ch 29 personality

8/8/2019 Ch 29 Personality

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Simon Moore Complete Psychology published by Hodder Education

Personality


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Definition of personality

Mischel (1986) defines personality as thedistinctive patterns of behaviour (includingthoughts and emotions) that characterise

each individuals adaptation to the situationsof his or her life.

Child (1983) described personality as themore or less stable, internal factors thatmake one persons behaviour consistent fromone time to another, and different from thebehaviour other people would manifest insimilar situations.


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Attributes of personality

Personality as a construct, therefore, has a number ofattributes (Peterson, 1992). In essence, these are:

1. It is an integrated part of an individual it is somethinga person is, does or has. People bring theirpersonalities to situations and take them away withthem when they leave

2. It is psychological it refers to the individual (actions,thoughts, feelings) and not to material things such aspossessions or status

3. It is made up of smaller units called characteristics (thecombination of these individual characteristics creates

a unique psychological signature)4. It can be functional or dysfunctional that is, our

characteristics can help us succeed and prosper insome situations but they can also disadvantage us ormake us vulnerable in others.


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Determinants of personality


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Two approaches to studying IDAcademic (nomothetic):

Research focused on variations in personality studiedin thepopulation at large

Personality can be categorised on the basis of

personality dimensions that we share Assumes particular trait dimension or set of trait

dimensions are universally applicable to all persons

Assumes individual differences are to be identified withdifferent locations on those same dimensions.

Person seen as unique in terms of the combination oflocations on common dimensions.


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Clinical (idiographic):

Studying the individualin detail as a uniqueand integrated whole

Research focuses on pattern/organisation oftraits within the individual (intrapersonal)

Emphasises and aims to identify the uniquecombination of personality dimensions thatbest account for personality of a singleindividual

People seen as unique in terms of their

personality structure. Some traits (e.g. Allportscardinal traits) are more important in

understanding the personality structure ofperson A than person B.


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Idiographic

+ More complete and global understanding of anindividual

Difficult to generalise findings

More unreliable and unscientific (e.g. subjective

and non-standardised procedures)

Nomothetic

+ Useful in predicting behaviour

+ More reliable and scientificSuperficial understanding of any 1 person


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Domains guiding research

Characteristics Main theories Paradigm

Psychodynamic Sigmund

Freud

Carl Jung

Alfred Adler

Anna Freud

Erik Erikson

Assumes individuals personalities are

motivated by unconscious emotional

conflicts (mainly originating in childhood)

Seeks understanding via case studies (in

terms of dreams, free association andcreativeness)

Aims to change individuals by freeing the

energy devoted to neurotic symptoms

and therefore allowing the development

of a more positive personality

E.g.a childhood experience that may be

buried in the unconscious and that

affects negatively how an individual

might relate to others


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continued


Humanistic Abraham

Maslow

Carl Rogers

George Kelly

Interested in personality in terms of how

peoples conscious experiences and drives

help or hinder their ability to reach their full

potential

Criticises scientific psychological methods in

trying to measure personality in that such an

approach is too mechanical and misses theessence of individuals; case studies have

been used by some humanistic personality

theorists as the favoured method of study

However, it remains mostly empirically

unsubstantiated and is criticised for this

reason

E.g.success in family life may give an

individual happiness, contentment, reward

and satisfaction, which they may take to

other parts of their life, or vice versa


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continued


Trait Gordon

Allport

Raymond

Cattell

Hans

Eysenck

Costa and

Macrae

Assumes that individuals have stable

personality characteristics evident in

behaviour across a multitude of situations

Tries to describe and predict how individuals

might behave based on their personality

traits

Measures personality via questionnairesE.g.using Eysencks Personality Inventory

(EPI), which measures introversion

extroversion to predice music-listening

choices


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continued


Cognitive-

behavioural

Albert

Bandura

Julian Rotter

George Kelly

Walter

Mischel

Assumes peoples thoughts and beliefs are

central to personality

Seeks to measure these thoughts/beliefs and to

see how they lead to behaviour in specific

situations (personality), and how the expression

of personality through behaviour shapes future

cognitive processes

Seeks to measure and understand personality

using self-report measures and in some cases

via observation

Aims to facilitate harmony between individuals

and the world around them (by changing either

the individual or the environment)E.g.if a child learns that tantrums achieve a

desired result, the rewards for such behaviour

condition and establish a set of behaviours that

will probably be used in later life


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continued


Biological William

Sheldon

Robert

Plomin

Hans

Eysenck

C. Robert

Cloniger

Assumes peoples personality characteristics

are either inherited and/or are biologically

influenced by hormones

Seeks to understand personality via work with

twins and through neurological research

Aims to improve personality through medication

or gene manipulation/selectionE.g.finding a relationship between the

existence of a specific gene and a personality

trait, such as anxiety


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continued


Behavioural Burrhus

Skinner

John Dollard

and Neal

Millar

Forces of conditioning and reinforcement have

shaped personality

Seeks to understand personality by observation

Emphasises the role of learning in development

of personality and aims to enhance positive

personality characteristics through reward and

punishmentE.g.if a child learns that aggression in the

playground will bring immediate gratification of

a need or goal then it is likely that aggression

will be reinforced and used more often; if such

aggression is punished, however, its use as a

strategy should diminish


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Personality: a conscious or

unconscious process? The interpersonal (psychodynamic) approach

contends that some elements of personality

manifestation (particularly problem behaviour)

reside in the persons unconscious (the part ofthe mind outside of the individuals immediate

awareness).

We will consider:

work of Sigmund Freud and psychodynamic

theorists

object relation theory.


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Freud and psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (18561939) is credited as thefather of psychoanalysis. He suggested thatunconscious mental processes and experiencescan shape the development and manifestation

of personality. He conceptualised the mind as being composed

in a way similar to an iceberg. The smallest partof the mind, the tip of the iceberg, is composed

of conscious thought processes those mentalabilities that we are fully aware of.


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Freuds model of the human mind


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Stages of personality developmentAdult signs of

fixation

Defining features Psychosexual stage

Oral First year after birth.

The mouth is the centre

of pleasure at this stage.

Babies use their mouths

to eat and explore

everything around them.

Problems arise when

oral needs are either

under- or over-

stimulated. So early orlate weaning may lead to

adult behaviours such as

overeating, smoking and

drinking to excess. Over-

dependence on others isalso, according to Freud,

a by-product of fixation

at this stage.


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continued

Adult signs of

fixation


Anal During the childs

second year.

Here, according to

Freud, there is a clash

between free bowelmovements at will and

parental demands for

appropriate toilet

training.

Thus it is at this stagethat the ego starts to

develop.

Fixation at this stage can

occur when toilet training

is too harsh or starts too

early or too late.

Associated adultbehaviours might be

excessively concerned

with control and

cleanliness, or they

might be reckless or

impulsive.


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continued

Adult signs

of fixation


Phallic Between the ages of 3 and 6.

Focus of attention diverts to the

genital area. Here, according to

Freud, boys develop sexual

feelings for their mothers andform a desire to eliminate the

competing affections of the

father (known as the Oedipus

complex). Girls develop penis

envy and try to compensate for

their lack of a penis byidentifying with the father (the

Electra complex). Here the

superego starts to develop.

Freud believed that

fixation at this stage

could lead to problems

later in life via

unresolved conflicts with

ones same-sex parent.

These could be

manifested by

aggression, difficulty

with authority, inability to

hold down a stablerelationship and, in

extreme cases, socially

disapproved-of sexual

behaviour.


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Evaluation of Freuds theory

The stages of personality provided the springboard for thefield of developmental psychology.

Provides the first comprehensive personality theory andstimulated the development of personality assessmenttechniques.

Also drew attention to possible influence of unconscious

mental processes on the development and manifestation ofpersonality. Some empirical support for facets of Freudswork; recent research by Myers (2000) has provided supportfor concepts such as a repressive coping style.

Major critics of Freuds theory maintain that his work: Is out of date and would not apply to todays very different

society overemphasised the importance of unconscious principles in

respect of personality.

is not readily open to scientific investigation.


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Object relations theory Deals with how individuals internally conceptualise (in terms of feelingsand attitude) people and objects around them.

One assumption is that the childs developing relationship with othersaround them (external forces) is more important than internal urges anddesires (internal forces). Children create their own unconscious mentalrepresentation of others around them. So important others (e.g. themother) become internalised by the child.

Thus children can have a relationship with this internalised object(mother) even when she is not present (so children can still imagine whattheir mothers might say if they do something they are not supposed to,even when the mother is not physically present).

So, in essence, object relations theorists attempt to understandpersonality in terms of how children develop relationships with others

around them based on how they mentally represent this relationship. Melanie Klein (1964), John Bowlby (1988) and Heinz Kohut (1977)

developed their accounts of personality based on the principles of objectrelations theory.


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What is the function of personality?

This question allows us to explore two other paradigmsof personality research: the humanistic approach and thecognitive-behavioural approach.

The humanistic or phenomenological theorists seepersonality as a tool for personal growth and

development, and suggest that our characteristics canserve us in terms of seeking improvements in our qualityof life (by, for example, gaining success, friends andsatisfaction).

The cognitive behavioural paradigm sees personality as

an interface between what we would like and what theworld will allow. In other words, personality allows us tointeract with the world, form social relationships, learnwhat is right, what is wrong, and what is good and badfor us.


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The humanistic or

phenomenological paradigmAbraham Maslows hierarchy of needs (1968): Conceptualised individuals as being driven by needs; all needs

were hierarchically organised

Divided human needs into five levels, with the most pressing needsstarting at the base of the hierarchy

We must satisfy the lower needs before we can progress andconcentrate on obtaining those higher up in the hierarchy; also thatthe levels develop with age so that the first levels occur inchildhood (need for food, need for safety, etc.) and the othersdevelop throughout the lifespan

Higher-level needs are not necessary for survival, so motivation to

achieve them is weaker than for more basic needs, e.g. water The final need stage is that ofself-actualisation, where an individual

seems to know who they are and have little confusion about theroute their life should take. Our personality is a tool that we use togain these needs and attempt to reach this self-actualisation.


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Maslows hierarchy of needs


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The cognitive-behavioural paradigmCognitive-behavioural theorists see personality as apackage of behaviours that people have acquiredthrough learning and interaction with theirenvironments, and which they employ to help themnavigate their environments. They suggest that much ofpersonality is learned through social interaction.

So we gain both our behaviour and cognitive processesvia experience in our social worlds. We then use thisexperience to survive within our environments.

So the function of personality is to test our theories ofthe world around us in order that we might learn how tosurvive and behave. The cognitive-behaviouralapproach to personality seeks to understand howlearned cognitive thought patterns influence behaviourand how the consequences of a behaviour informcognition for future actions.


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Personality

A tool of social environmental interpretation? Bandura envisaged personality from a social-cognitive perspective. Heproposed two theories that suggested personality affects how we react toenvironmental stimuli: cognitive social learning theory (1977)

reciprocal determinism (1986).

He viewed behaviour, internal personal factors and the influences of theenvironment as inseparable parts of each other. So peoples eating habits (past behaviour) influence their eating preferences

(personal factor) which, in turn, influence how different foods (environment)affect their behaviour.

He proposed that personality influences how we interpret and react toevents/stimuli.

Bandura also argued that our personalities often contribute to situationsthat we react to (so if we expect someone to be rude to us, we may beoffhand to them in the first place which then causes the behaviour weexpected in the first place).

So, in essence, personality is a sum of our internal personal factors, ourcognitions and the behaviours we use to deal with our environments.


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What is personality?

We have descriptive terms for personality, such asdispositions or characteristics. The most widely acceptedterm in personality is trait.

Personality traits are the tendencies that we use todescribe how someone thinks and behaves most of the

time. Exactly how many or how few traits make up our

personality? Do we all have the same traits at the basisof our personalities or do we have different combinationsof traits? Such questions have given rise to a fourth

paradigm of personality research the trait approach tounderstanding personality.


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Assumptions of trait theory

While there are many trait theorists, they all share threecommon assumptions :

1. Individuals each possess particular personality traits to eithera greater or lesser extent. Perhaps the best analogy here isto think of individual traits as having volumes. In some peoplethe volumes on certain traits are high, in others they are

medium and in others they are low. So while we all possessthe same personality traits, different combinations of soundvolume across these traits create unique personalities.

2. Traits remain relatively stable across time, so a sociableperson will probably remain generally sociable throughout hisor her lifetime.

3. Traits remain stable across a wide diversity of environmentaland social situations. So someone who is competitive willprobably be competitive at work as well as on the tenniscourt.


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Questions guiding trait research

Trait theories are also concerned with three

questions:

1. How should traits be conceptualised? In other

words, how are traits defined?2. How can those traits that are most important

to personality be identified among the huge

numbers of ways people differ?

3. How can all personality traits be identified?


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How many traits are important

in personality?We will consider three main theories:

Eysencks three factor model

Cattells 16 personalityfactor test (16PF)

Costa and McCraes big five.


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Trait theories: Eysenck

Top-down approach: traits came fromclinical work with patients, rather thanbeing data-driven.

Two factors:1. Extraversionintroversion

2. Neuroticismemotional stability.

3rd factor added in 1976 to help

differentiate schizophrenia withnormal personality:

Psychoticismtender-mindedness.


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Eysencks

three-factortheory

structure


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Eysenck

Three broad traits: extroversion,psychoticism, neuroticism.

Extroverts have a high energy level and aresociable; introverts like to spend more timealone

A person scoring highly on the neuroticismdimension is anxious and can often bedepressed.

People scoring high on psychoticism lackempathy and have little sympathy for thesuffering of others.


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Cattell Instead of measuring behaviours, used language

(because language must contain a description ofpersonality).

Used all words in the dictionary that describe differentaspects of personality.

Developed questionnaire containing adjectives.Employed psychometric approach (studyingunderlying structures).

Personality is a cocktail of characteristics.

Surface traits: 171 surface traits, such asconscientiousness, competitiveness, flexibility.

Source traits: groups of surface traits:humble versusassertive or emotional versus stable.


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Used questionnaire and objective testing.

Factor analysis revealed 23 factors. 16PF = 15 factors + intelligence

43 million trait combinations.

Criticisms of Cattell:

Researchers have failed to replicate the existenceof 16 main personality traits; 3 super factors haveemerged that closely resemble ENP (Eysenck,1991)

There has also been criticism that the 16PF is not

applicable to all cultures, for example black mother-tongue speakers in the South African (Abrahams,2002).


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Costa and McCrae

A five-factor model: the big 5: Openness to experience: culture, intellect, receptivity

to new ideas and approaches, imaginative, seeknovelty

Conscientiousness: thorough, reliable, self-

disciplined, competent, orderly, dutiful (Eysencks P) Extraversion: sociable, outgoing, noisy, assertive,

active, excitement seeking (Eysencks E)

Agreeableness: obey rules, trusting, cooperative,tender-minded, straight forward, modest (EysencksP)

Neuroticism: worried, anxious, angry, hostile,depressed, self-conscious, vulnerable (EysencksN).


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From Cattells 16 factors, Costa and McCrae

(1976) discovered 3 factors: E, N, O. They measured these factors by 6 facets

(aspects of behaviour that represent lower levelfactors), e.g. hostility being a facet of

neuroticism. Later added 2 of Goldbergs factors to make 5.

Assessment of theory: Why add 6 facets to each factor? Arbitary number

Some of the factors are not totally independentbecause some of the facets correlate with oneanother.


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Positive aspects of Costa and McCraes big 5:

Developed a widely used questionnaire NEO-PI, 1985, 240 items, 5 factors, 6 facets, 8 items

each, 5 point rating scale (revised 1992)

Validated the questionnaire

Established in a number of countries Correlates with other questionnaires (concurrent

validity)

Validated against behaviours, e.g. risky sexual

behaviour (predictive validity)

Examine origins of these factors (genetic studies)

offers comprehensive framework to integrate and

understand trait concepts of Eysenck and Cattell.


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Differences stem from their use of factoranalysis.

They do not agree on number of factors.

Cattell included motive, Eysenck did not.

Cattell worked at the trait level of analysis, withlarger numbers of factors, a narrower definition,but correlated together.

Eysenck worked at the factor level, using

secondary factors to combine traits into asmaller number of super factors, which cover abroader range of behaviour and tend to beuncorrelated.

Comparing theories


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How many factors are there?How many factors are there?

Recently, the consensus is leaning towards

there being 5 broad dimensions of personality.

Support comes from FA, cross-cultural research

and comparing scales with otherquestionnaires.

McCrae and Costa (1990, 1994): all 5 factors

have been shown to be reliable and valid and

stable throughout adulthood.

They are useful in that they can be measured,

and can predict behaviour.


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Biological factors and personality

One of the most significant questions guidingpersonality research is the extent to which ourpersonalities are influenced by biological factorssuch as heredity and hormones.

Biological approaches are founded on thepremise that psychological characteristics (suchas aggression, shyness) are based on anunderlying physiological system.

We will consider arousal theory, the influence ofhormones, evolutionary perspectives andgenetic factors.


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Eysenck first proposed that people can be describedas being either introverted or extroverted. From abiological perspective, introversion and extroversionhave been described in terms of arousal levels. That

is, an extrovert will seek more stimulation than anintrovert because their arousal system requires morestimulation to become aroused.

If this is true then we should see that extroverts

arousal levels respond less quickly to arousal thanintroverts arousal levels. Studies by Bullock andGilliland (1993) and Brocke et al. (1997) have allsupported this observation.

Arousability theory


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Jeffrey Gray (1985) proposed a model ofpersonality, which is based on two hypothesised

biological systems within the brain:

The first is what he calls the behavioural activation

system (BAS) which responds to incentives and isresponsible for behaviour engagement

The other is the behavioural inhibition system (BIS)

which is responsive to punishment cues.

So personality is determined to some extent bythe balance between your BAS and BIS.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory


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Hebb (1955) initially suggested people are motivated toseek out an optimal level of arousal, which they arepersonally comfortable with. If they are under-arousedrelative to this level, further arousal will be consideredrewarding; if they are over-aroused, a decrease in

arousal will be rewarding. Zuckerman (1991) reported that police officers

volunteering for riot duty have higher sensation-seekingscores than those who do not volunteer for such duties.

Zuckerman proposes a physiological basis forsensation-seeking behaviour focusing on the role ofneurotransmitters.

Sensation seeking


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Theorists working with hormones argue that sexdifferences between genders occur because eachgender has different levels of underlying hormones.Men, for example, have on average 100 times theamount of testosterone in their blood than females do(Hoyenga and Hoyenga, 1993).

Higher testosterone levels have been linked toaggressive behaviour; Dabbs and Hargrove (1997)reported that female prisoners with high levels of itreceived more disciplinary punishments from the prisonauthorities than those with lower testosterone levels.

However, we do need to be cautious when interpretingsuch research, since the vast majority of the studies ofthis nature are correlational and so we cannot be sure ifthe testosterone has caused the behaviour or if thebehaviour has caused increases in the hormone.

Hormones and personality


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While we all have the same genetic human code,a small number of genes are different for

different people (e.g. hair colour). So while we

have the sequence for our DNA, we do not yet

fully understand the role these genes play insuch things as behaviour, cognitive ability and

personality.

Work in this area attempts to determine howmuch individual differences in personality are

determined by environmental or genetic factors.

It is a sensitive and political area.

Behavioural genetics


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Recently, biological research into personality hasmoved away from the issue of whether genesinfluence personality towards a much morefocused set of questions such as how much theyinfluence personality and exactly which genes

influence which behaviour. One of the main areas is the search for genes

that are associated with genetically influenceddisorders.

Families with a history of these disorders arestudied: blood or saliva is taken from thosemembers who do and do not have the disorderso that DNA can be compared.

Molecular genetics


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The biological approach, in terms of hormoneand brain activity, offers interesting insights intohow biology is linked to the expression ofpersonality, but there is a danger that the

complexity of human nature may be forgotten insuch a focused area. Bunge (1990) and otherswould argue that biological processes cannotfully explain personality.

Behaviour is rooted in a rich cocktail of influentialfactors; biological indicators are one, but otherscan be equally powerful, e.g. cognitiveprocesses or environmental pressures.

Biological approach: evaluation


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Aims of trait theories1.Aim to discover the main dimensions of

personality and explain how people differ.

2. Aim to develop tests to measure these traits.

3. Aim to make these tests valid and reliableacross time and situations

eg: Inventory of Driving-Related Personality Traits(IVPE).

4. Aim to discover how individual differences comeabout e.g. Duberstein et al (2000) E and +N linked to

suicidal behaviour.

Generally nomothetic in application.


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What are personality traits?

Relatively enduring characteristics of a person.

Usually conceived as predispositions to

behaviour, which are consistent over time and

across situations.

These predispositions are assumed to be

organised on a hierarchy.

People display consistency and continuity in

their behaviour, but there are also changes inbehaviour, thus demonstrating individual

differences (volume).


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E.g. aggression:

Not at all ___________X____________Very much so

Trait theorists are interested in these differences

between people and attempt to establish a

theory of the structure of personality that fits

everyone. Trait theorists share the view that people

possess broad dispositions (traits) to behave in

certain ways.

These dispositions can be grouped together.

Traits are fundamental to human personality.


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Trait vs. state distinction, e.g. for anxiety:

We may not always be in a state of anxiety

If we are in a state of anxiety, we may not

have the trait of anxiety, but may be anxious

due to the situation that we are in.

Trait types:

observed correlations of several traits

e.g. lively, outgoing and sociable correlate to

make up an extraverted type.


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Hierarchical structure of personality

Personality

Habits(specific responses grouped together to form habits)

shark wrestling

Rock climbing

Traits(groups of habits)

Impulsivity

Excitability, sensation seeking etc

Superfactors(traits)

Adventurousess


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How do we measure traits?

1 Questionnaires/inventories: nomothetic

(common to individuals)

2 Projective tests: idiographic (peculiar to each

individual, unique to a person)

3 Objective tests: both idiographic and

nomothetic


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Projective tests


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Projective tests

Consist of deliberately vague or ambiguous

stimuli that respondents describe.

In contrast to questionnaires that measure

variance common to all individuals, projectivetests measure peculiar or hidden aspects of

personality.

Rationale: respondents project inner conflicts

and anxieties onto stimuli, tapping into deeper

aspects of the mind.


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Projective tests: examples

The Rorschach test (1921): 10 symmetricalinkblots which participants describe.

House-tree-person test (HTP) (Buck, 1970):

participants are required to draw these three

objects.

Identify highly interesting, subtle aspects of

personality; capture in-depth, rich data.


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Projective tests: comments

Vernon, 1963:

- training required

- time-consuming

- difficult to score and to agree on score

- subjective

- contextual effects (age, sex of scorer).


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Objective tests

Fidgetometer: anxious people fidget more.

Slow line drawing: cheat-low

conscientiousness.

Basic metabolic rate: oxygen consumption for 6minutes converted to calories per hour per

square metre of body area: less-extraversion

(vigorous, active).

Lemon test?

+ Difficult to fake, social desirability removed

- Poor validity, difficult to administer


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Examples of questions

T

r e r f lse: I am attracted to people morewhen they have fewer clothes on.

F rce c ice: When I have had a stressful dayI go home and:

a) Have a nice relaxing bath

b) Play some loud music

c) Kick the hamster around the living room.

Li ert sc le: I am Gods gift to the oppositesex.

Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree


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What is factor analysis ?

Statistical procedure employed to analyse acomplex phenomenon with the aim ofsimplifying into more manageable patterns ofdescription.

Earth: mud, clay, stones, rock, peat, leaves, roots etc.

minerals, soil and vegetation

Neuroticism: nervousness, anxiety andworrying

Allows quick descriptions of related items.


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Advantages of personality tests

Easy to construct and administer

Quick, inexpensive, no training required,administer to large groups

Can be standardised Norms can be established

Can be validated?

Can be tested for reliability

Have many uses (selection for school, work;clinical diagnoses)


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Disadvantages of personality tests

Items must be short and easy to complete:

My karma is inexplicably intertwined in the

gloriousness of my fatalistic nature.

But does this make personality too simplistic? Do questionnaires capture the full richness of

personality?

Subjective, based on self-report, truth or lie?

Cross-situational reliability?

Semantics?

ch 29 personality

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