have been the

frontier. The Mildrakas would thus bo in the strict sense a frontier tribe. 1 Ind. Ant., xxii, 183. * Cunningham's arguments in favour of hisidentifient ion of S?kala with the petty hill Hnugiila Tihba will be fou nd in " Reports," ii, 192-200. Tli

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890 THE CONQUESTS OP SAMUDRA GUPTA. 5. The ?jiiiTka Trire. The name of tho Ah?r caste is the phonetic equivalent

of Abhlra, and this caste is so widely spread and numerous iu Northern and Western India that tho correct location ofSamudra Gupta's frontier tribe appears at first sight a matter of some difficulty. But the fact that the tribal territory lay on

the frontier of the empire gives the clue to the solution of tho problem. A very early inscription at N?sik, NNI?. of Bombay,

mentions an Abhlra king, and we know that the peninsula of Gujarat was in ancient times largely occupied by Ahlrs.1

Ptolemy's province of Abiria was on tho western coast, and the country between the Tilptl river and Devagarh was known as

Abhlra.2 But tho Abhlras of the Bombay districts lay too far westward to be counted as a frontier tribe in the time of Samudra

Gupta, whoso south-western frontier appears to have been tho river Betwa, and these western Abhlras cannot be the tribe

referred to. The small tract called Ahraura, near Cha?ar in tho Mirzilpur District of tho North-Western Provinces, cannot be theregion in Harisena's mind. That tract, an unimportant pargana, was according to tradition originally occupied by Kols.

Except the name there is nothing to connect it with the Abhlras.3 Moreover, the whole of the Mirzilpur District must havebeen included within 1 he limits of the empire. One region, and one only, exactly suits tho conditions of the problem, and can

be identified with confidence as the seat of the Abhlra frontier tribe in the days of Samudra Gupta. This region lies west of the

Betwa river, and 1 No. 12, " Buddhist Cave Temples" (Archaeological Survey of Western India, vol. iv), p. 101, pi. liii. This inscription of tho ?bh?ra kingIsvarascua may date from about a.D. 200. 2 Quoted iu Elliot's " Races of the North-Western Provinces" (cd. R?unies), s.v. ?Ali?r.' 3 See lleanies, op. cit., and the

Gazetteer of tho Mirzfipur District, s.v. 4 Ahraurn.'

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 891 sl.ilI hoars tho name of Ah?rw?ra. Tho Ahirs dwelling iu this region still

occupy a prominent position. Cunning ham's description of Ah?rw?ra is as follows:? " With the accession of the Moguls, thedomains of the Khichis wero largely extended on the east by the accession of tho two districts of Jharkon and Bah?durgarh,

the former lying to the west and the latter to the east of the Sindh river. These two districts originally formed part of the

ancient Hindu province of Ah?rw?ra, which extended from llanod on the Ahirpat river to Sironj on the south, and from the

P?rbati river on the west to the Betwa on the east. Within these limits the Ah?rs still form the mass of the population, and the

land is chiefly held by Ahir semindars. During Jay Singh's long war with the Mahrattas, the Ah?rs assorted their

independence, and were not subdued until Baptiste was sent against them." l The province of Ah?rw?ra thus described lies

south of the British District of Jh?us?, and north of Bhilsa, being, for tho most part, included in Sindia's Dominions or theGw?li?r ?State. I think no doubt can be felt that the frontier tribe of Abh?ras in the reign of Samudra Gupta occupied this

provinco of Ah?rw?ra, and formed, as already observed, an enclave, or inset, in the extensive M?lava country. Sir WalterElliot, a very competent authority, regarded the Ah?rs as the northern section of a great pastoral race, formerly holding an

important place in the political con stitution of India, of which the southern section was known as the widely-spread

Kurumbar race. For some hundred years before the seventh century, a period which includes the age of Samudra Gupta, thecountry, from the base of the tableland to the P?lar and Penn?r rivers, was occupied by the Kurumbar?. They appear to havo

formed a sort of Confederate State, under chiefs of their own, each of whom resided in a fortified stronghold, having a district

of greater or less extent under 1 Cunniughain, " Reports," ii, 300. The italics arc mine.

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802 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. its jurisdiction, tho largest of which districts was recognized as the head of

the Union. Each of these twenty-four districts (koftams) was further subdivided into lesser jurisdictions called nddus and nattarns. The tribe was successful in commerce both by land aud sea, and skilled in mining, and produced notable works in

literature, architecture, and sculpture. Tho prevailing religion of the Kurumbars was tho Jaina, and this circumstance added

bitterness to the hostility of the Hindu sovereigns of tho Cola kingdom, who in the eighth or ninth century succeeded in

crushing tho Kurumbar confederation, and incorporating its lands in the Cola (Chola) territories.1 The above brief

description of tho Kurumbar organization and of its overthrow by the southern monarchy appears to me to throw

considerable light on tho organization and fate of the similar tribes who in the fourth century covered the western frontier of

Samudra Gupta's empire. 6. Tub Praiwuna Trire. We have now laboriously traced the eastern, northern, and westernfrontiers of Samudra Gupta's empire, and have reached a point at which the southern extension of tho dominions directly

under his sway must have terminated, or very nearly terminated. Wo havo seen that tho kingdoms and tribes on the frontierare enumerated by Harisena, so far as possible, in the order of geographical position. The Bhllsa country, whicb lies south of

Ahlrwilra, certainly lay within the Millava territories, and tho inference necessarily follows that the Pnlrjuna tribe, whicb is

tho next enumerated, should be looked for to the east or south-east of Ah?rw?ra. Assuming that the Narmadil formed thesouthern boundary of tho empire, tho Pnlrjuna tribe may be provisionally placed in tho Narsifihpur District of the Central

Proviuccs. 1 Sir W. Elliot, "Coins of Southern India" (Intern. Num. Or., vol. iii, part 2), pp. 30, 89 ; and the authorities cited in th e notes.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. $

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804 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. as sacrifices, bringing presents of maidens, (giving) Garuda tokens,1

(surrendering) the enjoyment of their own territories, soliciting (his) commands, etc., (rendered) by the Daivaputras, Sithis,Silhilnusilhis, Sakas, and Murundaa, and by the people of Siihhala and all (other) dwellers iu islands." The arrogant language of

this passage of course exag gerates the deference paid to the subject of the panegyric, and may fairly be interpreted to mean

nothing more than the exchange of complimentary embassies and gifts between the emperor of Northern India and the powers

named. Sanjudra Gupta's victorious raid into the Peninsula would naturally arouse tho fears of tho Sinhalese princes, and no

doubt an embassy from Coylon really visited his Court.2 The identification of tho powers intended by the titles Daivaputra, 85

hi, Si?hi?nusilhi, Sa ka, and Murunda, presonts a dillieult problem. I cannot pretend to solve this problem with absoluto

certainty, but venturo to think that a reason ably probable solution may be offered with some confidence. 1. Tue MurundaKino. The Murundas may possibly have been settled in the hill country of ltlwil, along the Kaimiir range, or, moro probably,

further south in tho Vindhyas or Northern Dakhan, or possibly in Chutia Nilgpur. This conjecture is based merely on theoccurrence of the name Murundadevt, or Munmda-svilminl, in inscriptions dated o.k. 193 and 107 found near the village of

Khoh in the Niigaudh State. The princess so named was the consort of the Maharaja Jayaiiiltha of Uccha-kalpa, in the

neighbourhood of Niigaudh. Her name seems to indicate that she belonged to tho Murunda clan, the territory of which wfasprobably 1 The meaning of " Carm?n-tokens" {yarudmat-anka) is obscure. Fleet supposes it to refer to gold coins, bearing, among other emblems, a representationo? tlit? (iaruda standard, the (?upta equivalent of the Roman eagle. I believe that the term is used in the sense of "standards." 2 I formerly treated the allusion to Ceylon

as "more rhetoric,0 but think the interpretation now placed on tho passage is pr?f?rable.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUFf A. 895 not very remote from the petty principality ruled by her husband. Only one

other certain mention of the Murundas has rewarded iny search, but this is sufRcient to show that thoy were a notable tribe,clan, or reigning family, worthy to bo ranked with the Guptas themselves among the rulers of India. The passage referred to is

in the Jaina Pur?na, called Harivamsa, composed by the poet Jinasena in the Saka year 705 (a.D. 6?i7), and runs as follows :?

Verse 8?'$. " And at tho time of tho nirrdna of V?ra, King P?laka, tho son of (the king of) Avanti, (and) tho protector of the

people, shall be crowned here on earth. (84) His reign (shall last) sixty years. Then, it is said, (the rule) of the kings of tho

country shall endure for a hundred and fifty-five years. (85) Then the earth (shall be the) undivided (possession) of the

Murundas, for forty years ; and for thirty, of the Pushpamitras (or Pushyamitras) ; and for sixty, of Vasumitra and

Agniinitra. (86 and 87) (Then there shall be the rule) of the 'Ass-kings' for a hundred years. Next, (the rule) of Narav?hana forforty years. After (these) two, (the sway) of Bhattub?na (shall last) two hundred and forty (years) ; and the illustrious rule of

the Guptas shall endure two hundred and thirty-one years. This is declared by chronologists." Mr. K. B. Pathale, whopublished the above passage, quotes a couplet from the P?rsv?bhyudaya to show that Vatsar?ja, tho lover of V?savadatt?, was

a Murunda.1 Tho chronology of the Jaina Pur?na is, of course, like that of all Pur?nas, confused, and no statement in a docu

ment of this class can be accepted with confidence. But the passage quoted has certainly so much value, that it proves thoexistence in the soventh century A.n. of a dis tinct tradition that the Murundas for a period of forty years ranked among the

leading ruling races of India. If the Murundas were identical with tho Murandas, my conjecture as to the position of tho

Murunda kingdom must 1 Ind. Ant., xv, 142.

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896 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. bo abandoned. Tho Muranda people is said to be identical with the

Lamp?ka people, the inhabitants of Lampaka, or Lamgh?n, a small country lying along the northern bank of the Kabul river,bounded on tho west and east by the Alingar and Kunar rivers. In tho time of Ninon Tsiang the local royal family had been

extinct for several centuries, and the country was one of the dependencies of Kapisa.1 2. The Saka Kino. The Sakas of India

were undoubtedly a race of foreign origin, which entered India, like so many other races, across the north-western frontier;

and Cunningham may be right in identifying them with the Su tribe, who were, in or about u.c. 125, forced into the pro vinco

of Kipiu or Kophene by the pressure of the advancing Yu-chi (Yue-ti), who included the famous Kus?n clan. It is certain that

the geographer, Isidorus of Charax, writing probably in the first cciituiy of our era, locates the Sakas in Drangiana, which he

calls Sakastene.2 Drangiana was the ancient name of the country along the ilelinand river, and seems to havo been included inKipin. Wo must assume, therefore, that tho Sakas entered India proper by the Qandah?r route. Isidorus of Charax called the

inhabitants of Sakastene Saka-Scythians. Tho author of tho " Periplus," writing 1 Deal, " Records," ii, 90. The uote quotes Mahfibh?rata, vii,4,847, besides Cunningham, Reiuaud, and Lassen. 2 * La Sakast?ne on le Sakastiln tirait sou nom des Sakaa, qui avaient occup? toute r ancienne Araehosie, et peut-?tre

aussi la vall?e du Kaboul, pendant lo premier si?cle avant notre ?re; ils en avaient ?t? chass?s par les Kouchans vers ran 30 av. J.-C, mais le nom de la contr?e y avait

?t? couserv?, et il est rest? jusqu'? nos jours sous la forme Se?staii (Sagast?nc, Scgist?n, Scdjistan). Les ?* winds Yuc-tehi en ont ?t? mnitres pendant plusieurs si?cles.

D'apr?s Agathias, e Sakastnn fut conquis sur eux par Rahraiu 11 (270 -294), qui conf?ra le titre de sakatithah on prince des Sakas a ami ttls Bahram IL " L'historien

latin Vopiseus nous dit qu'un moment od Carus [emperor a.i>. 282-3] traversa l't?uphrato dans sa guerre contre les Perses, Uahram II ?tait occupe sur le? fronti?res de

l'Inde, c'est i\ diro de l'Afghanistan et du Kaboul. Le Snk?i?*lan, ai nsi enlev? aux Kouehans. resta en la pression des Sassanides." ? l>roiiin. 'Monnaie? des grand*

Kouehans": Rev. Num. 181)0, p. 100. M. Dronin quotes Isidoros in edition o f C. M?ller, sec. 18. I have not beeu able to verily the reference to this author.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 897 about a.D. 89,1 calls the countries at the mouth of the Indus " the seaboard

of Scythia," and states that Parthians were the rulers of Indo-Scythia. Probably the terms Parthian and Saka were looselyused as interchangeable. The Parthian rulers at the mouths of the Indus were doubtless connected with the Parthian kings of

the Western Punjab and Afghanistan, of whom Gondophares, about A.n. 30, is the best known. The kings Manes (Moas) and

Azes, of slightly earlier date, who aro known almost exclusively from coins, arc generally considered to bo Sakas, though tho

proof that they were really such does not seem to nie satisfactory.8 The Satraps of Mathur? and Northern India, who seem to

have reigned in the century before and in the century following tho Christian era, betray a Persian origin, both by their

official titlo and by their personal names. The olficial title indicates at least the recollection of a real connection with the

Persian empire, which certainly existed before the conquests of Alexander, and the names of 1 laga?a and Hag?m?sa, bothSatraps, are unmistakably Persian. Tho name of tho Satrap SocbTsa, too, appears to be an Indian i zed form of the Persian

name Zodas. The late Bhagv?nl?l Indraj?, therefore, decided to call these Satraps Pahlavas, or Persians. He was certainlyquite justified in doing this.3 But Dr. B?hler, who calls them "the Saka Satraps of Mathur?," is also justified in his nomenclature.

The Lion Capital of Mathur? is covered with dedicatory Buddhist inscriptions of members of the ruling Satrap family. One of

these is recorded " in honour of the whole 1 Cunningham gives the erroneous date "about a.?. 1G0." See MeCrindle's edition of the " 1'or?plus."Cunningham (" Reports," ii, 47) helieved that "tho tin or Kakns, being the descom?an ts of Scythe-Parthian Dahae, were not distinguishable from tine l'arthians either

in Hpeeeh, manners, or in dress. Their names also were the same as those of the .Viirtliimis." 8 J.R.A.S. 1891, p. ?4?. "Tho Northern Kshatrapas." The ruins of these

Satraps are also discussed in " (Joins of Ancient India," pp. 85-00, pi. viii. Rut the published accounts o? the coius are far from exhaustive.

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898 THE CONQUESTS OP SAMUDRA GUPTA. Sakastane," or Saka country, and it is reasouahlo to infer that the ruling

family was connected with that country.1 I am not aware of any other proof that the Northern Satraps were Sakas. If it beassumed that they wcro Sakas, it appears plain that tho Saka tri bo liad a close connection with Persia, and might properly be

described as Persians (Pahlavas), and that they wero also sometimes regarded as identical with Parthians. Mathur?? was

certainly included in tho dominions of Samudra Gupta, and tho rulo of the semi-Persian Northern Satraps seems to have

terminated long before his day.2 Cons?quent]}', even if it prove to be the case that the Northern Satraps were Sakas, they

cannot be the foreign power in alliance with Samudra Gupta. It is possible that in his reign Saka settlements may still have

existed in Seistiln, the Qandahilr country, and along the Indus, but the ruling powers of the north western frontier seem to be

fully accounted for by tho terms Daivaputra, Silhi, and Silbanusilhi, which will be dis cussed presently, and Seistiln appears tohavo been included in the Persian dominions (Drouin, op. cit., p. 1G1). Tho Saka king of the inscription, therefore, cannot be

tho ruler of Seistiln. The Brhat Samhifd classes tho Sakas in the Western Division of India, along with the Aparantakas,Ilaihayas, J rugas, Mleccha8, Paratas, S?ntikas, Vaisyas, and Vokk?nas. The country Apa ran ta corresponded with the

modern Jvonkana, tho district extending from Gokurna, in the Kilrwilr collectorate, to the Daman Ganga, the frontier river of

Gujarat, or perhaps even further north to the 1 J.l?.A S 1801, " The Mathui? Taon Villar Inscriptions," pp. 530, 631, 610. Sakastniui (&ikasth?na) isidentieal with the Sakastene of Isidoras. 2 The coins of the Northern Satraps, many of winch 1 possess, are all of early date, and probably none arc later than A.n. 100.

An inscription of the reign of Cand?a Gupta 1? dated o.k. 82 (?A.n. 400) lias been found at Mathur? (*' Gupta Inscriptions," p. 25), and another inscription dated " in

the tifty sevcuth year" is probably to be referred to the Gnpta era (Itiihlcr, Epigraphia Indiva, ii, 198, 210). If this is correct, tho date will fall iu the reign of Samudra

Gupta.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 890 Til pi (TilptI). Tho capital was Surparaka, the modern Sopilnl, near Bassein

(Vasai) in the Tlulnil District.1 The Pilrata, or Parada country, must have been the Su rat District north of Apanlnta.2 ThoIlaihayas occupied tho upper course of the Narraadil, in tho region now known as the Central Provinces.3 The Jrngas,

Siuitikas, Vaisyas, and Vokkiluas have not, so far as I know, been identified. Mlcccha is a general term corresponding to the

Greek ?dp?apos, and is sufficiently explained by the following passage from the Visnu Purilua, which relates how Sagara

made "the Yavanas shave their heads entirely; the Sakas he compelled to shave (the upper) part of their heads ; the Paradas

wore their hair long ; and the Pahlavas let their beards grow ; in obedience to his commands. Them also, and othor Ksatriya

races, ho deprived of tho established usages of oblations to fire and tho study of tho Vedas, and, thus separated from religious

rites, and abandotied by the Brahmans, these different tribes became Mleeehas."4 Mann, too, classes the Sakas with theDravidas aud certain other tribes as degraded Ksatriyas.5 The date of tho Brhat Samhitd is known to bo about the middle of tho sixth

century A.D. These passages show that at that date the Sakas were known as a foreign people settled in Western India near theParadas and Pahlavas, or Persians, from whom they were distinguished by a different mode of wearing their hair. The

contempt of these foreign settlers for the niceties of Hindu casto and ritual excited the disgust of Brahmanical writers, who 1Ind. Ant., xiv, 259; xxii, 189. 2 R?? blinda tin' s N?sik ii iseriptioii, No. 5, names the rivers Ib?, Pfirndl, Damiina, Tupi, Karabeiia, and iKthniiiik?. The l'?r?d? is the

I'ftradi. or Rar, river in tho S?rut District ("Archaeological Sarvcy of Western India," iv, 10U, note 2). 3 Cunningham, "Reports," ix, 77. 1 " Vishnu Rnrfiriii" (ed.

Wilson), R. iv, ch. iii, vo l. iii, p. 294; quoted by Fleet in tnd. Ant., xxii, 185. 6 Manu, x, 4 4; quoted in "Archaeological Survey of Western ludia," iii, 65, noto.

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900 THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. grouped all such unclean foreigners under the comprehensive title Mleccha,

while giving them a place in the Hindu system by inventing the fiction that the strangers were degraded Ksatriyas. The Sakaking of the Allahabad inscription should, in accordance with the above indications, be looked for iu Western rather than in

Northern India. It seems to me hardly possible to doubt that tho Saka prince referred to in the Allahabad inscription was ono

of the Saka Satraps, who " held sway, from the last quarter of tho first century A.n. to tho end of tho fourth, over a large

territory in Western India, which may bo said, generally speaking, to have comprised M?lwa, Sind, Kacch, Kilthiilwilr,

Gujarat proper, and the northern Koukan .... Suras tra was one province only ofthe kingdom."l These powerful princes are now

commonly termed the Western Satraps, to distinguish them from the Northern Satraps of Mathunl and Upper ludia. It is

certain that all the dates of the Western Satraps are recorded in the Saka era, and Bhngv?nhll Indrajl thought it probable thatthis era was instituted in A.n. 78 by Nahap?na, the first Satrap, to commemorate his victory over the S?takarni, or Andhra

king. Most writers ascribe the foundation of the era to the Kusiln sovereign Kaniska. Usavadilta (Itsabhadatta), the son-in-lawof the Satrap Nahap?na, appears to expressly call himself a Saka in one of the Nilsik inscriptions, which series of records

contains several other references to the Sakas collectively, aud to individual members of the race.2 Nahapi?na was succeeded

by Chastana, a member of a different family though probably also a Saka, in or about a.D. 111. " lio was probably to some extent con

temporary with Nahap?na, and, like him, the general of1 Rha?rv?nl?l Indraj? and Rapson, "The Western Kshatrapas," in J.R.A.S. 1S90, Vol. XXII,N.8., p. 040. - '' Archaeological Survey of Western India," iv, pp. 101 (noto 3), 104, 109, 11 1.

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THE CONQUESTS OF SAMUDRA GUPTA. 901 sonto Saka sovereign ; hut, while Nal i ap? n a held Sur?s tra and tho

adjacent districts, Chastana would seem to havo conquered a great part of Western R?jput?na and to have established himselfat A j mere, where the greater part of his coins aro found. Subsequently he seems to have conquered tho kingdom of M?lwa

and fixed his capital at Ujjain ; there can be no doubt that he is identical with the Tiaarav?s mentioned by the geographer

Ptolemy as ruling in this capital. After the death of Nahap?na, who had no son, Chastana seems to havo succeeded to his

dominions ; and the Ksutrapa kingdom for the future may ho described as comprising the territories conquered hy their first

two Satraps." l That kingdom of the Western Satraps had probably before the time of Samudra Gupta absorbed a large

portion of tho tribal territory of the M?lavas. The kingdom was itself conquered and absorbed into the empire by Samudra

Gupta's son and successor, Candra Gupta II, and remained incor porated with it until the collapse of the imperial Guptapower near the end of the fifth century. Samudra Gupta, whoso direct conquests had reached tho borders of M?lw?, must

necessarily havo be