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ZigBee

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ZigBee module. The1 coin, shown for sizereference, is about 23 mm (0.9 inch) in diameter.

ZigBee is aspecificationfor a suite of high levelcommunication protocols using small, low-powerdigital radiosbased on anIEEE 802

standardfor personal area networks. Applicationsinclude wireless light switches, electrical meters within-home-displays, and other consumer and industrialequipment that requires short-range wireless
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transfer of data at relatively low rates. Thetechnology defined by the ZigBee specification isintended to be simpler and less expensive than

otherWPANs, such asBluetooth. ZigBee is targetedatradio-frequency (RF) applications that require alow data rate, long battery life, and securenetworking. ZigBee has a defined rate of 250 kbpsbest suited for periodic or intermittent data or asingle signal transmission from a sensor or inputdevice.[1]

The name refers to thewaggle dance of honey beesafter their return to the beehive.[2]

Contents

[hide]

1 Technical overview

2 Trademark and alliance

o 2.1 License

o 2.2 Application profiles

3 Uses

4 Device types

5 Protocols

6 History7 Radio hardware

8 Software

o 8.1 Network layer
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o 8.2 Application layer

o 8.3 Main components

o 8.4 Communication models

o 8.5 Communication and device discovery

9 Security services

o 9.1 Basic security model

o 9.2 Security architecture

10 Chip vendors/devices include

11 See also

12 References13 External links

[edit]Technical overview

ZigBee is a low-cost, low-power, wireless meshnetwork standard. The low cost allows thetechnology to be widely deployed in wireless control

and monitoring applications. Low power-usageallows longer life with smaller batteries. Meshnetworking provides high reliability and moreextensive range. The technology is intended to besimpler and less expensive than other WPANs suchasBluetooth. ZigBee chip vendors typically sell

integrated radios and microcontrollers with between60 KB and 256 KB flash memory.

ZigBee operates in the industrial, scientific andmedical (ISM) radio bands; 868 MHz in Europe,915 MHz in the USA and Australia, and 2.4 GHz in
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most jurisdictions worldwide. Data transmissionrates vary from 20 to 250 kilobits/second.

The ZigBee network layer natively supports

both starand treetypical networks, and genericmesh networks. Every network must have onecoordinator device, tasked with its creation, thecontrol of its parameters and basic maintenance.Within star networks, the coordinator must be thecentral node. Both trees and meshes allows the use

of ZigBeerouters to extend communication at thenetwork level.

ZigBee protocol stack

ZigBee builds upon thephysical layer andmediumaccess controldefined inIEEE standard

802.15.4(2003 version) for low-rate WPAN's. Thespecification goes on to complete the standard byadding four main components: network layer,application layer, ZigBee device objects(ZDO's) and
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manufacturer-defined application objects whichallow for customization and favor total integration.

Besides adding two high-level network layers to the

underlying structure, the most significantimprovement is the introduction of ZDO's. These areresponsible for a number of tasks, which includekeeping of device roles, management of requests tojoin a network, device discovery and security.

ZigBee is not intended to supportpowerline

networkingbut to interface with it at least forsmartmeteringand smart appliance purposes.

Because ZigBee nodes can go from sleep to activemode in 30 msec or less, the latency can be low anddevices can be responsive, particularly compared toBluetooth wake-up delays, which are typicallyaround three seconds.[3]Because ZigBee nodescan sleep most of the time, average powerconsumption can be low, resulting in long batterylife.

[edit]Trademark and alliance

The ZigBee Alliance is a group of companies that

maintain and publish the ZigBee standard.

[4]

Theterm ZigBee is a registeredtrademark of this group,not a single technical standard. The Alliancepublishesapplication profiles that allowmultiple OEMvendors to create interoperable
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products. The relationship betweenIEEE802.15.4and ZigBee[5] is similar to thatbetweenIEEE 802.11 and the Wi-Fi Alliance.

[edit]License

For non-commercial purposes, the ZigBeespecification is available free to the generalpublic.[6] An entry level membership in the ZigBeeAlliance, called Adopter, provides access to the as-yet unpublished specifications and permission to

create products for market using the specifications.The requirements for membership in the ZigbeeAlliance causes problems for open-sourcedevelopers because the annual fee conflicts withthe GNU General Public License.[7]The requirementfor the developer to join the ZigBee Alliance similarlyconflicts with most otherfree software licenses.[8]

[edit]Application profiles

The current list of application profiles eitherpublished, or in the works are:

Released specifications

ZigBee Home Automation

ZigBee Smart Energy 1.0 ZigBee Telecommunication Services

ZigBee Health Care

ZigBee RF4CE - Remote Control
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Specifications under development

ZigBee Smart Energy 2.0

ZigBee Building Automation

ZigBee Retail ServicesThe ZigBee Smart Energy V2.0 specificationsdefine anIP-based protocol to monitor, control,inform and automate the delivery and use of energyand water. It is an enhancement of the ZigBeeSmart Energy version 1 specifications,[9] adding

services forplug-in electric vehicle(PEV) charging,installation, configuration and firmware download,prepay services, user information and messaging,load control, demand response and commoninformation and application profile interfaces forwired and wireless networks. It is being developedby partners including:

HomeGrid Forum responsible for marketing andcertifying ITU-TG.hn technology and products

HomePlug Powerline Alliance

International Society of AutomativeEngineersSAE International

IPSO Alliance

SunSpec Alliance Wi-Fi Alliance.

In 2009 the RF4CE (Radio Frequency for ConsumerElectronics) Consortium and ZigBee Alliance agreed
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to jointly deliver a standard for radio frequencyremote controls. ZigBee RF4CE is designed for awide range of consumer electronics products, such

as TVs and set-top boxes. It promises manyadvantages over existing remote control solutions,including richer communication and increasedreliability, enhanced features and flexibility,interoperability, and no line-of-sight barrier.[10]

[edit]Uses

ZigBee protocols are intended for embeddedapplications requiring lowdata rates and lowpowerconsumption. The resulting network will use verysmall amounts of power individual devices musthave a battery life of at least two years to passZigBee certification.[11]

Typical application areas include:

[12]

Home Entertainment and ControlHome

automation, smart lighting, advanced temperaturecontrol, safety and security, movies and music

Wireless Sensor Networks' Starting withindividual sensors like Telosb/Tmote and Iris from

Memsic. Industrial control,

Embedded sensing,

Medical data collection,

Smoke and intruder warning,
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Building automation.

[edit]Device types

There are three different types of ZigBee devices:

ZigBee coordinator (ZC): The most capabledevice, the coordinator forms the root of thenetwork tree and might bridge to other networks.There is exactly one ZigBee coordinator in eachnetwork since it is the device that started thenetwork originally. It is able to store informationabout the network, including acting as the TrustCenter & repository for security keys.[13][14]

ZigBee Router (ZR): As well as running anapplication function, a router can act as anintermediate router, passing on data from otherdevices.

ZigBee End Device (ZED): Contains just enoughfunctionality to talk to the parent node (either thecoordinator or a router); it cannot relay data fromother devices. This relationship allows the node tobe asleep a significant amount of the time therebygiving long battery life. A ZED requires the leastamount of memory, and therefore can be less

expensive to manufacture than a ZR or ZC.[edit]Protocols

The protocols build on recent algorithmic research(Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector,neuRFon) to
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automatically construct a low-speed ad-hoc networkof nodes. In most large network instances, thenetwork will be a cluster of clusters. It can also form

a mesh or a single cluster. The current ZigBeeprotocols support beacon and non-beacon enablednetworks.

In non-beacon-enabled networks, anunslottedCSMA/CAchannel access mechanism isused. In this type of network, ZigBee Routers

typically have their receivers continuously active,requiring a more robust power supply. However, thisallows for heterogeneous networks in which somedevices receive continuously, while others onlytransmit when an external stimulus is detected. Thetypical example of a heterogeneous network isa wireless light switch: The ZigBee node at the lamp

may receive constantly, since it is connected to themains supply, while a battery-powered light switchwould remain asleep until the switch is thrown. Theswitch then wakes up, sends a command to thelamp, receives an acknowledgment, and returns tosleep. In such a network the lamp node will be atleast a ZigBee Router, if not the ZigBee Coordinator;the switch node is typically a ZigBee End Device.

In beacon-enabled networks, the special networknodes called ZigBee Routers transmit periodicbeacons to confirm their presence to other network
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nodes. Nodes may sleep between beacons, thuslowering their duty cycle and extending their batterylife. Beacon intervals depend on data rate; they may

range from 15.36 milliseconds to 251.65824seconds at 250kbit/s, from 24 milliseconds to393.216 seconds at 40 kbit/s and from 48milliseconds to 786.432 seconds at 20 kbit/s.However, low duty cycle operation with long beaconintervals requires precise timing, which can conflictwith the need for low product cost.

In general, the ZigBee protocols minimize the timethe radio is on, so as to reduce power use. Inbeaconing networks, nodes only need to be activewhile a beacon is being transmitted. In non-beacon-enabled networks, power consumption is decidedlyasymmetrical: some devices are always active, while

others spend most of their time sleeping.Except for the Smart Energy Profile 2.0, ZigBeedevices are required to conform to theIEEE802.15.4-2003 Low-Rate Wireless PersonalArea Network (LR-WPAN) standard. The standardspecifies the lowerprotocol layersthe (physical

layer) (PHY), and the (media access control) portionof the (data link layer (DLL)). The basic channelaccess mode is "carrier sense, multipleaccess/collision avoidance" (CSMA/CA). That is, thenodes talk in the same way that people converse;
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they briefly check to see that no one is talking beforethey start. There are three notable exceptions to theuse of CSMA. Beacons are sent on a fixed timing

schedule, and do not use CSMA. Messageacknowledgments also do not use CSMA. Finally,devices in Beacon Oriented networks that have lowlatency real-time requirements may also useGuaranteed Time Slots (GTS), which by definition donot use CSMA.

[edit]HistoryZigBee-style networks began to be conceivedaround 1998, when many installers realized thatboth Wi-Fi and Bluetooth were going to beunsuitable for many applications. In particular, manyengineers[by whom?] saw a need for self-organizing ad-hoc digital radio networks.[citation needed]

The IEEE 802.15.4-2003 standard was completed inMay 2003 and has been superseded by thepublication of IEEE 802.15.4-2006. [3]In thesummer of 2003, Philips Semiconductors, a majormesh network supporter, ceased the investment.Philips Lighting has, however, continued Philips'

participation, and Philips remains a promotermember on the ZigBee Alliance Board ofDirectors.[citation needed]
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The ZigBee Alliance announced in October 2004that the membership had more than doubled in thepreceding year and had grown to more than 100

member companies, in 22 countries. By April 2005membership had grown to more than 150companies, and by December 2005 membershiphad passed 200 companies.[citation needed] The ZigBeespecifications were ratified on 14 December2004.[citation needed] The ZigBee Alliance announcedavailability of Specification 1.0 on 13 June 2005,known as ZigBee 2004 Specification. In September2006, ZigBee 2006 Specification is announced. In2007, ZigBee PRO, the enhanced ZigBeespecification was finalized.[citation needed]

The firststack release is now called ZigBee 2004.The second stack release is called ZigBee 2006,

and mainly replaces theMSG/KVPstructure used in2004 with a "cluster library". The 2004 stack is nowmore or less obsolete.[citation needed]

ZigBee 2007, now the current stack release,contains two stack profiles, stack profile 1 (simplycalled ZigBee), for home and light commercial use,

and stack profile 2 (called ZigBee Pro). ZigBee Prooffers more features, such as multi-casting, many-to-one routing and high security with Symmetric-KeyKey Exchange (SKKE), while ZigBee (stack profile1) offers a smaller footprint in RAM and flash. Both
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offer full mesh networking and work with all ZigBeeapplication profiles.[citation needed]

ZigBee 2007 is fully backward compatible with

ZigBee 2006 devices: A ZigBee 2007 device mayjoin and operate on a ZigBee 2006 network and viceversa. Due to differences in routing options, ZigBeePro devices must become non-routing ZigBee End-Devices (ZEDs) on a ZigBee 2006 network, thesame as for ZigBee 2006 devices on a ZigBee 2007

network must become ZEDs on a ZigBee Pronetwork. The applications running on those deviceswork the same, regardless of the stack profilebeneath them.

The ZigBee 1.0 specification was ratified on 14December 2004 and is available to members of theZigBee Alliance. Most recently, the ZigBee 2007

specification was posted on 30 October 2007. Thefirst ZigBee Application Profile, Home Automation,was announced 2 November 2007.

[edit]Radio hardware

The radio design used by ZigBee has been carefullyoptimized for low cost in large scale production. It

has few analog stages and usesdigitalcircuitswherever possible.

Though the radios themselves are inexpensive, theZigBee Qualification Process involves a full
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validation of the requirements of the physical layer.All radios derived from the same validatedsemiconductor mask set would enjoy the same RF

characteristics. An uncertified physical layer thatmalfunctions could cripple the battery lifespan ofother devices on a ZigBee network. ZigBee radioshave very tight constraints on power and bandwidth.Thus, radios are tested to theISO 17025 standardwith guidance given by Clause 6 of the802.15.4-2006 Standard. Most vendors plan to integrate theradio and microcontroller onto a singlechip[15] getting smaller devices.[16]

This standard specifies operation in the unlicensed2.4 GHz (worldwide), 915MHz (Americas andAustralia) and 868 MHz (Europe)ISM bands. In the2.4 GHz band there are 16 ZigBee channels, with

each channel requiring 5MHz of bandwidth. The2.4 GHz band provides up to 250 kbit/s, 915 MHzprovides up to 40 kbit/s and 868 MHz provides adata rate up to 20 kbit/s. The actual data throughputwill be less than the maximum specified bit rate dueto the packet overhead and processing delays.

The radios usedirect-sequence spreadspectrumcoding, which is managed by the digitalstream into the modulator.Binary phase-shiftkeying(BPSK) is used in the 868 and 915 MHzbands, and Offset quadrature phase-shift
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keying(OQPSK) that transmits four bits per symbolis used in the 2.4 GHz band. The raw, over-the-airdata rate is 250 kbit/s perchannel in the 2.4 GHz

band, 40 kbit/s per channel in the 915 MHz band,and 20 kbit/s in the 868 MHz band. Transmissionrange is between 10 and 75 meters (33 and 246feet) and up to 1500 meters for zigbee pro, althoughit is heavily dependent on the particularenvironment. The output power of the radios isgenerally 0 dBm(1 mW).

[edit]Software

The software is designed to be easy to develop onsmall, inexpensive microprocessors.

[edit]Network layer

The main functions of thenetwork layerare to

enable the correct use of the MAC sublayer andprovide a suitable interface for use by the next upperlayer, namely the application layer. Its capabilitiesand structure are those typically associated to suchnetwork layers, including routing.

On the one hand, the data entitycreates andmanages network layer data units from the payloadof the application layer and performs routingaccording to the current topology. On the otherhand, there is the layer control, which is used tohandle configuration of new devices and establish
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new networks: it can determine whether aneighboring device belongs to the network anddiscovers new neighbors and routers. The control

can also detect the presence of a receiver, whichallows direct communication and MACsynchronization.

The routing protocol used by the Network layerisAODV. In order to find the destination device, itbroadcasts out a route request to all of its neighbors.

The neighbors then broadcast the request to theirneighbors, etc. until the destination is reached. Oncethe destination is reached, it sends its route reply viaunicast transmission following the lowest cost pathback to the source. Once the source receives thereply, it will update its routing table for thedestination address with the next hop in the path

and the path cost.[edit]Application layer

The application layer is the highest-level layerdefined by the specification, and is the effectiveinterface of the ZigBee system to its end users. Itcomprises the majority of components added by the

ZigBee specification: both ZDO and its managementprocedures, together with application objects definedby the manufacturer, are considered part of thislayer.

[edit]Main components
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The ZDOis responsible for defining the role of adevice as either coordinator or end device, asmentioned above, but also for the discovery of new

(one-hop) devices on the network and theidentification of their offered services. It may then goon to establish secure links with external devicesand reply to binding requests accordingly.

The application support sublayer(APS) is the othermain standard component of the layer, and as such

it offers a well-defined interface and control services.It works as a bridge between the network layer andthe other components of the application layer: itkeeps up-to-datebinding tables in the form of adatabase, which can be used to find appropriatedevices depending on the services that are neededand those the different devices offer. As the union

between both specified layers, it also routesmessages across the layers of theprotocol stack.

[edit]Communication models
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ZigBee high-level communication model

An application may consist of communicating

objects which cooperate to carry out the desiredtasks. The focus of ZigBee is to distribute workamong many different devices which reside withinindividual ZigBee nodes which in turn form anetwork (said work will typically be largely local toeach device, for instance the control of eachindividual household appliance).

The collection of objects that form the networkcommunicate using the facilities provided by APS,supervised by ZDO interfaces. The application layerdata service follows a typical request-
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confirm/indication-response structure. Within asingle device, up to 240 application objects canexist, numbered in the range 1-240. 0 is reserved for

the ZDO data interface and 255 for broadcast; the241-254 range is not currently in use but may be inthe future.

There are two services available for applicationobjects to use (in ZigBee 1.0):

Thekey-value pairservice(KVP) is meant for

configuration purposes. It enables description,request and modification of object attributesthrough a simple interface based on get/set andevent primitives, some allowing a request forresponse. Configuration usescompressed XML(full XML can be used) to provide

an adaptable and elegant solution. The message serviceis designed to offer a

general approach to information treatment,avoiding the necessity to adapt applicationprotocols and potential overhead incurred on byKPV. It allows arbitrary payloads to be transmittedover APS frames.

Addressing is also part of the application layer. Anetwork node consists of an 802.15.4-conformantradiotransceiverand one or more devicedescriptions (basically collections of attributes whichcan be polled or set, or which can be monitored
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through events). The transceiver is the base foraddressing, and devices within a node are specifiedby an endpoint identifierin the range 1-240.

[edit]Communication and device discovery

In order for applications to communicate, theircomprising devices must use a common applicationprotocol (types of messages, formats and so on);these sets of conventions are grouped in profiles.Furthermore, binding is decided upon by matching

input and output cluster identifiers, unique within thecontext of a given profile and associated to anincoming or outgoing data flow in a device. Bindingtables contain source and destination pairs.

Depending on the available information, devicediscovery may follow different methods. When thenetwork address is known, the IEEE address can berequested usingunicast communication. When it isnot, petitions are broadcast (the IEEE address beingpart of the response payload). End devices willsimply respond with the requested address, while anetwork coordinator or a router will also send theaddresses of all the devices associated with it.

This extended discovery protocol permits externaldevices to find out about devices in a network andthe services that they offer, which endpoints canreport when queried by the discovering device
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(which has previously obtained their addresses).Matching services can also be used.

The use of cluster identifiers enforces the binding of

complementary entities by means of the bindingtables, which are maintained by ZigBeecoordinators, as the table must be always availablewithin a network and coordinators are most likely tohave a permanent power supply. Backups, managedby higher-level layers, may be needed by some

applications. Binding requires an establishedcommunication link; after it exists, whether to add anew node to the network is decided, according to theapplication and security policies.

Communication can happen right after theassociation.Direct addressinguses both radioaddress and endpoint identifier, whereas indirect

addressing uses every relevant field (address,endpoint, cluster and attribute) and requires thatthey be sent to the network coordinator, whichmaintains associations and translates requests forcommunication. Indirect addressingis particularlyuseful to keep some devices very simple and

minimize their need for storage. Besides these twomethods, broadcastto all endpoints in a device isavailable, andgroup addressingis used tocommunicate with groups of endpoints belonging toa set of devices.
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[edit]Security services

As one of its defining features, ZigBee providesfacilities for carrying out secure communications,protecting establishment and transport ofcryptographic keys, cyphering frames and controllingdevices. It builds on the basic security frameworkdefined in IEEE 802.15.4. This part of thearchitecture relies on the correct management ofsymmetric keys and the correct implementation of

methods and security policies.[edit]Basic security model

The basic mechanism to ensure confidentiality is theadequate protection of all keying material. Trustmust be assumed in the initial installation of thekeys, as well as in the processing of security

information. In order for an implementation toglobally work, its general correctness (e.g.,conformance to specified behaviors) is assumed.

Keys are the cornerstone of the securityarchitecture; as such their protection is of paramountimportance, and keys are never supposed to betransported through an insecure channel. There is a

momentary exception to this rule, which occursduring the initial phase of the addition to the networkof a previously unconfigured device. The ZigBeenetwork model must take particular care of securityconsiderations, asad hoc networks may be
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physically accessible to external devices and theparticular working environment cannot be foretold;likewise, different applications running concurrently

and using the same transceiver to communicate aresupposed to be mutually trustworthy: for costreasons the model does not assume a firewall existsbetween application-level entities.

Within the protocol stack, different network layersare not cryptographically separated, so access

policies are needed and correct design assumed.The open trust model within a device allows for keysharing, which notably decreases potential cost.Nevertheless, the layer which creates a frame isresponsible for its security. If malicious devices mayexist, every network layer payload must becyphered, so unauthorized traffic can be

immediately cut off. The exception, again, is thetransmission of the network key, which confers aunified security layer to the network, to a newconnecting device.

[edit]Security architecture

ZigBee uses 128-bit keys to implement its security

mechanisms. A key can be associated either to anetwork, being usable by both ZigBee layers and theMAC sublayer, or to a link, acquired through pre-installation, agreement or transport. Establishmentof link keys is based on a master key which controls
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link key correspondence. Ultimately, at least theinitial master key must be obtained through a securemedium (transport or pre-installation), as the security

of the whole network depends on it. Link and masterkeys are only visible to the application layer.Different services use differentone-way variations ofthe link key in order to avoid leaks and security risks.

Key distribution is one of the most important securityfunctions of the network. A secure network will

designate one special device which other devicestrust for the distribution of security keys: the trustcenter. Ideally, devices will have the trust centeraddress and initial master key preloaded; if amomentary vulnerability is allowed, it will be sent asdescribed above. Typical applications withoutspecial security needs will use a network key

provided by the trust center (through the initiallyinsecure channel) to communicate.

Thus, the trust center maintains both the networkkey and provides point-to-point security. Devices willonly accept communications originating from a keyprovided by the trust center, except for the initial

master key. The security architecture is distributedamong the network layers as follows:

The MAC sublayer is capable of single-hopreliable communications. As a rule, the securitylevel it is to use is specified by the upper layers.
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The network layer manages routing, processingreceived messages and being capable ofbroadcasting requests. Outgoing frames will use

the adequate link key according to the routing, if itis available; otherwise, the network key will beused to protect the payload from external devices.

The application layer offers key establishment andtransport services to both ZDO and applications. Itis also responsible for the propagation across thenetwork of changes in devices within it, which mayoriginate in the devices themselves (for instance, asimple status change) or in the trust manager(which may inform the network that a certaindevice is to be eliminated from it). It also routesrequests from devices to the trust center andnetwork key renewals from the trust center to all

devices. Besides this, the ZDO maintains thesecurity policies of the device.

The security levels infrastructure is based on CCM*,which adds encryption- and integrity-only featurestoCCM.
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Waggle danceFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about bee behaviour. For the beer, seeWells & Young's Brewery.

The waggle dance - the direction the bee moves in relation to the hive indicates direction; if it moves vertically upwards the direction to the

source is directly towards the Sun, the duration of the waggle part of the dance signifies the distance.

Video demonstrating the waggle dance of the honeybee

Waggle dance is a term used inbeekeepingandethologyfor a particular figure-eight dance of thehoney bee. By

performing this dance, successful foragers can share with theirhivemates information about the direction and
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distance to patches of flowers yielding nectar and pollen, to water sources, or to new housing locations.[1][2]

Thus the

waggle dance is a mechanism whereby successful foragers can recruit other bees in their colony to good locations

for collecting various resources. It was once thought that bees had two distinct recruitment dances round dances

and waggle dances the former for indicating nearby targets and the latter for indicating distant targets, but it is now

known that a round dance is simply a waggle dance with a very short waggle run (see below).

AustrianethologistandNobel laureateKarl von Frischwas one of the first who translated the meaning of the waggle

dance.[3]

On the right side is a video explaining the waggle dance in depth, as well as the experimentation that went

into discovering the dance.

Contents

[hide]

1 Description

2 Controversy

3 Evolution

4 Applications to operations research

5 See also

6 References

o 6.1 Further reading

7 External links

[edit]Description
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Figure-Eight-Shaped Waggle Dance of the Honeybee (Apis mellifera). A waggle run oriented 45 to the right of up on the vertical comb (A)

indicates a food source 45to the right of the direction of the sun outside the hive (B). The abdomen of the dancer appears blurred because

of the rapid motion from side to side.

A waggle dance consists of one to 100 or more circuits, each of which consists of two phases: the waggle phase and

the return phase. A worker bee's waggle dance involves running through a small figure-eight pattern: a waggle run

(aka waggle phase) followed by a turn to the right to circle back to the starting point (aka return phase), another

waggle run, followed by a turn and circle to the left, and so on in a regular alternation between right and left turns

after waggle runs. Waggle-dancing bees produce and release twoalkanes, tricosane and pentacosane, and

twoalkenes, Z-(9)-tricosene and Z-(9)-pentacosene, onto their abdomens and into the air.[4]

The direction and duration of waggle runs are closely correlated with the direction and distance of the patch of flowers

being advertised by the dancing bee. Flowers located directly in line with the sun are represented by waggle runs in

an upward direction on the vertical combs, and any angle to the right or left of the sun is coded by a corresponding

angle to the right or left of the upward direction. The distance between hive and recruitment target is encoded in the

duration of the waggle runs.[1]

The farther the target, the longer the waggle phase, with a rate of increase of about 75

milliseconds per 100 meters.

Waggle dancing bees that have been in the hive for an extended time adjust the angles of their dances to

accommodate the changing direction of the sun. Therefore, bees that follow the waggle run of the dance are still

correctly led to the food source even though its angle relative to the sun has changed.

The consumption ofethanolby foraging bees has been shown to reduce waggle dance activity and increase

occurrence of thetremble dance.[5]

When scientists placed a dead Apis melliferabee on flowers they discovered that bees performed far fewer waggle

dances upon returning to their nest. This is likely to be because they associate the dead bee with the presence of a

predator on the flower and so it is better for other bees to not forage there.[6][7]

Though first decoded by Karl von Frisch, dancing behavior in bees had been observed and described multiple times

prior. Around 100 years before Frisch's discovery, Nicholas Unhoch described dancing behavior of bees as being an

indulgence in certain pleasures and jollity.[3]

He did, however, admit ignorance as to purpose of the dancing. 35

years before that, Ernst Spitzner observed bees dancing and interpreted it as transmitting forage resource odors to

other nestmates.

[3]

EvenAristotle, in addition to describingflower constancybehavior, suspected that some form ofcommunication occurred between foragers within a nest:

"On each trip the bee does not fly from a flower of one kind to a flower of another, but flies from one violet, say, to

another violet, and never meddles with another flower until it has got back to the hive; on reaching the hive they throw

off their load, and each bee on her return is followed by three or four companions. What it is that they gather is hard

to see, and how they do it has not been observed".[8]
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Jrgen Tautz also writes about it in his book "The Buzz about Bees":

Page 112: Many elements of the communication used to recruit miniswarms to feeding sites are also observed in

"true" swarming behavior. Miniswarms of foragers are not placed under the same selection pressure as are true

swarms, because the fate of the entire colony is not at stake. A truly swarming colony has to be quickly led to a new

home, or it will perish. The behavior used to recruit to food sources possibly developed from the "true" swarming

behavior. Tautz,J.: The Buzz about Bees - Biology of a Superorganism (photos by H. R. Heilmann) Springer

Heidelberg & Berlin, 2008

[edit]Controversy

Workers of Apis mellifera carnicaon honeycomb.

The Dance Language vs. The Waggle Dance

The dance language, as defined by von Frisch, is the information about direction, distance, and quality of a resource

(such as food or nesting sites) contained within the waggle dance. Karl von Frisch named the dance language

Tanzsprache in his native tongue.[9]
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Though von Frisch insisted on the direct connection between the dance language and the waggle dance, recent

criticism holds that potential foragers need not correctly translate the dance language from the waggle dance to

successfully forage.[9]

In an experiment on the honeybee Apis mellifera, most individuals who thoroughly followed a waggle dance ignored

the resource direction and location information. Instead, 93% of the foragers returned to foraging areas they had

previous knowledge of.[9]

Bees that follow a waggle dance can successfully forage without decoding the dance language information in several

ways[10]

:

Dance follower may use olfactory information from the dancer and find either the same resource or a different

one with a similar scent.

Following a dance may simply trigger foraging behavior. A forager may then search randomly for resources.

Following a dance may reactivate private knowledge of a resource. After reactivation, the forager may return the

known resource.

Using information communicated in the waggle dance is more useful to foragers when private information about

resources is lacking.

The use of the word language may lead to misrepresentations of the waggle dance. The Swiss linguistFerdinand

de Saussureproposed a system of language a sign is made up two chief components. The signifier is the physical or

phonetic representation of a sign. The signified is the conceptual component.[11]

If the dance language followed the

Saussurian dyadic model ofsemiotics, the signifier would be the waggle dance and the signified would be the

location of the foraging resource. Though the dance language may or may not follow this sort of pattern, it is not

considered to be a language with syntactical grammar or a set of symbols.[10]

Efficiency and Adaptation

The waggle dance may be less efficient than once thought. Some bees observe over 50 waggle runs without

successfully foraging, while others will forage successfully after observing 5 runs.[10]

The waggle dance may be adaptive in some environments and not in others. In temperate habitats, honey bee

colonies routinely perform the waggle dance, but can still successfully forage when the dance is experimentally

obscured. In tropical habitats, honey bee foraging is severely impaired if waggle dancing is prevented. This is thought

to be due to the patchiness of resources in tropical environment versus the homogeneity of resources in temperate

environments. In the tropics, food resources can come in the form of flowering trees which are rich in nectar but

sparsely scattered and bloom for short periods of time. Thus, in tropical zones information about forage location might

be more valuable than in temperate zones.[12]

[edit]Evolution
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Ancestors to modern honeybees most l ikely performed excitatory movements to encourage other nestmates to

forage. These excitatory movements include shaking, zig-zagging, buzzing and crashing into nestmates. Similar

behavior is observed in other Hymenoptera including stingless bees, wasps, bumblebees and ants.[10]

The waggle dance is thought to have evolved to aid in communicating information about a new nest site, rather than

spatial information about foraging sites.[10]

Observations have suggested that different species of honeybees have different "dialects" of the waggle dance, each

species or subspecies dance varying by curve or duration.[13][14]

A recent study demonstrated that a mixed colony of

Asiatic honeybees (Apis ceranacerana) and European honeybees (Apis melliferaligustica) were gradually able to

understand one another's 'dialects' of waggle dance.[15]

[edit]Applications to operations research

In line with recent work inswarm intelligenceresearch involving optimization algorithms inspired by the behavior of

social insects and animals such as fish, birds, and ants, recently there has been research on using bee waggle dance

behavior for efficient fault-tolerant routing.[16]

From the abstract of Wedde, Farooq, and Zhang (2004)[17]

:

In this paper we present a novel routing algorithm, BeeHive, which has been inspired by the communicative and

evaluative methods and procedures of honey bees. In this algorithm, bee agents travel through network regions

called foraging zones. On their way their information on the network state is delivered for updating the local routing

tables. BeeHive is fault tolerant, scalable, and relies completely on local, or regional, information, respectively. We

demonstrate through extensive simulations that BeeHive achieves a similar or better performance compared to state-

of-the-art algorithms.

Another bee-inspiredstigmergic computational techniquecalledbee colony optimizationis employed in Internet

Server Optimization.[18][19]

TheZigbeeRF protocol is named after the waggle dance.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Gould1989-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Gould1989-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Gould1989-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_ceranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_ceranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_ceranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_melliferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_melliferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_melliferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-HoneyBeesCanUnderstand-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-HoneyBeesCanUnderstand-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-HoneyBeesCanUnderstand-14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waggle_dance&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waggle_dance&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waggle_dance&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Wedde2004-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Wedde2004-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Wedde2004-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_colony_optimizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_colony_optimizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_colony_optimizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Nakrani2004-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Nakrani2004-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Nakrani2004-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Nakrani2004-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Nakrani2004-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_colony_optimizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Wedde2004-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waggle_dance&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-HoneyBeesCanUnderstand-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_melliferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_ceranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Gould1989-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-Gould1989-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance#cite_note-GF2009-9


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IEEE 802.15.4

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard which specifies thephysical layerandmedia access controlfor low-rate

wirelesspersonal area networks(LR-WPANs). It is maintained by theIEEE 802.15working group.

It is the basis for theZigBee[1]

,ISA100.11a[2]

,WirelessHART, andMiWispecifications, each of which further extends

the standard by developing the upperlayerswhich are not defined by 802.15.4. Alternatively, it can be used

with6LoWPANand standard Internet protocols to build a Wireless Embedded Internet.

Contents

[hide]

1 Overview

2 Protocol architecture

o 2.1 The physical layer

o 2.2 The MAC layer

o 2.3 Higher layers

3 Network model

o 3.1 Node types

o 3.2 Topologies

4 Data transport architecture

5 Reliability and security

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

[edit]Overview

IEEE standard 802.15.4 intends to offer the fundamental lower network layers of a type of wireless personal area

network (WPAN) which focuses on low-cost, low-speed ubiquitous communication between devices (in contrast with

other, more end-user oriented approaches, such asWi-Fi). The emphasis is on very low cost communication of

nearby devices with little to no underlying infrastructure, intending to exploit this to lower power consumption even

more.

The basic framework conceives a 10-meter communications range with atransfer rateof 250 kbit/s. Tradeoffs are

possible to favor more radicallyembedded deviceswith even lower power requirements, through the definition of not
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Access_Controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Access_Controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Access_Controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZigBeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZigBeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZigBeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZigBeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISA100.11ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISA100.11ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISA100.11ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISA100.11ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WirelessHARThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WirelessHARThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WirelessHARThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiWihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiWihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiWihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_stackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_stackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_stackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6LoWPANhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6LoWPANhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6LoWPANhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Overviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Overviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Protocol_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Protocol_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#The_physical_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#The_physical_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#The_MAC_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#The_MAC_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Higher_layershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Higher_layershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Network_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Network_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Node_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Node_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Topologieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Topologieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Data_transport_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Data_transport_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Reliability_and_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Reliability_and_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IEEE_802.15.4&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IEEE_802.15.4&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IEEE_802.15.4&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IEEE_802.15.4&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Reliability_and_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Data_transport_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Topologieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Node_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Network_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Higher_layershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#The_MAC_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#The_physical_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Protocol_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4#Overviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15.4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6LoWPANhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_stackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiWihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WirelessHARThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISA100.11ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISA100.11ahttp://en.wikipedia.org

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