resumo geography

8/2/2019 Resumo Geography

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Sphere of Influence is the area surrounding a settlement that is affected by that settlement.

9.4 URBANISATION

Rise in percentage of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas.

In MEDCs as the country industrialized many people from the rural areas went to towns and even cities

to work for the factory owners, the new big thing. More than 90% is living in towns and cities since then.

In LEDCs something else happens between the locals, droughts, civil wars, famine and landlessness. No

chances for education, electricity, piped water etc and instead of becoming better it becomes worst.

While LEDCs continue to grow, MEDCs are losing population.

9.5 Land uses

Central Business District- CBD: Lots of things to see and do (entertainment and shops)

Inner city: Small houses made for factory workers.

Inner suburbs: Houses quite close together but more open space than inner city

Outer suburbs: Houses small in groups, parks, woods and golf course

Rural-urban fringe: Almost the country side.

9.6 Urban Zoning

An Urban Zoning (areas of different land use in different areas) is what we saw on the last pg. the

division into districts. The causes of this are:

Cost of land

Accessibility (the way to get to a place easily)

As far as you get from the CBD, the price of land gets cheaper.

9.7 Urban Problems in MEDCs

The inner city has high levels of deprivation (poorest zone of most MEDC cities)

When the factories developed in the 19th

century, factory owners made some very small houses for their

workers to live and would stuff a lot of them together, after some time, these factories closed because

they ran out of resources and machines were too old, with this unemployment rose, single parents,


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students, low paid and low skilled. Since then they have been trying to improve these things in the inner

city such as cleaning canals, social building housing and stylish bars and restaurants. This provides many

jobs.

9.8 Urban Problems in LEDCs

In LEDCs such as Brazil, there is a something called shanty town (favelas) that is a community that

springs up in an area that used to have no houses. They have no running supply, lack of health care,

crime, drugs and many more problems inside them. There is lots of diseases and poverty. A squatter is

someone who settles the land without legal rights.

9.9 Urban models of LEDCs

9.11 Urban Sprawl

Growth in the towns are resulting in rural-urban fridge (where urban reaches rural), this is growing to a

bad way. Many MEDCs cities are losing population, who are going to smaller towns and villages nearby,

this is called counter- urbanization.

They are moving to villages because of the crime, the pollution, traffic, and others. They want better

transport and peace and no noise, where they can have in the countryside. But, this amount of people

going to the countryside can damage the wildlife; give off more air and noise pollution and other

naturalists damages

Tourism

Main causes of Tourism

Technology has grown a lot in the past few years which brought benefits to transportation methods,

which made people more accessible to places in a much easier and faster way. It has intimidated more

people to want to discover more cultures.

Main advantages

Brings more money to the country

Souvenirs are sold giving more money for the locals to by more food, and attend more

entertaining acts.

Main disadvantages


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Pollution

Increase in land cost (depending on if it is a beach)

Locals are disturbed (maybe because of the loud music)

Lack of water

Less culture as people disappear

Coastal processes, Landforms and Management

Waves are caused by the friction of the wind on the surface of the water. The wind tugs cause the

water to move, and each water particle moves in a circular motion and it returns to its starting point. It

moves into the shallow water, until it breaks. Waves rushing up the beach are called the swash, waves

draining back down the beach are called the backwash.

Factors that make the wave bigger and stronger:

Speed of the Wind (most important)

The time the wind blows The fetch (length of water the wind blows over)

The larger the fetch, the more powerful the wave.

Constructive waves- smaller waves which deposit material in the beach because the swash is stronger

than the backwash. (Spilling waves)

Destructive waves- stronger waves which erode the beach because the backwash is stronger than the

swash. (Plugging waves)

Coastal Erosion

Waves crash against the rock non- stop, with lots of these happenings, the rock ends up broken.

Attrition- when pebbles dash themselves against the shore and brake into smaller particles and

later form sand

Hydraulic Action- when the waves hit very strongly into the cracks of the cliff, air is pressured

into the cracks. When the wave sinks back again the air is pressured out and the cliff hole

expands and becomes bigger and deeper

Corrosion: When seawater reacts chemically with the minerals in the rock. By doing that it

wears away the rock.

Abrasion- When pebbles and boulders hit the base of the cliff and together with the waves, it

destroys the base of the cliff, undercutting the base.


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Spits are long and narrow ridges of sand running away from the cost which one end is attached

to the land. Long shirt drift, relative shallow sea, good supply of sand and a firmly calm sea with

constructive waves, all of this things help to form a spit.

1. Longshore driftmoves material along the coastline.

2. A spit forms when the material is deposited.3. Over time, the spit grows and develops a hook if wind direction changes

further out.

4. Waves cannot get past a spit, which creates a sheltered area where silt is

deposited and mud flats or salt marshes form.

Bars are a line of sand and other

materials that run parallel to the coastline. They block rivers mouths and

bays. The water behind is called

LAGOON. The lagoos dont last forever

because the waves erode the bars and

the lagoon and sea get together.

Tombolos are ridges of sand and other

materials that link the main land to anisland

Headland - geographical feature which borders the ocean; its formation is done by erosion of

the coast. Cave- underground space

Arch- structure that spans when supporting weight

Stack- pile of something

Sandy beaches sandy beaches

Lagoon a body of shallow sea water or brackish water separated from the sea by some form

of barrier.

Salt marshes an environment in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and salty or

brackish water

Sand dunes- hill of sand

Wave cut platform - narrow flat area often found at the base of a sea cliff or along the shorelineof a lake, bay, or sea that was eroded by the waves
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/coastal/dep_landformsrev2.shtmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/coastal/dep_landformsrev2.shtmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/coastal/dep_landformsrev2.shtml


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LONGSHORE DRIFT

Is the process by which material is moved along a stretch of coastline

The wind causes the waves

direction to move therefore the

material is carried to the opposite

way. It is the link between

erosion and deposition, along the

coast, as the eroded material is

deposited further along the

coastline.

To stop long shore drift, the government on risk areas have adapted

Groynes They interrupt the process of long shore drift as they are wooden and strong! This prevents

the material from the beaches from being transported. One problem with this is that is causes less

material to be transported along the coast line- so this means that other places (along the coast) can

suffer increased erosion

Changes in sea level

Raised beaches- old beaches which are left high above the new sea level

Rias- seaward end of a river valley that has been drowned by a rise in sea level

Fjords- long, narrow bay caused by the drowning of a glaciated valley

Global warming increases sea level as more ice will melt and water expands in volume when it is

warmed. This will cause more erosion of coastlines as there will be more water, and our defenses wont

be enough.

Management of coastlines

How can we stop coastal erosion? Using hard engineering!

Sea walls- can stop waves reaching valuable land

Rock armour- large barrier of rocks which reduce the impact of waves

Beach replenishment- add more sand and shingle.

Sustainable strategy:

If land and houses are worth less than the defenses will cost, do not defend them

Think about the effect of defense on other places

When planning land use along the coast in the future, always keep erosion on your mind.


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Tectonic Activity and Land-based hazards

As you move towards the core, it becomes denser!

There are 2 types of crust:

Oceanic crust (made of basalt) , so dense that it sinks into the mantle where oceanic and continental

crust meet

Continental crust is the crust that makes the continents.

The map shows wherethe plates which make

up the outer crust of

the earth are located


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The mantle below the earth is liquid (very liquid) but it still moves. It is heated from the core which

makes the convection currents and the broken pieces of the crust get moved around on convection

currents.

PLATE MARGINS

Conservative -> (moving against each other ) when there is friction

between the plates, one plate moves faster than the other one, causes

pressure and lead to earthquakes.

Constructive -> (moving apart) the magma cools down several

times so it starts to form mountains and islands in the middle of

the sea. You often find eruptions at these margins.

Collision - > (two continental plates pushing into each other) Neither of them can sink as they have the

same density so they squeeze upwards, forming mountains.

Destructive - > The oceanic crust is denser than the continental

one, so the oceanic sinks. The friction between these two plates

causes friction. The edge of the continental crust gets squashed up

to make fold mountains. The oceanic rust melts and goes into the

mantle, but it takes some sea water (less dense) so it the magma

rises and it explodes at the surface as a volcano. They form fold

mountains

Just to remember:


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Advantageof living next to volcanoes

Volcanic rock weathers to produce soil ideal for farming

Disadvantages of living next to a volcano.

You live under a certain pressure

The volcano produces ash clouds which can cause deaths by asphyxiation

A mudflow mixed with volcanic ash follows river valleys at very high speed.

Intrusive and Extrusive features of a volcano

Volcanic Hazards

Causes: Volcanoes are formed when magma is forced through the crust. It happens on destructive

margins because the melted crust is less dense than the rest of the mantle. If there are gases involved,

they can escape as the magma gets higher, they cause an explosion. If there is old solidified lava (called

plug) blocking the way, the gases and the magma break out in the side of the volcano.

Effects: Ash cloud comes out and can cause deaths by asphyxiation, a mud flow made of water mixed

with volcanic ash, slides down at high speeds and follows the rivers paths.

Solutions: When a seismometer detects any rising magma, it should send an alert signal for immediate

evacuation of the area so that no people die and suffer from the ash clouds.

EarthquakeHazards

Causes: The underlying cause of earthquakes is friction. When the plates try to move, they are still held

by friction, this can be with another plate or with the mantle. The force pushing the plate continues

pushing until there so much force that it overcomes friction and the plate jerks forward causing what we

call earthquakes.

Effects: The amount of energy an earthquake gives out is called magnitude, and we measure this energy

on the Richter scale (if you go up 1 point on the scale = 10 x bigger and 30x more energy is given out)


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Solutions: Run away. Keep something like a table where you can go under for protection in case

anything falls from the ceiling. Go somewhere where there isnt anything on top, as it going to fall.

Tsunami

Formation: Tsunamis are formed as a result of earthquakes,

volcanic eruptions, or landslides that occur under the sea.

When these events occur under the water, huge amounts ofenergy are released as a result of quick upward bottom

movement. For example, if a volcanic eruption occurs, the

ocean floor may very quickly move upward several hundred

feet. When this happens, huge volumes of ocean water are

pushed upward and a wave is formed. A large earthquake can

lift thousands of square kilometers of sea floor which will cause

the formation of huge waves. The Pacific Ocean is especially

prone to tsunamis as a result of the large amount of undersea

geological activity.

Effects: Massive physical damage. It is difficult to predict howbig they are but the safest thing to do is go to a very high place,

so you are not hit.

Ecosystems: Tropical Rainforests & Savannahs Deforestation&

Desertification

An ecosystem is a unit made up of 2 parts: living things (plants animals) and the environment (air,

water, soil and climate). A biome is a large ecosystem (rain forest is one biome).

A biome is mainly determined by climate because it affects the growth conditions of vegetation as:

Temperature varies according to latitude (higher latitudes, more cooler temperatures)

Precipitation- the amount of rain and snow is measured by the atmospheric pressure. High

pressure = dry and settled conditions, low pressure = cloudy and wet conditions) E.g At the

equator sun heats up very strongly causing warm moist air to rise, as it cools a giant

cumulonimbus form by convection to produce heaving rain, as the air is rising, the air pressure

is low. However, the warm air is also rising because of 2 prevailling trade winds colliding at the

equator region which is called Inter- Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Number of sunshine hours (photosynthesis)

Rates of evaporation, transpiration and humidity


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Characteristics of Rain Forests

Some trees have buttress roots which are the roots which support them in shallow soil.

Lianas woody climbing vines which drape the forest.

Epiphytes- plants that grow in branches of the trees

Soil and nutrient cycle of the forest

Deforestation

Causes:

Logging- wood is highly disputed for consumption to make paper

Mining- causes deforestation as it needs to make clear access to the resources

Cattle Ranching- needs large area for cattle extract

Building roads- you build roads to have the mining area access so trees are brought down to

build roads

Peasant farming- urban centers are full so the government has set settlements to the farmers

live forests were burnt down for the making of these off cities.

The way the Forest is divided into four distinct layers is all due

to the availability of light (plants need for photosynthesis). The

emergent trees and the canopy are the one which receivemost light. The ones in the under canopy have to wait for their

chance to have some availability as they are shorter. The

growth of the shrub layer is more limited, as it is located in the

forests floor.


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Effects:

Floodwater from heavy rain runs across deforested area (nothing to stop it) -> top soil eroded and taken

to river - > Rivers become silted and burst their banks -> crops flood -> famine -> sanitation is ruined ->

more diseases.

Sustainable management strategies:

Afforestation- planting of new trees once mature have been felled, guarantees the canopy.

Selective Logging a tree can only be felled when they have matured. Helps preserve the

canopy

Tree measuring- tree can only be felled once it has reached a certain height, ensuring younger

trees have chance of survival

Forest reserves- areas which cannot be harmed

Agro forestry- combination of growing trees with agricultural crops. Farmers take advantage of

the protective canopy and the supplying material of the decomposing plant matter.

Education- teaching other people how to protect the future!

Savanna Grasslands

It is the climate between tropical rainforests and deserts. It has

Alternative seasons in wet and dry (wet season= lots of rain, 25C/ dry season = little rain,

30C/ wind direction = moderate strong winds blow )

Poor soil conditions

Special plants (xerophytic drought resistant)

Desertificationland degradation

Takes place when human and climatic processes combine to reduce the ability of the land to support

vegetation.

Causes:

Over cultivation- as population has increased, there is demand for more food, this will exhaust

the land and its nutrients and this causes soil erosion through water and wind

Deforestation- as population has increased, there is demand for more wood, so this will bring

the cutting down of trees and this will expose the soil to erosion.

Climate Change- the Sahel is becoming dryer, the underground water have been used up.

Consequences:

Millions of hectares being lost

No more crops in the savannas

Starvation and famine

Long droughts

Solution:

Farmers diversifying into a variety of trees and crops as the vegetation will put supply of

nutrients to the soil

Rather than taking a whole tree, take branches, theyll grow back quickly

Control burning of grasses to prevent the spread of devastating wildfires.


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Climate Hazards and Change

Tropical Storms

Causes:

A hurricane can only develop in the conditions of:

The warm water (27C) of the sea to a depth of 60 m, is the source energy of a hurricane. It is

transferred to the storms latent heat through evaporation . When the water vapour condenses

and turns into clouds, the latent heat is released, adding to the storms power. When the

hurricane reaches the land , this source of energy is cut and the storm weakens

Low latitudes meaning that trade winds can form the spiral winds due to the earths rotation ,

this force is known as the Coriolis force

Low atmospheric shear- for storms to maintain intact, they need to be close to ground level and

12 km in height.

Effects:

Destruction of homes

Deaths (drowning )

Tornadoes , widespread flooding , landslides

Solutions:

Warnings can save lives

Advances in tecnology

Police will force people to move to safety

Effects in an MEDC:

80% of the people managed to survive (20% was the poor who had no transport)

1 million people were made homeless

Oil facilities were damaged and fuel reserves were reduced so prices went up.

Responses in MEDCs


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Evacuation was 80% successful

Government released initially 50 million dollars for the rescue programme

UK sent 1 million army ready metals to help

Effects in an LEDC:

Caused less deaths but it was also a weaker hurricane

Damaged many roads

No access to clean water, nor electricity

Responses in LEDCs :

6 million people without electricity

Declared major disaster

US paid lots of money for the reparations

Global Warming

Rise in temperature of the earths atmosphere

The main cause of global warming is the abuse of what we can greenhouse effect. Without the

greenhouse effect the Earth would be too cold for life

The sun heats up the Earths atmosphere and some of this solar energy is reflected back. This is

called the normal CO levels- what we need. But now with this increased layer of CO and

greenhouse gases, the light is getting trapped in the atmosphere and heating up the earth

rapidly.

Human activity is putting more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by:

Burning fossil fuels

Cutting down forests

Farming animals waste produce methane

Effects:

POSITIVE

Better food output as there is more energy

More plants growing

Heating bills are lower

NEGATIVE

More deserts

Too much increase in temperature can cause dehydration

Rise in sea level

Health problems as disease will spread quickly

Lakes and rivers dry up

Plants can become extinct because of the heat


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Solutions:

Kyoto Agreement- protocol signed to control this climate change. Countries agreed to reduce

their emissions of CO, methane and other greenhouse gases

Conserve water and water resources

Save energy Ride a bicycle- cars emit greenhouse gases

Plant trees in your backyard.

Changes in sea level

With global warming, the sea level rises meaning that:

There will be more storms at sea

Erosion on the coast will happen quicker

Homes and lands will be lost without sea defenses

Maybe the sea defenses wont be strong enough to support the flow of the water

Acid Rain

Acid rain is a corrosive rain resulting from air pollution. The main polluters are sulphur dioxide (coming

from thermal power stations and industry) and nitrogen oxygen (coming from thermal power stations

and motor exhaust vehicles.)

The pollutants carry by wind across international boundaries. Some are deposited directly on the earths

surface, the majority is turned into acids and fall on the ground acidifying the soil.

Effects:

Destruction of tree roots (so destroys trees)

Makes freshwater acidic, kills fishes

More acidic soils so less quality of crops

Destruction of statues and building

Other places are also being polluted as acid rain is an international problem as the polluting

winds ignore political boundaries so the place which didnt cause anything is also affected

Solutions:

Burning of natural gas has to be reduced

Burn coal, which contains less sulphur, removing the sulphur form coal before burning it

Use another type of boiler which allows the sulphur dioxide to remain in the ash

Removing sulphur form waste gases after using it

Use latter method (sulphur dioxide +water). Turns the gas into sulphuric acid and adds lime to

neutralize it

Unfortunately, these methods are too expensive and increase the cost of electricity to the user.

Emissions from cars have been reduced by using the unleaded petrol and fuel injection.

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