Mediterranean  Society:  The  Roman  Phase  

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!  Legend  of  Romulus  and  Remus  !  Rome  Founded  753  BCE  !  Indo-­‐European  migrants  c.  2000  BCE  !  Bronze  c.  1800  BCE,  Iron  c.  900  BCE  

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!  Originally  from  Anatolia  !  Colonized  Roman  regions  !  Society  declines  late  6th  c.  BCE  

!  Greek  maritime  attacks  !  Celtic  invasions  from  north  

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! Monarchy  through  7th-­‐6th  c.  BCE  !  Streets,  temples,  public  buildings  

! Major  center  of  trade  routes  

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!  509  BCE  Romans  overthrow  last  Etruscan  king  

!  Roman  forum  built  !  Republican  constitution  !  Executive:  2  consuls  !  senate  

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!  Patricians  (aristocrats)  !  Plebeians  (commoners)  !  Major  class  conflict  5th  c.  BCE  !  Plebeians  allowed  to  elect  tribunes  for  representation  !  Rights  expanded  through  3rd  c.  BCE  !  Yet  6-­‐month  appointments  of  dictators  

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!  Dominated  Etruscans  !  Took  over  iron  industry  5th-­‐4th  c.  BCE  !  Expansion  via  military  threat  and  incentives  

!  Tax  exemptions  !  Trade  privileges  !  Citizenship  

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!  Conflict  with  Carthage,  264-­‐164  BCE  !  Three  major  wars  over  Sicilian  grain  supply  !  Later  conflict  with  declining  Hellenistic  Empires  !  Rome  dominates  Mediterranean  by  middle  of  2nd  C.  BCE  

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!  Land  distribution  !  Perennial  problem  !  Development  of  large  latifundia  !  Unfair  competition  for  smaller  landholders  

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!  Tiberius  and  Gaius  !  Attempted  to  limit  land  holdings  of  aristocrats  !  Assassinated  !  Development  of  private  armies  made  up  of  landless  

peasants  !  Gaius  Marius  (with  reformers)  !  Lucius  Cornelius  Sulla  (with  aristocrats)  

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!  87  BCE  Gaius  Marius  takes  Rome  !  Lucius  Cornelius  Sulla  drives  Marius  out  83  BCE  

!  Reign  of  terror  follows  

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!  Nephew  of  Marius  !  Escapes  Sulla’s  terror  

!  Relatively  young,  well-­‐timed  trip  abroad  !  Rises  to  popularity  

!  Public  spectacles,  victories  in  Gaul  !  Attacks  Rome  49  BCE  !  Names  self  Dictator  for  life  in  46  BCE  

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!  Centralized  military,  governance  under  personal  control  !  Redistribution  of  land  to  war  veterans,  other  allies  !  Major  building  projects  reduce  urban  unemploymnent  !  Extended  citizenship  to  provinces  !  Aristocrats  threatened,  assassinate  Caesar  in  44  BCE  

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!  Civil  conflict  follows  death  of  Caesar  !  Nephew  Octavian  fights  Mark  Antony  &  Cleopatra  

!  Takes  title  Augustus  27  BCE  

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! Monarchy  disguised  as  a  republic  !  Increasing  centralization  of  political,  military  power  

!  Stablilized  empire  !  Death  in  14  CE  

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!  Roman  occupation  of  increasingly  remote  areas  !  Gaul,  Germany,  Britain,  Spain  

!  Coordination  of  crop  production,  transport  of  natural  resources  

!  Developed  infrastructure,  cities  emerge  

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!  27-­‐250  CE  !  Facilitated  trade,  communication  !  Roadwork  

!  Curbs,  drainage,  milestones  !  Postal  service  

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!  Twelve  Tables,  c.  450  BCE  !  Adapted  to  diverse  populations  under  Roman  Rule  !  Innocent  until  proven  guilty  !  Right  to  challenge  accusers  in  court  

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!  Latifundia:  production  for  export  !  Regional  specialization  increases  !  Integration  of  Empire-­‐wide  economy  !  Mediterranean  Sea:  Mare  Nostrum,  “our  sea”  

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!  Cash  flow  !  Taxes,  tribute,  spoils,  commerce  

!  Massive  construction  projects  !  Statuary,  monumental  architecture,  aqueducts  

!  Technology:  concrete  

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!  Imported  goods  !  Underground  sewage  !  Circus  Maximus  

!  250,000  spectators  !  Colosseum  !  Gladitorial  Games  

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!  Pater  Familias:  “father  of  the  family”  !  Right  to  arrange  marriages,  sell  children  into  slavery  

! Women  not  allowed  to  inherit  property  !  Rarely  enforced  

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!  Newly  rich  challenge  aristocracy  !  Yet  poor  class  increasing  in  size  !  Distraction:  “Bread  and  Circuses”  

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!  2nd  c.  CE:  estimated  at  1/3  of  Empire  population  !  Customary  manumission  at  age  30  

!  Agricultural  work,  quarries,  mines  !  Chain  labor  !  Revolt  under  Spartacus,  73  BCE  

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!  Polytheistic  ! Major  gods  !  Tutelary  deities  !  Absorption  of  gods  from  other  cultures  

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! Marcus  Tullius  Cicero  (106-­‐46  BCE)  ! Major  orator,  writer  !  Influenced  by  Greek  thought  !  Proponent  of  Stoicism  

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!  From  Zoroastrian  myth:  god  of  Sun,  light  !  Roman  version  emphasizes  strength,  courage,  discipline  !  Women  not  admitted  into  cult  !  Appealed  to  military  !  Cult  of  Isis  also  popular  

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!  Jewish  monotheism  at  odds  with  most  ancient  cultures  !  Refusal  to  recognize  state  gods  !  Repeated  Jewish  rebellions  !  Romans  finally  crush  Jewish  self-­‐governance  in  Jewish  

Wars  (66-­‐70  CE)  

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! Messianic  Jewish  Cult  !  Baptism  !  Ascetic  lifestyle  !  Dead  Sea  Scrolls  

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!  Jewish  teacher  ! Moral  code,  reputation  for  miracle-­‐working  !  Romans  fear  instigation  of  rebellion,  crucify  Jesus  

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!  Belief  in  Jesus’  resurrection,  divine  nature  !  Title  Christ:  “Anointed  One”  !  Teachings  recorded  in  New  Testament  

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!  Extends  teachings  far  beyond  Jewish  circles  !  Intensive  travel,  missionary  activity  

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!  Local  leaders:  Bishops  !  Regional  variation  in  doctrine  and  ritual  

!  Nature  of  resurrection  !  Role  of  women  

!  Gradual  acceptance  of  core  texts  

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!  Roman  persecution  !  Yet  dramatic  expansion  of  Christianity  

!  Especially  with  dispossessed,  disenfranchised  classes  ▪  Urban  poor  ▪  women  

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