·...

312
GPN:2009105233 定價:新台幣 500元

Upload: others

Post on 31-Jul-2020

2 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

GPN:2009105233

定價:新台幣 500元

Page 2:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

第五十期

出 版 者: 國立中興大學文學院

編 輯 者: 國立中興大學興大人文學報編輯委員會

地 址: 402 臺中市南區國光路 250 號

電 話: 886-4-22840316

傳 真: 886-4-22856117

電 子 郵 件: clalib@dragon.nchu.edu.tw

網 址: http://www.cla.nchu.edu.tw/people2/publication.htm

出 版 日 期: 中 華 民 國 一○二 年 三 月

(原《文史學報》年刊 民國 60 年 5 月創刊 Vol. 1~31

民國 91 年 6 月改名 民國 95 年 3 月改為半年刊)

展 售 處: 國家書店 松江門市 臺北市中山區松江路 209 號 1 樓

電話:886-2-25180207 分機 28 傳真:886-2-25180778

http://www.govbooks.com.tw

五南文化廣場 臺中市中區中山路 6 號

電話:886-4-22260030 傳真:886-4-22258234

http://www.wunanbooks.com.tw

售 價: 每本新台幣 500 元

版權所有 請勿翻印

GPN:2009105233

ISSN:1727 - 8562

Page 3:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

(原名《文史學報》年刊 第一期~三十一期)

第五十期

主題論文:跨文化言談行為比較

國立中興大學文學院 中華民國一○二年三月

臺灣 臺中

Page 4:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

第五十期

發 行 人: 王明珂

主 編: 林淑貞

編 輯 委 員: 阮秀莉(中興大學外文系) 林淑貞(中興大學中文系)

胡萬川(東海大學中文系) 張淑麗(成功大學外文系)

陳靜瑜(中興大學歷史系) 陳哲三(逢甲大學歷史文物所)

黃克武(中研院近史所) 廖美玉(逢甲大學中文系)

廖振富(中興大學台文所) (姓氏依筆劃排序)

主題論文編輯: 張玉芳

執 行 編 輯: 王仁祥 吳佩如 羅秀美

刊 名 題 字: 陳欽忠

助 理 編 輯: 呂良琛 翁碧玲 陳誼芳 曾麗雯

英文摘要校對: 吳夏暄 曹麗莎

助 理: 羅文君 鄭念宜

Page 5:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

編者的話

春天的校園,充滿蓬勃的朝氣,蹁蹮流蕩在中興湖畔;亭亭如蓋的綠樹彷彿

儀隊般地矗立著,似是護持校園的尊者,端正而祥和。陽光灑落在翠嫩如玉的綠

叢中,悠遊如風行吟。逡巡在瀲灔的湖光水色中,有一種感動,似是趕赴一場春

的饗宴。在這曼妙的節候裡,我們也回應豐盛的研究成果,呈現出學者們孜孜矻

矻奮勉的創見,順著春天的跫音婆娑起舞,踴躍著春的流麗,翩翩踩踏。

本期收編二類文章,第一類是主題論文,以「跨文化言談行為比較」為題,

主要是基於文化交流日益密切,人與人的接觸日益頻繁,希望藉由語言行為之研

究,增進人際之溝通,減少因誤解所造成的歧見。內容包括讚美、抱怨、道歉等

語言行為進行深刻影響之探究,或是進行多種(例如:國語、日語)語言之言談

行為之異同比較,以增進對跨文化言談行為之瞭解,減少言語鴻溝所造成的誤解。

本專欄遴聘張玉芳老師擔任主編,經過一年多的努力,終能將最豐盛的研究成果

呈現給讀者,張主編特別邀請學有專精的四位學者,分別從不同視角針對「抱怨」、

「讚美」、「道歉」、「同意」等言談行為做跨文化的比較分析。陳泱璉、何德華先

生〈臺灣電視節目之讚美行為探討〉(Compliment Exchanges in Taiwan TV Programs)

一文分析電視節目中讚美語言行為的模式。余明忠先生〈間接抱怨反應行為跨文

化影響之研究〉(Cultural Influences on the Responses to Indirect Complaints)一文則

是收集自然觀察所得的語料,以檢視母語為華語人士,與母語為美語人士「間接

抱怨反應」行為的差異,進而檢視台灣在美留學生的美語間接抱怨反應行為是否

異於母語為美語人士之語用行為。林玉惠、何博欽先生〈言談行為研究中多層分

析之必要性─以道歉語行之內部修飾語為例〉(Internal Modifications in Apology

Realizations: A Need for Multi-leveled Categorization)一文以情境問卷為資料收集並

分析母語為華語人士、母語為美語人士及英語學習者所提供的 8049 筆道歉語料之

差異。陳春美先生〈跨文化華語課室日籍學習者禮貌言談行為之研究〉(Politeness

of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms)一文則是檢視學習華語

的日本大學生以華語表達同意、不同意及詢問的語言行為。這四篇主題論文,分

別運用不同資料的收集方式,檢視、比較不同語言間言談行為的異同,呈示多元

的研究方法及豐富的研究成果,增進我們對跨媒材、跨文化語言行為之理解,並

提昇研究之深度與廣度。

第二類一般論文共有五篇,時間跨度橫越明代、清代、現當代乃至於日本的

Page 6:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

比較研究。其中,〈《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生─以女性為切入點〉一文,主要

是從女性作為研究對象,《水滸傳》是一本以陽剛男性為主的小說,女性向來不被

重視,然而本文卻從三種女性:考驗英雄的女色、協助事業伙伴的女性,以及引

導命運的母神來論述梁山英雄經由女性角色引導歷劫成長,終能回歸天界的歷

程。〈台灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析〉一文進行橫跨清領、日治、民國三個時期

的醫師文人林玉書(1881-1964)之詞作研究,內容透過《臥雲吟草》、《臥雲吟草續

集》二書五十一篇進行酬酢遣懷、景物書寫、閨思愁緒三類分析,以知其感懷及

諷刺之豐富情感內容。〈小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其

文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散

文創作及《中國戲曲史》、《中國小說史》、《中國文學史》三史,可重新定位孟瑤

在當代文學史的方位。〈從分身到重複:黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》〉

一文屬於電影藝術解析,論述黑澤清與高達二位導演,皆企圖從分身之中去解構

重複的意圖,黑澤清採用交替、並置、再度交替的手法進行演繹,達到無根據的

絕對分身的目的,而高達則採用偏移錯位手法造成斷片間的連接方法,形成獨特

的紋路,此一論述,揭示電腦手法中的「分身」絕非「重複」影像與聲音而已,

而是讓重複成為差異的分身,不僅是形式與表象的重複。〈論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷

講唱的關係:以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例〉一文則是透過流傳

於民間的口傳故事,進行張巡之子千聖小王神蹟的演繹,以重建常熟地區歷史人

物崇拜的來源,並提供珍貴的宗教資料。

本期共收稿件 23 篇,經編委會初審討論決定,剔除與本刊簡約宗旨不符、或

主題意識不明確者 4 篇論文,餘 19 篇慎重遴聘學者專家審查。審查結果通過 4

篇,不通過 10 篇,審查、修改不及 5 篇,將移至下一期處理。上期移至本篇論文

共一篇,連同主題論文,皇皇刊印九篇論文,期待這些豐碩的研究成果,可以積

累學術的能量與激發更多的研究潛能。

在此特別感謝專欄主編張玉芳老師,在這一年以來辛勤協助徵稿、邀稿、撰

寫提要以及參與編輯會議等相關事宜。

盤桓在這個美麗的季節裡,我們也回應這一場美的凝視與流眄,探視著豐盛

的研究成果,共同沈思、耽溺在這綺麗璀璨的春宴中。

林淑貞序於 2013 年春分時節

Page 7:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

第五十期

中華民國一○二年三月出版

目 錄

主題論文:跨文化言談行為比較 ‧Compliment Exchanges in Taiwan TV Programs 臺灣電視節目之讚美行為探討 ······································ 陳泱璉 何德華 ·· 1 ‧Cultural Influences on the Responses to Indirect Complaints 間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究 ····························· 余明忠 ············· 25 ‧Internal Modifications in Apology Realization: A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization 言談行為研究中多層分析之必要性—以道歉語行之內部修飾語為例 ·········································································· 林玉惠 何博欽 · 63 ‧Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms 跨文化華語課室日籍學習者禮貌言談行為之研究 ·············· 陳春美 ··········· 113

一般論文 ‧《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點 ············ 徐培晃 ··········· 143 ‧臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析 ··································· 李名媛 ··········· 171 ‧小說家之外的孟瑤 ──從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位 ········· 羅秀美 ··········· 197 ‧從分身到重複──黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》 ··· 應 雄 ··········· 241 ‧On the Connection of the Cults of Historical Persons and Baojuan Storytelling: with Baojuan of Small King of Thousand Sages of the Changshu Area of Jiangsu Province as an Example 論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係 ──以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例 ············ 白若思 ··········· 265

附錄

‧ 徵稿簡約

‧ 撰稿格式

Page 8:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 1-24 二○一三年三月

1

Compliment Exchanges in Taiwan TV Programs*

Yang-lien Chen** Victoria Rau***

Abstract This study investigated compliment exchanges in Chinese TV talk shows and award

ceremonies in order to see whether the spoken data can be accounted for by three metaphors:

gift exchange, giving a trophy, and bribery. In addition to the three metaphors, the spoken

data also produced examples of sarcasm, which on the surface appears to be a type of

compliment exchange. The results show that the spoken data can be categorized into four

types: three metaphors of compliment exchange and sarcasm. The first metaphor, gift

exchange, is the most common type in the collected spoken data, perhaps due to the fact that

Chinese tend to have certain kinds of interactions or small talk with their interlocutors in

compliment exchanges to establish human relationships. The second metaphor, giving a

trophy, is usually followed by a short acknowledgment. Bribery, on the other hand, often

happens when the complimentee has a higher status than the complimenter or when the

complimenter intends to benefit from the complimentee. Finally, with sarcasm a compliment

seems to be offered, but the complimenter actually intends to express an ironic meaning.

Keywords: compliment exchange, speech act, metaphor

* The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. Gerald Rau for his invaluable editorial assistance. ** MA student at the Institute of Linguistics, National Chung Cheng University. *** Professor, Institute of Linguistics, National Chung Cheng University.

(收稿日期:101.01.28;通過刊登日期:102.03.15)

Page 9:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

2

1. Introduction

Compliment, according to Holmes (1986:485), is a speech act “which explicitly or

implicitly attributes credit to someone other than the speaker, usually the person addressed,

for some ‘good’ (possessions, characteristic, skill, etc.) which is positively valued by the

speaker and the hearer.”

In the investigation of compliment behaviors, research studies have examined various

cross-cultural issues. Scollon and Scollon (2001) described the concept of culture and the

problems which may occur when members of different cultures or discourse systems interact

in intercultural communication. They also made some comparisons between Asian culture

and western culture, and mentioned several stereotypes and fallacies that people should

avoid in cross-cultural communication. One particular area in which people from different

cultures can behave differently is compliment exchanges.

Yu (2005) showed that English and Chinese speakers have different preferences for

compliment strategies even though the two cultures share some common concepts about

politeness. Tang and Zhang (2009) also noted a difference in the strategies adopted by

speakers of Australian English and Mandarin Chinese. For instance, the Chinese participants

tended to use more rejection and evasion strategies but fewer acceptance strategies

compared to their Australian counterparts.

Rau and Chen (2010) examined how the concept of “thirdness” emerged in American

English speakers’ perceptions of Chinese English speakers’ compliment exchanges; they

also investigated how social identity is reconstructed by Chinese English speakers when

using a combination of acceptance and non-acceptance strategies. American speakers tend to

acknowledge a compliment with, “thank you,” and then answer the questions from the

complimenter. On the other hand, Chinese participants also accept the compliment, but are

more likely to express self-degradation. The notion of “thirdness” in this research is the

suggestion that an alternative way of responding to compliment in communication between

these two cultures would be to acknowledge it and then give an explanation to show

Page 10:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

3

modesty. Furthermore, it was suggested that English teachers include instruction in language

diversity when teaching cross-cultural pragmatics instead of using a dichotomous model to

evaluate L2 learners’ performances.

Yu (2011) investigated the interlanguage behavior of Chinese learners of American

English in order to know how they offer compliments in L2. He found that although there

were some similarities between Chinese speakers and English speakers, the former offered

less compliments than the latter. Cultural differences were also reflected in syntax and

lexicon. For example, the two verbs “love” and “like” had different meanings and functions

in Chinese, and Chinese speakers had a preference for using a certain one when giving

compliments, but for Americans these were the main verbs used in compliment, and used

interchangeably.

In addition to cultural factors, social variables have also been addressed by different

studies. Chen (2003) claimed that the complimentees’ strategy selections would be

influenced by the complimenter’s social status relative to the complimentee. Moreover,

Wang and Tsai (2003) specified the preference of syntactic patterns, topic, and compliment

response strategies produced by different genders.

Most of the research studies, like those mentioned above, have focused on the use of

compliment response strategies. In addition to strategies, Chen and Rau (2011) examined the

perceptions of native speakers of American English towards the content and form produced

by Chinese speakers when doing compliment exchanges in English. Eight types of content

problems and four types of form errors were indicated by the American assessors. Some of

them were violations of Grice’s Conversational Maxims or Brown & Levinson’s Politeness

Principles, and some of them indicated the different attitudes and interpretations of Chinese

and Western culture.

One of the problems is that for Chinese speakers, in addition to ”讚美,” the English

word “compliment” may be translated by many synonyms in Chinese, such as ”稱讚,” “稱

許,” “肯定,” “誇獎,” “誇讚,” “恭維,” “巴結,” “拍馬屁,” and so on, which display different

interlocutor relationships. Among these Chinese words, it seems that a higher-status person

tends to compliment a lower-status person by using “讚美” and “稱讚,” which are also used

Page 11:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

4

between two people of equal status. The terms “稱許,” “誇獎” and “誇讚,” seem to appear

in the situation where a higher-status person compliments a lower-status person, but do not

occur between two equal-status people. On the other hand, “恭維,” “巴結” and “拍馬屁,”

are more likely to occur in the situation where a lower-status person offers compliments to a

higher-status person or a person gives a compliment for some self-serving purpose or to gain

some benefit.

The three sets of compliment expressions, related to praise, positive evaluation, and

flattery, have distinct meanings in Chinese, which can be associated with three different

metaphors (Rau 2012). With praise, giving a compliment is like gift exchange, which is also

accompanied small talk and has many social functions (Coupland 2009). Asians are more

likely to use deflection strategy or set the “gift” aside when respond to such a compliment,

while Westerners tend to receive the “gift” and open it right away, mirroring the way each

culture tends to deal with physical gifts. Second, when someone is given a positive

evaluation, giving a compliment is like giving a trophy, a situation often seen in award

ceremonies. Generally speaking, the compliment exchange in this situation will not last too

long; the complimentee often simply receives the acknowledgement and ends the interaction.

Finally, giving a compliment in the context of flattery is like bribery, which refers to a

speech event in which the complimenter intends to speak well of the complimentee in order

to benefit from him or her, or to achieve some personal goal.

When investigating compliment exchanges, sarcasm is another interesting expression

that is worth exploring. Toplak and Katz (2000) contrasted the effects of making a criticism

directly with that of making it indirectly by using sarcasm. They pointed out that in some

contexts, a person makes “a seemingly positive comment” that can be considered to be an

indirect criticism. They also indicated the functions of indirect criticism (sarcasm) to be

saving face, expressing humor, and so on.

In the past, many studies on compliment exchanges have been based on discourse

completion tests (DCTs). In addition to these artificial situations, authentic spoken data such

as conversations from TV programs or recordings of daily conversations can be collected

and investigated in order to see how actual compliment behaviors occur in our daily life.

Page 12:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

5

These natural data reflect real conditions, rather than hypothetical contexts. Thus, this

current study aims to investigate compliment exchanges from two types of Chinese TV

programs, a talk show and an award ceremony, in order to see whether the spoken data can

be accounted for by the three metaphors mentioned above, and whether there is any

evidence of sarcasm or ironic meaning in a seemingly positive comment.

2. Methodology

The research questions of this study are as follows: (1) Can the spoken data in

Mandarin be accounted for by the three metaphors of compliment exchange? (2) Can any

other type of compliment exchange be identified in the spoken data? Discourse analysis will

be used to analyze the data of spoken compliment exchanges.

2.1 Data collection

Two types of spoken data were examined to identify compliment exchange in Mandarin:

1. award ceremonies (the 49th Golden Horse award ceremony and the 47th Golden Bell

award ceremony), and 2. talk show (eight episodes of Kang-Xi Lai Le - 康熙來了).

These two TV programs are similar in that there are frequent interactions between the

host and the guest or between the award presenter and the awardee; therefore, examples of

compliment exchange can readily be found in these interactions. In those conversations,

compliment exchanges are not only offered between the host and the guest but also among

the guests.

There are distinct differences in the atmosphere of these two types of TV programs. In

the talk show, the pace of the conversations is faster, while in the award ceremony there are

some fixed program procedures and the pace may be slower.

2.2 Data analysis

A single compliment exchange was determined to begin with the giving of a

compliment and end with the end of a certain topic. For example, in extract 1 (Section 3.1),

Page 13:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

6

in line 1 speaker A begins by offering a compliment to speaker B, and the small talk of

speaker B (line 11) represents the end of the topic.

A discourse analysis approach was applied to the collected compliment exchange data.

The concept of Hymes’ (1986) SPEAKING grid (Settings, Participants, Ends, Act sequences,

Keys, Instrumentalities, Norms, and Genres) was also used to analyze the spoken data in

Mandarin. For example, the sources of the extracts, the relationships between the

complimenter and complimentee, and the intentions as well as interaction between the

participants were all analyzed.

3. Results and discussion

The results show that the three metaphors and another type of compliment exchange,

sarcasm, are sufficient to account for the spoken data from Chinese award ceremonies and

talk shows.

Table 1. Types of compliment exchanges

Type Frequency

Gift exchange 30 (57%)

Giving a trophy 11 (21%)

Bribery 7 (13%)

Sarcasm 5 (9%)

Total 53 (100%)

Table 1 displays the frequency of the four types of compliment exchange found in the

spoken data from the award ceremonies and talk shows. Among the 53 examples of

compliment exchanges found in the two award ceremonies and eight episodes of the talk

show, the gift exchange metaphor predominates, accounting for 57% of the compliment

exchanges. This is perhaps related to the finding in Scollon and Scollon (2001) that Asians

tend to be more aware of their connections with other members in a social group. In a

compliment exchange, when the complimentee hears a compliment, in addition to accepting

Page 14:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

7

it, he or she may have additional interaction or small talk with the complimenter. Through

these interactions, a kind of relationship is established between the complimenter and the

complimentee. The second type, giving a trophy, accounts for 21%, followed by 13% and

9% for bribery and sarcasm, respectively.

3.1 Gift exchange

An example of compliment exchange classified as gift exchange is shown below. The

main feature of this type is that the conversation lasts longer than giving a trophy, as there is

some small talk or exchange between the complimenter and complimentee. The

complimentee in extract 1 adopts an acceptance strategy to respond to the compliment.

Explanations will be presented in the following paragraphs of why the complimentee may

have chosen this response strategy.

Extract 1is a conversation between the hostess (speaker A) and a nominee (speaker B)

on the red carpet of the 47th Golden Bell award ceremony. As the artists arrived at the

location, the hostess interviewed them on the red carpet. After that, the artists entered the

ceremony hall to wait for the beginning of the award ceremony.

Extract 1

1 A: 舜哥真的是最近運氣非常好,

2 對不對?

3 B: 還可以還可以。

4 A: 結婚、生小孩,

5 現在又入圍金鐘獎。

6 B: 謝謝大家。

7 A: 說不定真的一路上就得獎了。

8 B: 嗯,我希望,

9 如果可以得獎的話,

10 我會感謝很多很多人,

11 但是我們會繼續努力把節目做得更好。

Page 15:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

8

1 A: Shunge, you have been very lucky recently,

2 haven’t you?

3 B: It’s been OK. It’s been OK.

4 A: You got married and had a child.

5 Now you have even been nominated for the 47th Golden Bell award.

6 B: Thank you.

7 A: Perhaps you will really get the award this time.

8 B: Yes, I hope so.

9 If I could get the award,

10 I would give thanks to many people.

11 We would also keep working hard to make our program better.

In this extract from the 47th Golden Bell Award Ceremony, speaker B was on the red

carpet, being interviewed by the hostess, speaker A. The hostess gives a compliment to

speaker B for his good fortune of getting married, having a child, and being a nominee.

Speaker B first expresses his humbleness (line 3), then accepts the compliment by

expressing gratitude toward everyone (line 6). Line 3 shows that speaker B did not directly

accept the compliment (lines 1-2) because he wanted to ascertain the intention of the

complimenter before accepting the compliment. Thus he said, “It’s been OK. It’s been OK”

in anticipation of further confirmation.

This extract is considered to be an example of gift giving in that after speaker B

accepted the compliment, he not only accepted it but had a short exchange with the hostess.

As explained by Coupland (2009), small talk has many social functions, one of which is to

bring people closer. In this case, through the small talk (lines 8-11), speaker B tried to get

closer to the TV audience in order to get more support for his program. This intention

corresponds to Bell’s (1997) concept of audience design. Therefore, speaker B promised that

if he got the award, he would work harder to make his program better. Through this kind of

“appeal,” speaker B not only responded to the hostess’ compliment but also achieved his

purpose of attracting a certain audience.

Page 16:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

9

3.2 Giving a trophy

The following two examples illustrate compliments that are like giving a trophy. One of

the features of this kind of compliment exchange is that the procedure is relatively shorter

than gift exchange. Sometimes, the complimentee may just acknowledge the compliment

and the conversation ends.

In extract 2, taken from the opening utterances of the conversation between the host

and hostess at the 47th Golden Bell award ceremony, the complimentee indeed simply

accepts the compliment and ends the talk.

Extract 2

1 A: 所以製作單位找你是因為快、狠、準

2 B: 可以這麼說。

3 A: 那他找我的原因呢?

4 B: 找你的原因很重要,

5 也很簡單,

6 因為你中文不太好,

7 所以話就不會太多,

8 這樣的話整個晚上就會非常非常地緊湊,

9 好不好?

10 而且你人長得不錯,

11 身材也可以,

12 在我旁邊很 OK 的,

13 很 OK 的,

14 OK?

15 A: Thank you!

1 A: So you were chosen by the organizer of the program because of your quick, concise

and sharp speaking ability.

2 B: That’s right.

3 A: What was the reason I was chosen?

Page 17:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

10

4 B: The reason is very important,

5 and simple.

6 As your Chinese is not very good,

7 you will not talk too much.

8 Therefore, tonight’s schedule will be fast-paced.

9 OK?

10 Also, you look good.

11 You have a good figure.

12 You look very OK standing beside me.

13 OK, that’s for sure.

14 OK?

15 A: Thank you!

At the beginning of the award ceremony, there was a dance performance, and then the

host and hostess began to talk about the reason they were chosen as emcees of the program.

The hostess first offered a compliment to the host by praising him for his quick, concise and

sharp tongue. The host wittily accepted the compliment without hesitation in a quick,

concise, and sharp manner.

Furthermore, when the host told the hostess why she was chosen, he made a joke about

her Chinese speaking ability. In other words, she was chosen because of her limited Chinese

speaking ability, so the procedure of the ceremony would not last too long. Lines 6-7 are

framed as a joke to set a lighthearted tone for the evening. The hostess accepted the

“compliment” from the host by responding with a “thank you” and ended this interaction.

Perhaps as an ABC (a Chinese born in America), she did not catch the sarcasm due to her

limited Chinese proficiency.

In extract 3, taken from one of the award presentations during the 49th Golden Horse

award ceremony, the complimentee does not even directly accept the compliment but

responds with laughter.

Page 18:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

11

Extract 3

1 A: 我還要講一個,

2 就是不管你今天有沒有得獎,

3 都不重要,

4 B: 不重要了。

5 A: 對,

6 因為你是我心目中最佳女主角。

7 B: (微笑)。

8 A: 唉唷,

9 是不是?

1 A: I also want to say one thing.

2 Whether you get the award this evening or not,

3 that’s not important.

4 B: Not important?

5 A: Exactly.

6 Because in my mind you are the best actress.

7 B: (laughter).

8 A: Yah,

9 Is that right?

Speaker A and B, serving as presenters of an award, were acquaintances because they

had worked together in a movie before. At that moment, speaker B was nominated for the

year’s Best Leading Actress. Speaker A mentioned this before the outcome was revealed.

Although it is up to the judges to make the final decision, speaker A indeed expressed his

admiration of the actress’ excellent acting. After speaker A expressed that no matter whether

speaker B got the award or not, she would always be the best actress in his mind, the

complimentee did not say anything but simply respond with laughter, a signal of her

embarrassment (speaker B blushed at that moment and she patted speaker A) and gratitude.

Page 19:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

12

3.3 Bribery

In the following examples, the interactions between the complimenter and

complimentee are considered to be flattery or bribery. Generally speaking, this kind of

condition can be seen in the situation where the complimentee has a higher status than the

complimenter. In order to achieve some purpose, the complimenter may try to make the

complimentee “happy” or try not to upset them, so that the complimenter can get what he or

she wants or prevent something bad from happening.

Extract 4 is an example showing flattery in the situation when the complimentee has a

higher status than the complimenter.

Extract 4

1 A: Andy (同 D)有很醜的到過公司過嗎?

2 B: 有,

3 其實他…沒有什麼差啦。

4 C: 你從,

5 你看他高中的相片跟現在,

6 他都很完美的呈現。

7 A: 好,

8 我知道你們現在在幹嘛,

9 因為你們全公司就是要一直稱讚他的外表就對了。

10 D: 沒有。

11 E: 帥。

12 F: 帥斃了,

13 劉德華嘛。

14 C: 他內心也很美,

15 不是外表的,

16 你知道那種就是…

1 A: Has Andy (speaker D) ever arrived at work looking ugly?

2 B: Yes.

3 Well, actually… he never looks any different.

Page 20:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

13

4 C: From…

5 You can see his photos from his senior high school time till now.

6 He is always good-looking.

7 A: OK.

8 I know what you’re doing.

9 Because all of you have to compliment his appearance, right?

10 D: No.

11 E: Handsome.

12 F: Very handsome.

13 Like Andy Lau.

14 C: His (Andy’s) heart is also good-looking.

15 Not its appearance…

16 You know it’s a kind of…

Here is a conversation among six male performers. Speakers C and D were partners,

who were invited to the talk show to share their experiences of investing in a record

company. Speaker B, E, and F were artists of a three-person group in the record company.

Speaker B was more popular than speakers E and F; therefore, he had received more

invitations to perform than the other two.

First, the host (speaker A) asked about the partnership between speaker C and speaker

D, then he focused on the interactions between speaker D and other colleagues in the record

company. It seems that the host knew that some members of the audience might like to

know more about speaker D, who seldom appeared on a TV program; thus, the host

switched his focus to speaker D in order to let the audience know more about him. Therefore,

the host asked the guests about the appearance of speaker D when he came to work on a

given day at the record company. Speakers B, E and F were competing to win the heart of

speaker D or to get more opportunities to perform by complimenting his good-looking

appearance. Although they might have truly believed their boss, speaker D, was really

handsome, their utterances were interpreted as flattery or bribery because of their

relationship with him. Speaker A quickly sensed the brown-nose behavior and commented

Page 21:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

14

on that (lines 8-9), but speaker D rejected this interpretation to alleviate potential

embarrassment. Moreover, speaker C also made an effort to compliment speaker D, his

partner, by shifting the compliment from “beauty is skin deep” to focus on his kind heart,

another example of bribery to win his trust or to strengthen their cooperation.

Extract 5 is another example of bribery in which the male complimenter (speaker A)

flattered the female complimentee (speaker B) for his own purpose.

Extract 5

1 A: 其實小 S 有到我們店裡面消費過。

2 B: 真的?

3 C: 你是說醫學美容嗎?

4 A: 不是,

5 小 S 這麼漂亮,

6 天生麗質,

7 當然不需要。

8 C: 我覺得今天這一集煙硝味太重。

1 A: Actually Xiao S has been to our store.

2 B: Really?

3 C: Do you mean medical cosmetology?

4 A: No.

5 Xiao S is so beautiful.

6 You’re a born beauty.

7 Of course you don’t need it (medical cosmetology).

8 C: I think something stinks in here today.

This extract is selected from one episode of the talk show, in which guests were invited

to the program to share their experiences of starting an enterprise. Speaker A was one of

those guests. Speaker B was the host and speaker C was the hostess (Xiao S), two of the

most popular TV stars in Taiwan.

Page 22:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

15

When the host asked speaker A about his experience in starting an enterprise, speaker A

mentioned that he had a medical cosmetology business before he had other businesses. After

that, the guest suddenly commented that the hostess had been to his store, which of course

caught the host and the hostess by surprise. Without a doubt, speaker A intended to create

suspense and get the hosts’ attention, to provide an opportunity for him to say something

else. In other words, the guest applied communication accommodation theory (Giles, 2009)

because he knew that the host liked to hear gossip. As gossip is often realized through

storytelling (Coupland, 2009: 657), the host would have more chances to interview the guest,

so the content of the program would be more attractive.

As the story unfolds, it becomes clear that the guest’s intention of making this comment

was to provide an opportunity to compliment the hostess’ appearance. However, the

“compliment” was immediately interpreted by the hostess as “flattery” and manipulative as

it was used both to cash in on the hostess’s appearance and to attract the audience’s attention

for marketing his own business in medical cosmetology.

3.4 Sarcasm

In addition to the examples that illustrate Rau’s (2012) three metaphors of compliment

exchanges, we also found another type of “compliment,” which is actually sarcasm. The

reason these compliments are interpreted as sarcasm is that the complimenter intends to

express a deeper meaning through the surface form of a compliment. In other words, the

complimenter would actually like to scoff at the complimentee, but uses the giving of a

compliment as a disguise, as shown in the following extract from a talk show, where speaker

A is the host and speaker B the guest. The topic is the quarrels between the guest and her

husband. The host supposed that when she had a quarrel with her husband, she was

definitely the winner. However, she retorted that her husband was more eloquent than she

was, and thus she almost never had a chance to win a quarrel.

Page 23:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

16

Extract 6

1 A: 寇乃馨這對不用講,

2 就是她(寇乃馨)就是很愛吵架,

3 所以就…

4 B: 什麼話?

5 這就是我們的形象了嗎?

6 A: 你(寇乃馨)口才超流利,

7 你根本就是無法對抗啊!

8 B: 可是我跟你講,

9 在我們家吵架的時候,

10 我都是被逼到牆角的那個,

11 你不要以為我說得過他,

12 我真的說不過啦。

13 A: 不可能。

14 B: 我真的說不過。

1 A: Needless to say, this couple (referring to Naixin Kou & Guolun Huang)…

2 She (Kou) enjoys fighting (with her husband).

3 So…

4 B: What?

5 Is this our (Huang & I) image?

6 A: You (Kou) are so eloquent.

7 No one can beat you in argument.

8 B: But let me tell you ,

9 when we have an argument at home,

10 I am almost always the loser.

11 You can’t suppose that I am more eloquent than he is.

12 I’m really not.

13 A: Impossible.

14 B: Indeed, I can’t beat him.

In this case, the host offered “a seemingly positive compliment” (lines 6-7) to praise the

Page 24:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

17

female guest’s eloquence, referring to her victory in a quarrel. The female guest did not

directly accept the compliment, but brought up another argument, which could possibly be

interpreted as the metaphor of gift exchange. The seemingly positive compliment spoken in

lines 6-7 was used by the host to express an ironic meaning. The host praised the female

guest for being so eloquent in speech that no one could beat her in a quarrel. Nevertheless,

what the host meant to say sarcastically was that the female guest often provoked her

husband to a quarrel (line 2) and would never admit to being defeated.

The next extract is another example of a surface compliment that is actually sarcasm.

Speaker A explicitly attributed positive traits to speaker B, but actually had negative

implications.

Extract 7

1 A: 因為像你們(speaker C)都要跟陳漢典(speaker B)學習耶,

2 他很會借力使力啊。

3 B: 怎麼說?

4 A: 因為罵他幾句,

5 他馬上就是在回那個微博上面大哭特哭啊,

6 C: 真的假的?

7 A: 然後就順便把我塑造成一個大壞人,

8 然後他是一個弱者。

1 A: You (speaker C) should learn from Handian Chen (speaker B).

2 He is good at making use of the available resources to

achieve his personal goals.

3 B: What do you (speaker A) mean by that?

4 A: I just scolded him slightly,

5 And then he immediately complained (about me) like a crybaby on Twitter.

6 C: Really?

7 A: Meanwhile he is portraying me as a bad guy.

Page 25:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

18

8 And that he is the weak one (that I am picking on).

In this extract, taken from one episode of the talk show “Kang-Xi Lai Le”, speaker A

was the hostess and speaker B was the assistant to the host; therefore, she is superior to him.

Speaker B mentioned on his Twitter that speaker A often made fun of him, or even hit him.

Sometimes when his mother saw he was mistreated on the TV program, she would ask him

after he went home if he was OK. However, speaker B always told his mother that he was

OK because the bullying behavior of speaker A was just to make the show funny to watch.

In this case, the hostess happened to read what speaker B had written on his Twitter

page. As a result, the hostess used a kind of ironic manner of speaking to compliment the

assistant (lines 1-2) by saying that everybody should learn from his good example because

he knew very well how to use the available resources to achieve his goals. She went on by

saying that when he complained about his poor condition on the Internet, many of the

audience would think that he was pitiable. Whereas speaker B was portrayed as a weakling,

speaker A was regarded as a bully. Since speaker A was not happy with the image presented

by speaker B, she offered a “compliment” to speaker B that was actually intended to be

sarcastic. Sarcasm is like a candy which tastes sweet at the beginning, but the aftertaste

becomes sour. As Toplak and Katz (2000) mentioned, in some contexts, a person makes a

seemingly positive comment that can be regarded as making an indirect criticism.

Extract 8 is our last example containing gift exchange and sarcasm. The two speakers

were preparing to present the award in the 49th Golden Horse award ceremony. Speaker A is

36 years old, a famous singer, actress, and producer. Speaker B is an actor, 28 years old.

Speaker A is senior and also is better recognized than speaker B.

Extract 8

1 B: 然後我要恭喜我身邊這位美女,

2 林心如小姐,

3 因為她的《遺忘》作品呢,

4 今天總共呢入圍了三個獎項。

5 A: 謝謝謝謝,

Page 26:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

19

6 我希望等一下能夠從我手中順利地開出我們想要的獎項。

7 然後我在這邊呢,

8 我也要很…恭喜元浩,

9 因為在今年報紙、雜誌大大小小的版面都是你的新聞,

10 完全 follow 你耶。

11 B: 嗯…託你的福,

12 但是我相信呢,

13 接下來應該會有很多媒體來報導你。

1 B: I want to congratulate the beauty beside me.

2 Miss Lin.

3 Because her TV series, Forgotten,

4 has been nominated for three awards.

5 A: Thank you.

6 I hope that in a while I will be able present the award to myself.

7 Then at the same time,

8 I also want to congratulate Yuanhao (Speaker B).

9 Because your news (referring to love affairs) has appeared in all the newspapers

and magazines this year.

10 You were closely followed by Paparazzi.

11 B: Yes, thanks for your concern.

12 But I believe,

13 They may be covering you very soon.

This extract is from the 49th Golden Horse award ceremony. Speaker A and speaker B

served as the presenters of the awards. As usual, they had an interaction with each other in

order to mitigate the nervous atmosphere at the award ceremony. At the beginning, speaker

B offered a compliment to congratulate speaker A on her TV series, Forgotten, being

nominated. Speaker A accepted the compliment, followed by some small talk (lines 5-6)

with speaker B. The initial part of extract 8 (lines 1-6) was considered as gift exchange, as

acceptance of gift is usually followed by small talk.

Page 27:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

20

In this case, when they talked to each other about what they had done recently, a

thought came to speaker A and she said lines 7-10 to speaker B. At first sight, it seems that

speaker A offered a return compliment to speaker B because many reports about him had

appeared on the newspapers and magazines, showing how famous speaker B was at that

time. However, if the hearers considered more deeply, they would realize that the seemingly

positive compliment was not really sincere, because speaker A was making fun of speaker B

for his affairs with two female artists. In other words, speaker B became “very famous” not

due to his excellent achievements in show business but his scandalous love affairs.

As for the utterances of speaker B (lines 11-13), he first embarrassingly responded to

the sarcastic compliment of speaker A (lines 7-10) by accepting it, but quickly added he

believed the media might be covering speaker A very soon. This part of extract 8 (lines

11-13) has two possible interpretations. It could be interpreted as a real compliment, if he

were speaking about reports on her upcoming TV series, a way to distract the audience’s

attention from his own love affairs. Alternatively, lines 11-13 could also be interpreted as

return sarcasm as he expected that she would also be involved in some similar scandal and

making news in the future.

4. Conclusion

This study investigated compliment exchanges on talk shows as well as in award

ceremonies. We found that the spoken data could be accounted for by the three metaphors of

compliment exchange (gift exchange, giving a trophy, and bribery). Sarcasm posing as a

compliment was also observed in the spoken data.

Over 50% of the occurrences could be considered to fit in the category of the first

metaphor, gift exchange. The second metaphor, giving a trophy, accounted for 21% of the

data, with 13% for bribery and 9% for sarcasm.

The reason the first metaphor, gift exchange, was the most common type in the

collected spoken data may be related to the fact that Chinese tend to be aware of connections

with other people in a social group. That is, through interactions or creating small talk when

Page 28:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

21

giving compliment exchange, interpersonal relationships with people can be established. For

cases of the metaphor of giving a trophy, the compliment exchanges were found not last too

long; the complimentee simply receives the acknowledgement and ends the interaction.

Bribery often happens in the situation where the complimentee has a higher status than

the complimenter. Usually, the complimenter wants to bribe the complimentee in order to

benefit from him or her in some way. Another possibility is that the complimenter is afraid

to offend the complimentee, which may bring negative consequences. Finally, sarcasm is

very prominent in TV talk shows, and is worth investigating further.

Although this paper has examined compliment exchanges in natural Mandarin spoken

data in award ceremonies and talk shows, the data only consisted of fifty-three examples of

compliment exchange. More spoken data from other kinds of TV programs would be

necessary to make our analysis more comprehensive. Finally, in addition to sarcasm,

researchers could also examine whether there are other types of compliment exchange, for

instance, whether a compliment may sometimes be offered as a way of giving consolation.

Page 29:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

22

Works Cited

Bell, A. (1997). Language Style as Audience Design. In N. Coupland, & A. Jaworski (Eds.),

Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook (pp. 240-249). Palgrave Macmillan.

Chen, S. H. (2003). Compliment Response Strategies in Mandarin Chinese: Politeness

Phenomenon Revisited. Concentric: Studies in English Literature and Linguistics,

29(2), 157-184.

Chen, Y. S., & Rau, D. V. (2011). Investigating the complimenting behaviors of Chinese

speakers of English. Language and Linguistics, 12(4), 917-950.

Coupland, J. (2009). Social Functions of Small Talk and Gossip. In N. Coupland, & A.

Jaworski (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook (pp. 646-661). Palgrave

Macmillan.

Holmes, J. (1986). Compliments and compliment responses in New Zealand English.

Anthropological Linguistics, 28(4), 485-508.

Hymes, D. (1986). Models of the Interaction of Language and Social Life. In J. J. Gumperz,

& D. Hymes (Eds.), Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of

Communication (pp. 35-71). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Giles, H. (2009). The process of communication accommodation. In N. Coupland, & A.

Jaworski (Eds.), The new sociolinguistics reader (pp. 276-286). Palgrave Macmillan.

Rau, V. (2012). Second Language Acquisition Research Using Variation Analysis. Invited

workshop presented at the NWAV Asia-Pacific 2, Tokyo, Japan.

Rau, D. V., & Chen, Y. S. (2010). “Thank you. My English is not very good”: Thirdness In

compliment exchanges. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on English

Teaching and Learning in the ROC. May 1-2, 2010. Kaohsiung: National Kaohsiung

Normal University, 490-507. Taipei: Crane.

Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2001). Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach

(2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Tanga, C. H., & Zhang, G. Q. (2009). A contrastive study of compliment responses among

Page 30:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Compliment exchanges in Taiwan TV programs

23

Australian English and Mandarin Chinese speakers. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(2),

325-345.

Toplak, M., & Katz, A. N. (2000). On the uses of sarcastic irony. Journal of Pragmatics, 32,

1467-1488.

Wang, Y. F., & Tsai , P. H. (2003). An Empirical Study on Compliments and Compliment

Responses in Taiwan Mandarin Conversation. Concentric: Studies in English

Literature and Linguistics, 29(2), 118-156.

Yu, M. C. (2005). Sociolinguistic competence in the complementing act of native Chinese

and American English speakers: a mirror of cultural value. Language and Speech,

48(1), 91-119.

Yu, M. C. (2011). Learning how to read situations and know what is the right thing to say or

do in an L2: A study of socio-cultural competence and language transfer. Journal of

Pragmatics, 43, 1127-1147.

Page 31:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳泱璉 何德華 興大人文學報第五十期

24

臺灣電視節目之讚美行為探討*

陳泱璉** 何德華***

摘 要

本研究探討臺灣電視節目(例如頒獎典禮與訪談節目)裡的讚美行為,並且觀察這

些讚美是否符合 Rau (2012)裡提到的三大讚美行為之比喻,即送禮、得獎與賄賂。除

了三大比喻,另一探討重點為嘗試觀察語料中是否有其他類型之表面讚美行為。結果

顯示,讚美行為可區分為四大類型,即上述所提之三大比喻與「諷刺」。「送禮」是出

現頻率最高的類型,推測這可能與華人在給予或回應讚美時,傾向透過較多互動與交

談以和對方建立良好關係有關。「得獎」的應對常是簡單扼要。「賄賂」則較常發生於

地位低者讚美地位高者的情況,通常地位低者的目的是想從地位高者那裏得到好處。

至於「諷刺」,表面上看來的確是讚美,但事實上帶有諷刺意味或言外之意。

關鍵詞:讚美行為、言語行為、比喻

* 本文承蒙Dr.Gerald Rau 給予編輯協助,特此致謝。 ** 中正大學語言學研究所碩士生。 *** 中正大學語語學研究所教授。

Page 32:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 25-62 二○一三年三月

25

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

余明忠*

摘 要

本研究的目的有二:一是以跨文化語用學(cross-cultural pragmatics)為主,研究母語

為華語人士(即 native Chinese speakers)與母語為美語人士(即 native American English

speakers)語言行為(speech acts)之差異;二是以外語語用學(interlanguage pragmatics)

為主,研究台灣在美留學生(即 ESL learners)學習美語的外語表現行為(interlanguage

behavior)是否已接近(approach or approximate)native American English speakers。本研

究以語言行為中之「間接抱怨反應」(responses to indirect complaints)行為為研究對象,

探求自然觀察所得語料,native Chinese speakers 和 native American English speakers 的

「間接抱怨反應」行為是否有差異,並探求台灣在美留學生美語「間接抱怨反應」行

為是否異於 native speakers of American English 之語用行為,希冀因此能找出台灣在美

留學生美語語用上的困難,並進而探討其此類困難的原因何在。

研究結果顯示母語為美語者較常使用「感同身受」(commiseration)的策略,而在

台灣母語為中文者較常使用「忠告或說理」(advice or lecture)的策略,至於在美國的

台灣留學生的「間接抱怨反應」行為可以從策略使用和語言用詞方面看出許多地方仍

受其母語使用之影響,由於外語語用學研究尚少以「間接抱怨反應」行為為研究標的,

且尚未以母語為華語者之英語「間接抱怨反應」行為為研究對象,本研究試圖擴大

cross-cultural 與 interlanguage pragmatics 的研究範圍,或許可對此領域的研究略為貢獻

一二。

關鍵字:跨文化語用學、外語語用學、語言行為、間接抱怨反應、自然觀察法

* 國立政治大學英國語文學系特聘教授。

(收稿日期:102.01.08;通過刊登日期:102.03.15)

Page 33:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

26

一、研究背景(Introduction)

近年來,語言溝通能力(communicative competence)的學習除了專注於語法

(linguistic and grammatical)方面的知識如語音(phonological)、語意(semantic)、句

法(syntactic)、語句(discourse)等外,愈來愈重視語用(pragmatic)方面的能力。

說話者語用方面的知識與語法、語音等方面的知識是密不可分的,語言使用者需將語

法、語音等方面的知識結合語用知識才有可能適當地達成其說話時的目標

(communicative goal)(如 Kasper, 1989)。就在語用知識於語言溝通能力所扮演的重

要角色愈被認可之際,這股趨勢也漸為跨文化研究(cross-cultural studies)與第二語言

習得(second language acquisition)研究所重視,於是促成了跨文化語用學(cross-cultural

pragmatics)與外語語用學(interlanguage pragmatics)研究的興起。此類研究之所以能

引起學者極高興趣的原因在於,當語言使用者語用失誤(pragmatic failure)時,常會

有溝通失誤(miscommunication)甚或引起跨文化間嚴重誤解( cross-cultural

misunderstandings)的情形發生,舉例而言,一位語法、發音等極為精通但卻不熟稔語

用知識的外語使用者可能常會使自己的外語行為表現失當,輕則造成溝通失誤以致原

說話目標無法達成,嚴重時則會造成跨文化間之嚴重誤解甚或得罪他人而不自知

(Rintell & Mitchell, 1989)。

一般而言,跨文化語用學常研究不同文化背景者語言表現行為的差異;而外語語用

學則是研究外語學習者的語用表現行為及此表現與學習者自身母語(native language)

和其所學外語(target language)間的關係。這類研究經常以語言行為(speech acts)

為研究對象,本論文研究「間接抱怨反應」(responses to indirect complaints)行為,因

為它是一個常為人們日常生活中會話所用,但卻使用上頗為複雜的語言行為。目前有

關語言行為的文獻中研究「間接抱怨反應」行為的論文相對而言甚少,現有之極少數

研究「間接抱怨反應」行為之文獻已顯示此行為與語言使用者自身母語之語法、語用、

社會文化等方面息息相關,以致於牽涉到多樣性之語言使用策略(strategies)與語言

用詞選擇(linguistic options)(如 Boxer, 1993a; 1993b)。本研究以與此語言行為有關之

使用策略和語言用詞選擇為標的,主要使用「自然觀察」(natural observation)的資料

收集方式來收集研究資料。

Page 34:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

27

本研究大方向的目的有二:一是以跨文化語用學為主,研究在台灣之母語為中文人

士(即 native Chinese speakers)與在美國之母語為美語人士(即 native American English

speakers)之語言行為的差異;二是以外語語用學為主,研究台灣在美留學生(即 ESL

learners)學習美語的外語表現行為(interlanguage behavior)是否已接近(approach or

approximate)母語為美語人士,本論文研究的對象為 ESL learners 而非 EFL learners 是

因為文獻已指出,成年人外語習得成功與否的根本因素與學習者是否對所學習外語能

多增加接觸機會及對所學習外語是否有正向好感(positive affect)有關(e.g., Brown,

2001; Ellis, 1994),一般而言,ESL learners 因所學習英語的環境裡,英文即是日常生

活周遭所使用的主要語言(對 EFL learners 而言,英文則不是),因此比較有高的機率

符合前述習得成功的條件(e.g., Brown, 2001),而本研究想探究外語學習者處於較有

利之學習環境是否其外語表現行為真會較傾向 L2 而非 L1 行為,故受試者以台灣在美

國的留學生為研究對象。

本研究以語言行為中之「間接抱怨反應」行為為研究標的,探求在自然語境下,

在台灣之母語為中文人士和在美國之母語為美語人士的「間接抱怨反應」行為是否有

差異,並探求台灣在美留學生美語「間接抱怨反應」行為是否異於在美國之母語為美

語人士的語用行為,希冀因此能找出台灣在美留學生美語語用上的困難,並進而探討

其此類困難的可能原因何在,本論文延續了研究者過去對其他語用行為的研究,如「請

求」(requests)行為(Yu, 1999a, 1999b)、「讚美」(compliments)行為(Yu, 2005)、「讚

美反應」(compliment responses)行為(Yu, 2004)等,而著重於探討外語語用困難是

否或如何地受到學習者自身母語使用移轉(transfer)的影響。

迄今,日益增加的跨文化語用學與外語語用學的研究已經比較過許多不同語言文

化背景之外語學習者,此類研究常以語言行為為研究標的,迄今許多語言行為已有許

多文獻可供參考,如「請求」(requests)、「道歉」(apologies)、「稱讚」(compliments)、

「拒絕」(refusals)等,相對而言,有一些語言行為則甚少被研究,「抱怨」(complaints)

行為即是一例,而有關「間接抱怨反應」(responses to indirect complaints)行為的研究

更是鳳毛麟角。此外,美中不足的是,interlanguage pragmatics 領域較少研究以母語為

華語之外語學習者為受試對象,就研究者所知,目前文獻中尚無專門研究母語為華語

者之英語「間接抱怨反應」行為(即 L2 之 interlanguage 行為)(其實如前所述,「間接

抱怨反應」行為在 speech acts 的研究本來就甚少,所以連以母語為華語者之中文「間

Page 35:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

28

接抱怨反應」行為和母語為美語者之英文「間接抱怨反應」行為-即 L1 之行為-均

甚少有系統地被研究),但是由於:(a)「間接抱怨反應」是一個很常有機會於日常生

活會話中碰到而明顯會影響說話者和聽者(speaker and addressee)間關係(rapport)

的威脅雙方顏面的行為(face-threatening act, Brown & Levinson, 1978, 1987),研究已

顯示具此類威脅性質的語言行為對外語學習者會更加困難(如 Boxer, 1993b; Yu,

2004);(b)目前現有文獻中有關母語為中文者之中文語言行為(即中文 L1 行為)的研

究已顯示其母語表現行為與母語為美語者之英文語言行為(即英文 L1 行為)有非常大

的差異(如 Yu, 2004, 2005);(c)研究已顯示語言行為與語言使用者自身的母語和文

化關係十分密切而常會影響到外語行為表現(如 Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989),

因此,母語為華語者之中文 L1 與英文 L2 的「間接抱怨反應」行為是頗為值得深入探

究的,因為此尚少被研究的語言行為因其本身所帶來的強烈威脅到顏面之性質而可能

對語言使用者而言特別困難,加上不同文化背景者很有可能受到自身母語與文化的影

響以致於與其 L1 行為有很大的差異。所以,藉著探討目前尚少被研究的語言族群(即

中文)之尚未被研究的語言行為(即 responses to indirect complaints)的表現,本研究

希望能使跨文化語用學與外語語用學的研究更增加多樣性,如此,這類研究的結果才

愈有可能地概論(generalize)到盡可能多數的外語學習者,並或許能為 L1 語用研究

中行為普遍性與文化特定性(universality versus culture-specificity)之議題(如

Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Yu, 1999a, 1999b, 2003, 2005)提供新的證據來探

討。

由上述可知,本研究希冀能補充目前跨文化語用學與外語語用學研究忽略中文族

群與忽略特定常用之語言行為的不足,基於此研究主題目前在語用研究領域甚少或尚

未為學者探究,然而研究成果極可能俾益此領域研究之理論發展甚或應用至跨文化溝

通與外語教學,所以本研究結果應可對語用研究略微貢獻一二。

二、文獻探討 (Literature Review)

有關語言行為的研究

前已述及,語用學的研究大都以語言行為(speech acts)為研究對象,如「請求」

(requests)、「道歉」(apologies)、「稱讚」(compliments)、「拒絕」(refusals)等。就

Page 36:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

29

跨文化語用學而論,不同文化背景者的語言行為常有很大的差異(可特別參閱

Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper. 於 1989 之經典著作),因為跨文化語用學研究常與外語

語用學結合,本論文之文獻探討著重於外語語用學領域的研究。

外語語用學的研究已顯示雖然外語學習者不論其自身母語或所學外語為何,在進

行任何的語言行為時,均有可能使用到像其所學外語之母語人士(native speakers of the

target language)所會使用的策略(strategies)與用詞(forms),但其使用各種策略與

用詞時比例上與 native speakers of the target language 會有明顯之差異(如 Blum-Kulka,

1983; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Kasper, 1989; Rintell & Mitchell, 1989) ,比方

說,就策略而言,有研究顯示外語學習者的「請求」行為比母語人士還偏好使用比較

直接的策略來傳達語意(如祈使句或命令句,參見 Fukushima, 1990; Koike, 1989; Tanaka,

1988 等),但卻也有研究的結果恰恰相反,而顯示出外語學習者比母語人士還偏好使

用比較間接的策略(如疑問句或暗示語,參見 Blum-Kulka, 1982, 1991 等),就用詞而

言,研究已顯示外語學習者在行使語言行為時的用字遣詞比母語人士還要簡化單純(如

不知用問句來表示禮貌或不知使用 modal verbs ‘could’來代替‘can’以示禮貌,參見

Eisenstein & Bodman, 1993; House & Kasper, 1987; Schmidt, 1983 等),但卻也有研究顯

示外語學習者的語言用詞較說母語者來得冗長(如用了些贅詞或 circumlocution 的方

式,參見 Færch & Kasper, 1989 等)。此外,研究顯示雖然外語學習者在選擇策略與用

詞時,會如母語人士般考慮到可能會影響語言行為的變數,但前者對此類變數的敏銳

度常不及後者(如 Fukushima, 1990; Kasper, 1989) ,比方說,有研究顯示母語為美語者

(native American English speakers)在提出「請求」行為時會針對與對方熟悉

(familiarity)的程度及與對方社會地位是否對等(social status)而變換策略與用詞,

但母語為日語者的英語學習者之「請求」行為卻不太會因此等變數而改變其請求之策

略與用詞(Tanaka, 1988)。

為了解釋諸如上述外語學習者特有的語言行為,學者已試圖從兩大面向來看待此

問題:一是從語言本身(intralingual)的觀點,例如外語學習者是否對所學習外語語

用規則過分概論(overgeneralization)或簡化(simplification)(如Blum-Kulka & Levenston,

1987; Kasper, 1982, 1984);另一方面則是從語言間(interlingual)的觀點,例如外語學

習者是否將自身母語語用規則移轉(transfer)至外語行為(如 Coulmas, 1981)。就如

同任何方面的語言學習一般,在外語語言行為習得(speech act acquisition)的歷程中

Page 37:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

30

很有可能會經歷上述語言本身(即 intralingual)所帶來困擾的學習階段;相對而言,

由於語言與文化之間的關係十分密切,常常外語學習者使用外語時儘管無語法、發音

等方面的錯誤,但因忽略所學習外語之語用規則(pragmatic or sociolinguistic rules)而

常 造 成 跨 文 化 溝 通 的 失 誤 甚 或 誤 解 ( cross-cultural miscommunication or

misunderstanding),因此,若能更進一步地從語言間( interlingual)之跨文化的

(cross-cultural)觀點來探討外語學習者的母語與文化會如何地影響其所學外語之語用

行為(即 interlingual transfer),會是一個非常重要且值得研究的議題,這也是外語語

用學愈加受到重視的原因之一。

理論上,就前述語言間(interlingual)觀點的研究而言,外語學習者將自身母語

語用規則用至外語行為的移轉情形可分為兩大類型,一是「語用語言」方面的移轉

(pragmalinguistic transfer),此指外語學習者將自身母語中的用字遣詞按字面翻譯直接

轉用至其所學外語行為中;另一是「社會語用」方面的移轉(sociopragmatic transfer),

此指外語學習者忽略所學習外語之社會語用規則,而依據自身母語的規則,來評估行

使某語言行為時正常情況下所應會考慮到的相關情境因素(contextual factors)(如

Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993; Thomas, 1983)。就實證研究而言,這兩類 interlingual 移轉

的情形已在許多研究中證實(如 Garcia, 1989; House, 1988; Kasper, 1982, 1989; Olshtain,

1983),比方說,「語用語言」方面的移轉曾在學習英語的母語為日語之外語學習者

(Japanese ESL learners)之英文「請求」行為上觀察到,他們在提出請求時常會先說

聲 ‘I’m sorry’,這樣的表現乃是將其母語‘sumimasen’ 直接按字面意思翻譯後用到英語

行為中(Fukushima, 1990; Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993),而正常情況下英語為母語的

人士並不會如此;至於「社會語用」方面的移轉可以學習英語的母語為中文之外語學

習者(Chinese ESL learners)為例,他們在對社會地位比較低的對話者(addressee)提

出英語請求時,常會如同自身使用其母語般使用比較直接的策略(如使用祈使或命令

式的口吻—‘(Please) Pass the salt.’)(Lee-Wong, 1994),但美國人在此情況下通常會使

用比較間接的請求策略(如問句—‘Can you pass the salt?’)(Blum-Kulka, House, &

Kasper, 1989)。

Kasper 與 Dahl(1991)曾倡議標準嚴謹之外語語用學的研究設計(canonical design)

除應包括外語學習者(即 L2 learners)與該外語母語者(即 native speakers of the target

language)的資料外,也需包括外語學習者自身母語者的資料(即需要有兩組 L1 control

Page 38:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

31

data),因為跟沒有 L1 controls 資料的研究比較起來,包括 L1 controls 的研究比較能客

觀地使研究者判定學習者的行為是否或是如何地受到 interlingual 抑或 intralingual 因素

的影響。因此,本研究遵循學術慣例,把外語學習者的行為與該外語母語者和其自身

母語者的行為互相比較,以探討台灣在美留學生的美語「間接抱怨反應」行為是否異

於母語為美語者之行為或是該行為表現是否可能與中文語用規則移轉甚或其他因素有

關。

如前所述,目前文獻對「間接抱怨」(indirect complaints)行為的研究不多,Boxer

(1993a, 1993b)之研究可視為現存甚少的「間接抱怨」行為研究文獻之經典著作。「抱

怨」行為可分為「直接抱怨」(direct complaints)與「間接抱怨」(indirect complaints)兩

大類型,前者指的是被抱怨者需對所抱怨事項承擔責任;而後者指的是被抱怨者與所

抱怨事項無直接關係(While direct complaints are addressed to complainees who are held

responsible for the offensive action, e.g., ‘Could you be a little quieter? I’m trying to sleep’,

indirect complaints are issued to an addressee who is not responsible for the perceived

offense, e.g., ‘She never cleans up after her. Isn’t that horrible?’) (Boxer, 1993a),研究已顯

示「直接抱怨」行為常無可避免地會破壞說話者與聽者(speaker and addressee)之間

的和諧關係;而「間接抱怨」行為則常做為增進交談雙方彼此關係的一種方式(open a

conversation and establish solidarity or rapport between the speakers)。本研究以後者為研

究對象是希望研究結果能提供學習英語的外語學習者在與美語為母語人士交談時,如

何能增進彼此關係的一些參考建議。

有關語言行為的研究方法

如上述,本研究資料的收集是透過自然觀察(natural observation-即 ethnographic

approach)的方式來達成。事實上,語言行為研究 常使用的資料收集方式是透過「語

文完成測驗」(discourse completion test-DCT)(Kasper & Dahl, 1991)。就這兩種方式

而論,「自然觀察法」是以質性方式(qualitative approach)為主的收集自然情境發生

資料的田野調查法的研究(ethnographic research with naturally occurring data)之資料

收集方式,顧名思義是透過自然觀察的方式,而且是在被觀察者不自覺的情況下來收

集資料(Labov, 1972),此方法常用在母語使用者(即 L1)的語言行為的研究(L1 speech

act studies,如 Holmes, 1988; Wolfson, 1989);而語文完成測驗則是以量化方式

Page 39:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

32

(quantitative approach)為主的收集誘導性資料的實驗研究(experimental research with

elicitation data)之資料收集方式,此方式是在模擬真實情境(real-life context)下用「書

寫」的方式來表達語用行為,常用在外語(即 L2)語用行為的研究(interlanguage

pragmatics research,如 Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Kasper & Dahl, 1993)。

理想上,不管是母語還是外語(L1 or L2)語用方面的研究,資料理應經由上述

田野調查法(ethnographic approach)來收集,因為如此所收集到的語料才能算是真實

地反應出語言使用的實際情形(Labov, 1972),可是外語語用(interlanguage pragmatics)

行為之研究常為使用誘導方式(elicitation techniques)收集資料之 experimental

research,因為此類研究常針對特定的影響語言行為之社會語用變項(sociolinguistic

variables)來研究,為取得有效之統計分析樣本又常需大量的受試者參與,加上如前

述,外語語用研究常需收集 L1 controls 之資料,因此,若要同時收集此 L1 資料,並

能與 interlanguage 語料做統計上客觀並有效的比較的話,困難就在於研究設計時所針

對之語言行為或含有特定變項之情境(context)未必於自然觀察中容易觀察得到

(Kasper & Dahl, 1991),或是就算觀察得到也未必能收集到足夠數量以做合理之統計

分析1,因此許多學者才會退而使用次好的替代方式,即誘導性的方式如「語文完成測

驗」或「角色扮演」(role play)。語料「被迫」採用非自然觀察的方式收集乃情非得

已,無可避免地有其缺點存在,過去 discourse completion test 因為只要求受試者針對

所設計之特定情境(situation)回答簡短的話語,性質上非 elaborate discourse 而被學

者質疑基於某些因素,如受試者書寫時會因用字或書寫空間等考量,而選擇較容易或

熟悉或簡短的形式回答,因此在某些方面,如說話的長度、所用的措辭等有時可能並

無法反映出語言使用的真實情形(參見 Beebe & Cummings, 1985; Wolfson, Marmor, &

Jones, 1989 等),因此有學者倡議用 role play 的方式,但此方式常只是要求受試者針對

1 當然,假若不考慮時間因素的話,理論上一定會有收集到的時候,只是機率或許甚低,比方說,

設想某一研究從 experimental study觀點設計研究,欲找三組各40人針對「熟悉程度」(familiarity)

(認識或不認識)、「社會地位」(social status)(高、對等、低)與「性別」(gender)(男或女)

三種變數來研究道歉(apologies)行為,此三變數會組合成 12(2 x 3 x 2)種情境,要在同一個

人身上觀察到此人針對含有這三變項可能組合之 12 種情境的道歉行為,並且要有 120 人都有此

12 種情境之經驗,然後才有可能做合理的統計分析,而這 120 人若還是需具相同特定背景—比

如說是來自中產階級背景的大學生等等—以盡可能避免內在效度受到威脅(internal validity

under threat),可想像要透過自然觀察的方式是多不易達成。

Page 40:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

33

discourse completion test 之情境做口頭上的回應(oral response),因此亦被質疑所收集

到的語料亦非 elaborate discourse,而只是呈現出針對情境所牽涉到之一、兩句的話語

(此方式被稱為 closed role play),後來 open role play 的資料收集方式的產生即是針對

此 closed role play 之缺點,所收集到之資料可視為 elaborate discourse,因此是 elicitation

techniques 中較被認可的可收集到 接近真實語料的方式,所以便有學者主張此方式

可視為一個理想之折衷自然觀察法與語文完成測驗優缺點的資料收集方式(如

Trosborg, 1995)。但不管採用何種 elicitation technique 收集資料,所得資料終究事實上

非自然語料,對此 Blum-Kulka, House & Kasper (1989)曾對此類所收集到的資料提出說

明,宣稱這種「非自然」資料收集的方式目的只是在找出語言使用所謂之概論性質的

模式(stereotypical pattern),對所觀察現象仍可因此得到基本之認識。

簡言之,許多研究已顯示自然觀察的資料收集方式有其不易克服的缺點,如曠日

廢時、不易控制研究變數、有些語言行為不易自然觀察得到、難以做有系統之跨文化

上的比較(cross-cultural comparison)等等;而誘導性的方式(elicitation techniques)

-即「語文完成測驗」和「角色扮演」-則有未能反映出語言真實使用情形的質疑(參

見 e.g., Bardovi-Harlig, 1999; Beebe & Cummings, 1985; Beebe & Takahashi, 1989; Fraser,

Rintell, & Walters, 1980; Golato, 2003; Hartford & Bardovi-Harlig, 1992; Hudson, Detmer,

& Brown, 1992; Johnston, Kasper, & Ross, 1998; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1990; Olshtain

& Cohen, 1983; Ross, 1994; Sasaki, 1998; Yuan, 2001 等有關 research methods 之

debate)。有學者(Bodman & Eisenstein, 1988; Ebsworth, Bodman, & Carpenter, 1996;

Eisenstein & Bodman, 1993)因此主張既然 interlanguage pragmatics 的研究需要有 L1

的語料做 baseline control data,研究者可先透過自然觀察的方式來觀察外語學習者之母

語使用者和標的語之母語使用者(speakers of the native and target languages)的語用行

為(此即採取研究 L1 語用行為常用之 ethnographic approach),然後再將所觀察到的資

料作為使用 elicitation techniques 所需設計情境(situational context)的依據(此即採用

研究 L2 語用行為常用的 experimental approach)。但此一兼採 ethnographic approach 與

experimental approach的折衷方式仍無法克服elicitation techniques所收集到語料無法反

映語料真實性(autheticity)的批評(Golato, 2003)。本論文屬於跨文化語用研究的部分

(即 L1 行為)是採正常 ethnographic approach 的方式來收集 naturally occurring data;

而屬於外語語用研究的部分(即 L2 行為)則是大膽創新地提出一個兼採 ethnographic

Page 41:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

34

approach 與 experimental approach 精神的折衷方式來收集 naturally occurring 語料(詳

請參下述),希望能為 interlanguage pragmatics 的研究在資料收集方面提供另一可能的

選擇。

研究問題

本研究探討的研究問題如下:

一、 母語為美語者(native speakers of American English)及母語為中文者(native

Chinese speakers)之「間接抱怨反應」(responses to indirect complaints)行為的策

略為何?是否會有差異?若有,差異何在?此外,兩者之「間接抱怨反應」行為

是否能提供證據探討語用行為中使用普遍性與文化特定性(universality versus

culture-specificity)之議題?

二、 台灣在美留學生的美語間接抱怨反應行為與母語為美語者及母語為中文者之「間

接抱怨反應」行為是否有差異?若有,差異何在?若差異真存在,此差異是否可

能與學習者母語語用行為移轉(transfer)有關(即 interlingual factor)?

三、研究方法(Methodology)

本研究為期三年,大致可區分兩階段,研究前期(前兩年)是以前述之研究目的

一 cross-cultural pragmatics 為主,比較兩個 L1 groups 之差異(即研究問題一); 後期

(第三年)是以前述之研究目的二 interlanguage pragmatics 為主,進行ㄧ個外語語用

行為之外語習得的研究(即研究問題二)。就前者而言,是遵循較多數 L1 研究慣例,

以自然觀察的方式來收集資料;可是就後者而言,資料的收集是不透過外語語用研究

常使用之 elicitation techniques 來收集資料,而本質上仍透過 L1 語用行為常見之自然

觀察的方式。研究者決定後者仍使用自然觀察方式的原因乃是由如上述研究者認同自

然觀察語料才能反應真實語料的事實,但為克服前述自然觀察法收集資料的限制,本

研究使用之自然觀察方式來研究外語行為表現時,是一種融入 experimental research 精

神之自行創新之方式。本研究詳細過程與方法詳述如下:

Page 42:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

35

For Research Question 1

本研究前期階段採用自然觀察法的方式來收集資料,由研究者與研究助理花 18

個月的時間在台北和美國波士頓、舊金山等地區收集,如此收集資料的目的是比較母

語為中文者與母語為英文者對「間接抱怨」行為之反應(Chinese and Americans’

performances of responses to indirect complaints in their mother tongue),中文與英文的語

料乃由各自居住在其母語環境的母語使用者提供(the Chinese and American English

data were from native speakers of each group living in their respective native area),而資料

收集者是所收集語言之母語人士(the data collectors were native speakers of the relevant

language they are observing)。

本研究此時期資料收集的方式主要是以人種誌學研究中常使用的田野觀察法為收

集資料的依據(an ethnographic approach that uses field observations to gather data),此方

式是 Wolfson and Manes (1980) 在研究「讚美」行為(compliments)時創新地運用在

語言行為的研究中。資料收集時由 20 位 field workers 來執行(中、英兩組每組 10 人),

每一位資料收集者在日常生活周遭聽到「間接抱怨」和「間接抱怨反應」行為時需儘

可能正確地立即記錄下他(她)所觀察到的「間接抱怨」和「間接抱怨反應」行為之

確實的用語及相關情境資料( the exact indirect complaint exchange and relevant

contextual information),詳言之,所有資料收集者可能的話皆須記錄下「間接抱怨」、╴

「間接抱怨反應」、交談雙方的性別與大概年齡、交談雙方彼此間的關係、「間接抱怨

反應」發生的情境及其他「間接抱怨反應」發生時的相關言談訊息如 small talk 或

supportive moves。

不容否認地,資料收集者若需翔實地記錄下上述所有相關訊息,其負擔是非常重

的,因此或許會遭到質疑是否光憑記憶在短時間內所記錄下來的諸多資訊是可以正確

地反映出語言使用的真實情形,事實上,文獻曾指出如此收集到的資料的確可能會有

在質與量方面的限制(data gathered via field observations may be “limited in both quality

and quantity,” Labov, 1984, p. 30),因為資料收集者常需仰賴他們的記憶力與觀察技巧

(memory and observational skills)來記住所要觀察的語料,特別在短時間需記錄下較

多訊息時,常會不經意錯失一些重要的、有決定性的訊息( important, decisive

information),比如說 hedges,modifiers 和 intensifiers(Golato, 2003; Kasper, 2000; Lehrer,

Page 43:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

36

1989)。因此,為彌補此種資料收集方式可能的弱點,本研究有個與文獻上大多數

ethnographic studies 不同之處,傳統上的 ethnographic studies 通常較少使用任何錄音或

錄影設備,但本研究要求資料收集者使用錄音設備,為不影響所收集到資料的真實性,

資料收集者不適合在錄音前徵得對方的同意,而是暗中使用錄音筆錄音的方式來收集

資料,但這樣做會有違反隱私與研究道德(ethics)的顧慮,故特別要求資料收集者收

集資料時是自然錄下自己周遭所碰巧發生的對話,並特別強調務必避免針對某些特定

對象來錄音,以免有刻意偷錄他人對話的嫌疑(換言之,像是現在普遍使用的行車記

錄器的方式一樣),更重要的是錄音後資料收集者被要求務必跟被錄音者提起錄音的事

並解釋研究目的以取得對方之書面同意,如果有無法取得同意時,該筆資料會被放棄。

簡言之,本研究會使用錄音的方式是要確保資料收集者所小心記錄下來的資料是盡可

能地完整與可靠,或是萬一記錄下來的資料有疑問時,可以有一個參考的依據。

就資料收集過程而論,資料收集者只有在錄音時才試著記錄下自然所觀察到的「間

接抱怨反應」行為與其他相關訊息,每個資料收集者需要每週錄下 5 個小時的日常對

話中的 off-task interactions,off-task interactions 指的是非在學校上課學習時所發生的對

話(the verbal behaviors students engage in when doing things unrelated to the pedagogic

work of the day),比如說和家人或朋友閒話家常的聊天(having a chat or spending time

with family members or friends, which mostly occurs in mundane, everyday

conversation)。On-task interactions,比如說課堂上的互動(interactions taking place in the

classroom),是被排除的,因為研究已經顯示此種常在如學校般的 institutional settings

所發生的對話是與 off-task interactions 在功能上(functional)和語序上(sequential )

是非常地不同的(Golato, 2003; Levinson, 1992)。為了避免包括性質上頗為不同的資料

放在一起以致研究所得結果在比較時受到質疑不夠客觀,本研究只著重在日常會話中

非課室相關情境所能觀察到的間接抱怨反應的行為,亦即 off-task behavior。

此外,另有兩個原因促使本研究使用錄音設備:第一,資料收集者在資料收集前

有特地訓練過依照一個初步之資料歸類表(coding scheme,此初步之 coding scheme

在研究進行初期透過文獻探討及參考母語使用者直覺而產生,然後隨著後來所收集到

的語料來決定是否須修正)來收集間接抱怨反應行為,以希冀所有資料收集者收集所

得資料可達一致性(standardization),儘管如此,資料收集者所收集到語料的可靠性

仍有可能被質疑,因為研究者似乎很難確保在這 18 個月的資料收集期間資料收集者會

Page 44:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

37

在資料記錄時能保持一致性(亦即是否會有任何 coding drift 發生的可能)。換言之,

所收集到資料是否會受到不同資料收集者對語料不同的感受度( the varying

attentiveness by the different coders to the interactions)而影響的可能性無法排除,但錄

音的資料可以降低此顧慮,因為錄音性質的資料可以允許研究者得以重複地詳細分析

自然生活中所蒐集而得之語料。第二,雖然有些會影響實驗結果的外在變數(extraneous

variables)不太可能控制住,比如說交談者的身份地位、熟悉度、姓別、年齡等(e.g.,

interactants’ status, distance, gender, age, etc),但透過錄音的方式,有些變數如交談互動

的總時間與類型(the hours of interaction and the types of spoken interactions)可因此控

制成一致,就是因為中、英文資料收集情況與程序儘可能試著控制成一致,錄音這輔

助方式因此降低了本研究所得結果在跨文化比較時有關有效性的可能問題(e.g.,

Nunan, 1992; Watson-Gegeo, 1988; Yuan, 2001)。

儘管本研究上述的嘗試,跨文化比較和所得結果概論的可信度(the credibility of

cross-group comparisons and the generalizations beyond the current findings)仍有可能被

質疑,因為現實情況是自然情境下所收集資料的方式不太可能讓不同的比較組別所有

情況控制成一致(to have the data collected ethnographically under the exact, same

circumstances for each group, that is, with all possible variables held constant),比如說,每

一個比較組別有同樣數目的被觀察者和觀察語境(equal numbers of observed

participants and speech situations),LeCompte 與 Goetz (1982)兩位學者曾主張一種可以

降低對自然觀察所得語料之比較性和概論性威脅(to guard against the threat of

comparability and generality)的作法是研究者可確保所研究調查的構思概念(construct)

不是僅僅只特別適用某一群體,而是被不同群體所共享(not only is not unique to a

particular group, but also is shared across different groups),很明顯地,本研究的

construct—「間接抱怨反應」—符合此一標準,因此,雖然本研究是以 general guidelines

of ethnographic research 為研究方式遵循的準則,研究者會以研究所得結果為基礎,嘗

試把結果推演探討至範圍較廣的情境(to employ the current findings as a basis for the

extension of the conclusions obtained to the broader context)(Yu, 2005)。「

本研究前兩年進行的 2 個母語組之跨文化比較的資料收集方式是改自 Yu(2005),

如上述,本研究在台灣和美國各招募了 10 位 native speakers 擔任 field workers 來共同

收集台、美母語 L1 的資料,由於規劃 18 個月的時間收集資料,歷時不算短,雖有前

Page 45:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

38

述錄音方式,有時仍會有 it still seems “difficult to ensure that there will not be any coding

drift” (Yu, 2005, p. 96)的顧慮,研究者透過書信、電郵和碰面討論以確保此問題儘可能

不會發生。

For Research Question 2

本研究第三年是進行 interlanguage behavior 之研究,前已述及,就 L2 研究而論,

現存文獻絕大多數是使 elicitation techniques 的方式收集資料以方便控制變數進行嚴謹

之 experimental study,但終究有所收集資料能否反應 naturally occurring data 的根本問

題;反之,若純粹以 ethnographic approach 執行 experimental study 性質之實驗設計的

研究,則有 practicality 等的問題(見上述研究方法)。就本研究前兩年研究重點方向—L1

比較而言,此跨文化(cross-cultural)之比較雖有試著控制一些變數(如上述之 the hours

of interaction and the types of spoken interactions),但終究有許多變數無法控制(e.g.,

interactants’ status, distance, gender, age, etc.),可是因為研究者所做跨文化之比較並非

以 experimental study 性質之實驗設計為出發點,而是以 ethnographic study 的角度來收

集分析資料,因此仍可做有效屬於 qualitative study 之比較(詳見 Watson-Gegeo, 1988

有關 ethnography 於 cross-cultural comparison 的介紹)。相對而言,就本研究第二個重

點研究方向(即 interlanguage study)而言,研究者打算依循絕大多數 interlanguage

pragmatics 文獻慣例,試著控制許多變數以進行較嚴謹之 experimental study 的

cross-linguistic 比較,但本研究顧及到資料是否能反應真實語言使用問題而不採用傳統

之 elicitation techniques,研究者使用一種自行創新的已融入 experimental research 精神

之自然觀察的方式,介紹如下:

就研究問題二,本研究是使用 experimental paradigm 來收集資料,引導受試者在

自然情況下使用出研究所觀察標的(即 responses to indirect complaints),但資料收集

時,受試者不會事先知道他們正常的言談互動是研究資料收集的來源(Turnbull, 1992;

Turnbull & Saxton, 1997),換言之,雖然研究所收集到的「間接抱怨反應」的情境是被

研究者所控制住的(the contexts that are controlled from the investigator’s perspective),

但對受試者而言卻是真實自然的(spontaneous and natural from the observed participants’

perspective),即因如此,所收集到的資料可視為能反映出日常生活情境自然發生的行

為(The data gathered, therefore, are representative of the types of responses to indirect

Page 46:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

39

complaints that naturally take place in everyday occurrence),現存文獻中 cross-cultural

interlanguage 的研究甚少以此種方式收集資料過,據研究者所知,只有 Yu(2011)嘗

試過此創新的資料收集方式,研究者希望藉由如此收集資料的方式可以同時兼顧對此

領域 L2 研究之方法是否能收集到 authentic language use 且能適當比較的兩種顧慮。

同研究問題一,本研究在台北和美國波士頓與舊金山等地區收集資料,資料收集

的詳細過程如下:

首先,研究者先試著找出 6 個在台灣和美國社會「間接抱怨」都可視為恰當發生

的自然觀察情境(6 naturally observed situations in which indirect complaints could take

place socio-culturally appropriately in both Chinese and American societies),由於研究已

顯示絕大多數的「間接抱怨」皆是發生在已彼此認識的同社經地位的人,而非關係親

密者或完全不熟識者(equal-status interlocutors who are already acquaintances, rather than

intimates or total strangers)(Boxer, 1993a),為了要能設計出對中、美兩方的受試者皆

屬社會文化上恰當的情境(即 the identified situations can best reflect socioculturally

appropriate scenarios for both Chinese and American society),所設計情境中的交談雙方

彼此之關係均屬 equal-status, mutually acquainted interlocutors (i.e., exclusive of intimates

or close friends)。至於設計情境的方式是研究者先以之前一年半自然觀察所得到的資料

為依據,找出一些中、美社會「間接抱怨」皆常會發生的情境,然後設計出 6 個本研

究可適當使用的情境,這樣的設計方式事實上是改自 Bodman and Eisenstein (1988),

Eisenstein and Bodman (1993),和 Ebsworth, Bodman, and Carpenter (1996)等學者的建

議。此外,由於研究已顯示大多數的「間接抱怨」可歸為三大類,即 Self (Oh, I’m so

stupid.), Other (John is the worst manager.),和 Situation (I feel, in a way, boxed in, you

know? Why did they have to raise tuition?) (Boxer, 1993a),這三大類是設計出相同數目的

情境 (即 2 situations for each)。

此外,每一個設計的情境中皆會以先前兩年之自然觀察的資料為依據指出一個

「間接抱怨」行為,這樣做的目的是研究問題二的重點在比較外語使用者的「間接抱

怨反應」行為與其自身母語及所學習外語之母語使用者的差異,而重點不在抱怨行為

本身(cross-linguistic comparison of L2 responses to indirect complaints with those of

speakers of learners’ native and target language, rather than of complaints themselves),無疑

地,我們使用語言時所接收到的 input 會影響到我們的 response,因此,要是 input 沒

Page 47:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

40

控制住的話,response 的比較是不太可靠的。

即使上述所設計出之情境與抱怨行為皆是以自然觀察所得結果為依據,本研究仍

採取額外的措施以確保所設計的情境與抱怨是對中、美雙方的受試者儘可能會覺得都

是跨文化上真實的(as culturally plausible and as parallel as possible for both Chinese and

American participants),此措施是所有設計的情境與抱怨皆會各自找 20 位母語為中文

者和母語為英文者的研究生來確認是否在他們各自的文化裡,日常生活中的確會有機

會碰到或用到所設計出的情境和抱怨。

情境設計完畢後則著手進行資料收集,如上述,本研究依循 Kasper & Dahl (1991)

所建議的 interlanguage studies 該有的標準研究設計方式(canonical methodology),因此

會比較外語使用者的「間接抱怨反應」行為與其自身母語及所學習外語之母語使用者

的差異,所以總共有 3 組的受試者,這 3 組受試者的社經地位(socioeconomic status)與

男、女比例皆控制成一致,就兩組母語使用者而論,在台灣的母語為中文者會提供中

文母語組的資料,而在美國的母語為英文者會提供英文母語組的資料,至於外語學習

組的資料是來自台灣且在美國念研究所至少已三年的母語為中文之學生,他們的英文

程度為中高級(intermediate-to-advanced level)。至於資料收集者,母語為中文者那組

是由母語為中文者收集,而外語組與母語為英語者的語料是由母語為英語者收集,此

外,當在雇用每位資料收集者時,會詢問他們是否覺得所設計的情境與抱怨在他們的

日常生活中是有可能經歷到的,只有回覆正面的才會雇用為資料收集者,上述看似有

些重複或繁瑣的做法均是希望所設計出的情境可以確實引導出適合中、美兩社會的真

實「間接抱怨反應」行為,因為跨文化研究已顯示若研究情境不是對所比較對象皆是

社會文化上恰當的(socioculturally appropriate),那所得結果是不可靠的(Blum-Kulka,

House, & Kapser, 1989)。

對每一受試組而論,研究者雇請 10 位資料收集者(男、女各半,皆為研究生),

這些資料收集者需在他們日常生活中創造出機會可以讓所設計的情境和所事先決定的

抱怨能儘可能地自然發生,就 6 個設計情境的每一個情境,資料收集者需要找 6 位與

其年齡相近的朋友或同學(男、女各半)在自然交談下觀察他們如何回應「間接抱怨」,

因此就 3 組受試者來說,每組收集到 360 個「間接抱怨反應」行為。

舉例而言,如基於前一年半的自然觀察資料所決定之中、美社會皆社會文化上恰

當的「間接抱怨」之一是「學費每年調漲」,再基於之前觀察針對此情境所事先決定適

Page 48:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

41

當的「間接抱怨」行為,美語是“I feel, in a way, boxed in, you know? Why do they have to

raise tuition every year?”;中文則是“我覺得好像被困住了,學費為什麼每年都調漲”[跨

語言(cross-linguistic)翻譯之適切性是透過 cross-cultural studies 常用之 back translation

(Brislin, Lonner & Thorndike, 1973)來確認],因此,資料收集者會在和同學或朋友交談

時主動抱怨出此事,再看看對方如何回應此「間接抱怨」。此外,為確保資料可靠性,

第三年之資料收集者不同於前兩年的資料收集者,因為若仍同一人擔任,有可能其周

遭同學或朋友已在前兩年被自然觀察到而得知研究目的(如上述,被觀察者事後會被

告知),若第三年之資料收集者再與之自然互動觀察其如何回應「間接抱怨」,可能會

喚起被觀察者過去經驗的記憶而造成所收集資料不夠真實與自然。

換言之,上述的資料收集過程從研究者的角度而言,雖然無可諱言地「間接抱怨

反應」行為是誘導出來的(elicited),但從受試者的角度而言,可算是自然的

(spontaneous and natural),此種創新的資料收集方式在本質上是以 ethnographic

approach that uses field observations 為依據,就如同研究前期費時一年半的 data

collectors working ethnographically,後期此方式的每一位資料收集者亦可視為一位 field

worker in an ethnographic approach,他們會儘可能地記錄下所觀察到的「間接抱怨反應」

行為及所有相關資訊,並將之錄音下來,事後會尋求受試者的同意。

簡言之,後期此種創新的資料收集方式是使用 ethnographic approach 來收集資料,

但同時融入了 experimental study 的精神,這樣做的目的是不但確保自然觀察所收集到

的語料可反映出真實語言使用的情形,而且研究者可以以 experimental study 的方式將

研究除語言使用差異外所有其他外在變數都儘量控制住(如 interactants’ status, distance,

gender, and age 等),如此一來,研究者在進行 cross-linguistic comparison 的比較時可以

盡可能減少研究所得結果的內在效度受到威脅(internal validity under threat)(e.g.,

Nunan, 1992; Watson-Gegeo, 1988; Yuan, 2001)。

本研究第三年進行的 2 個需在美國收集資料的 participant groups(即 native speaker

of American English 與 Chinese ESL learners),類似前兩年資料收集招募了 20 位 native

speakers of American English 擔任 field workers 來分別收集美語 L1 和 L2 的資料(L1

和 L2 各 10 位)。在資料收集期間,研究者透過書信、郵電、碰面討論等方式以確認

每一位 field worker 資料收集過程與所記錄資料皆符合本研究設計之需求。

Page 49:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

42

Data Analysis

研究前兩年所收集之資料的分析重點是試著整理歸納出中、美雙方的「間接抱怨

反應」行為之策略(strategies)和用詞(linguistic forms)為何?彼此有否差異或差異

何在?因為所收集到的資料性質上是屬於發生次數(frequency),此差異會先試著運用

inferential statistics 中的開方檢定(X2)來回答研究問題,同時亦將從 Brown & Levinson

(1987) politeness theory 中所提出之 universality 觀點來探討 speech act behavior 研究中

universality versus culture-specificity 之議題,此部分之分析將以質性分析(qualitative

analysis)為主。希望可藉此回答研究問題ㄧ:

. 母語為美語者(native speakers of American English)及母語為中文者(native

Chinese speakers)之「間接抱怨反應」(responses to indirect complaints)行為的

策略為何?是否會有差異?若有,差異何在?此外,兩者之「間接抱怨反應」

行為是否能提供證據探討語用行為中使用普遍性與文化特定性(universality

versus culture-specificity)之議題?

同樣地,研究第三年所收集之資料一樣是屬於 frequency data,因此仍會運用開方檢定

(X2)來回答研究問題二:

. 台灣在美留學生的美語「間接抱怨反應」行為與母語美語者及母語為中文者)

之「間接抱怨反應」行為是否有差異?若有,差異何在?

此外,另一分析的重點是除了統計分析外,亦以受試者的用詞選擇為標的進行質性分

析以更進ㄧ步的來回答研究問題二:

. 若差異真存在,此差異是否可能與學習者母語語用行為移轉(transfer)有

關(即 interlingual factor)?

Interrater Reliability

為了顧及資料分析時之資料分類(coding)的可靠性(reliability)問題,本研究

的三組語料皆有隨機選取百分之二十的資料另請他人做資料分類,Cohen’s kappa

(1960)皆各自至少有達至百分之八十五。

Page 50:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

43

四、結果與討論 (Results and Discussion)

為回答研究問題一,自然觀察所得的結果先試著歸納出中文與美式英語的「間接

抱怨」行為的型態,所得結果基本上與前述文獻曾發表過的間接抱怨結果相符合

(Boxer, 1993a, 1993b),「間接抱怨」可分成三種型態,以下的例子是來自直接觀察所

得:

「間接抱怨」行為的三種型態(Three themes of indirect complaints):

a. 抱怨自己(Self Indirect Complaints),此型態之抱怨通常是指說話者對自己負

面的評價,換言之,抱怨的對象是說話者自己,常見到的是對自己行為舉止或

外表的抱怨(complaints by speakers who generally evaluate themselves negatively.

The focus of this kind of complaints is typically on the speakers themselves. In

other words, the usual target for the complaint theme is speakers’ behavior, actions,

or physical appearance)。比方說:

Chinese: 我的聽力有問題,常有聽沒有懂。

English: I am plain-looking.

b. 抱怨他人(Other Indirect Complaints),此型態之抱怨通常是指說話者對他人負

面的評價,換言之,抱怨的對象是他人,常見到的是對他人能力或外表的抱怨

(complaints by speakers who appear to evaluate other people negatively, including

not only their general ability but also their personal or physical characteristics)。比

方說:

Chinese: 他實在有夠誇張,每次上完廁所都不沖尿。

English: I can’t stand her no more. You know, she always seizes every chance to

show off.

c. 抱怨情境(Situation Indirect Complaints), 此型態之抱怨通常是指說話者對情

境負面的評價(complaints by speakers who make negative comments on the

trouble of a given situation)。比方說:

Chinese: 我實在不想去那家餐廳買東西,每次都要排隊排很久。

English: This class does not interest me a bit.

Page 51:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

44

由於本研究的標的是「間接抱怨反應」行為,而非是「間接抱怨」行為,因此於

此並不去分析中、英文使用者「間接抱怨」行為的差異,而只是很簡單地陳述自然觀

察時所觀察到的三種「間接抱怨」的型態,讓讀者可試著感受「間接抱怨反應」行為

可能發生的情況為何。

針對上述之「間接抱怨」的語言行為表現,在本研究自然觀察期間可以發現有如

下的六種反應策略(strategies)(based on Boxer, 1993a, pp. 39, 44, 46):

a. 默不作聲或轉移話題(Silence or Topic Switch),指的是說話者回應抱怨時藉由

不說話或是轉移話題來以減緩或中止談話內容(the addressee’s responses meant

to minimize or terminate a talk exchange by saying nothing or changing the

topic)。比方說:

Chinese

A: 我實在受不了她總愛炫耀她的名牌衣服或包包。

B: 我們想想怎麼準備考試啦!

English:

A: I can’t believe he stood me up again.

B: Guess what? I’ll go to Disneyland this summer.

b. 發問(Questions),指的是說話者回應抱怨時藉由問問題的方式來澄清抱怨內

容或是質疑抱怨內容的真實性(the addressee’s responses in the form of questions,

such as simple clarification requests or some kind of challenge questions meant to

question the validity of a given complaint)。比方說:

Chinese:

A: 昨天的社團活動實在有夠無聊。

B: 真的嗎?他們本來不是宣傳說會多有趣?

English:

A: He’s always late!

B: Really? Did you say anything about it?

c. 反駁(Contradiction),指的是說話者回應抱怨時藉由反駁的方式讓抱怨者知道

其抱怨並不被接受或認可(the addressee’s responses meant to let the complainer

know that his or her complaint is not accepted or approved)。比方說:

Page 52:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

45

Chinese:

A: 我覺得我 近實在愈來愈痴肥了。

B: 哪有?一切都看來差不多吧!

English:

A: This movie is such a drag!

B: Not at all. I think it’s one of the best I’ve ever seen.

d. 開玩笑或揶揄(Joking or Teasing),指的是說話者回應抱怨時藉由幽默的方式

來拉近和抱怨者的關係(the addressee’s responses with some kind of humor

involved to bring both the speaker and the hearer close to one another)。比方說:

Chinese:

A: 妳知道嗎?昨天他竟然好意思跟我借錢。

B: 妳可以跟他說等妳中樂透後就會考慮考慮。

English:

A: The movie really sucks!

B: Maybe it would win an Oscar this year.

e. 忠告或說理(Advice or Lecture),指的是說話者回應抱怨時藉由給予建議的方

式幫助抱怨者解決所抱怨的問題(the addressee’s responses meant to give the

complainer some advice to solve problems)。比方說:

Chinese:

A: 她每天晚上都吵得讓我睡不好。

B: 妳就別再不好意思了,找個機會跟她好好談談嘛!

English:

A: She’s got a quick temper.

B: Try to bear with her for now. Maybe things will get better soon.

f. 感同身受(Commiseration),指的是說話者回應抱怨時藉由同意或同理心的方

式讓抱怨者內心感受好一些(the addressee’s responses meant to signify his or her

agreement or reassurance in order to make the complainer feel better)。比方說:

Chinese:

A: 這門課太難了,我實在快撐不下去了。

Page 53:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

46

B: 我也是,我們一起好好加油吧!

English:

A: I don’t like her. She’s such a fake.

B: I understand why you would feel this way.

就「間接抱怨反應」的策略(strategies)而言,以下的表一摘要了母語為美語者

和母語為中文者的策略使用的分佈情形:

表一. 中文與英文母語者「間接抱怨反應」策略使用分佈之百分比

Response Type American Chinese

Silence or Topic Switch 6% 5%

Questions 9% 8%

Contradiction 11% 15%

Joking or Teasing 5% 8%

Advice or Lecture 14% 37%

Commiseration 55% 27%

開方檢定(X2)的結果顯示母語為美語者(native speakers of American English)比

母語為中文者(native Chinese speakers)還常使用 Commiseration 策略來回應「間接抱

怨」,而母語為中文者比母語為美語者還常使用 Advice or Lecture,從 Brown & Levinson

(1978, 1987)之 politeness theory 的角度來看,母語為美語者由於受到其文化主要是以

positive politeness 的考量為主,因此常會透過 Commiseration 的方式來應對「間接抱

怨」,使 addressee 的 positive face wants 可以被滿足,因此符合其文化中的禮貌行為;

相對而言,母語為中文者由於受到其文化主要是以 negative politeness 的考量為主,因

此常會透過 Advice or Lecture 的方式來應對「間接抱怨」,使 addressee 的 negative face

wants 可以被滿足,因此符合其文化中的禮貌行為(有關美國傾向屬於 positive

politeness culture 而台灣傾向屬於 negative politeness culture,請參照 Yu, 2003,

pp.1693-95 的討論)。

Brown 和 Levinson 兩位學者(1978, 1987)之禮貌理論(politeness theory)乃為一廣

泛引起討論並影響深遠的言談理論,兩位學者試著從說話者和聽話者(speakers and

Page 54:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

47

addressees)的角度去解釋人類語言交談時不理性和沒有效率的行為(irrational and

inefficient behavior),他們宣稱他們的理論架構是非侷限於特定文化族群的,而是可以

適用於不同文化背景的語言使用者(universally applicable across languages and

cultures),他們理論架構的核心概念是顏面(face),將之定義為每個人想要為自己主

張的公開自我形象(“the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself,”

1987, p.61),並認為說話者交談時帶有兩種看似衝突的 face 需求(“face wants,” p.13):

一是負向 face 需求(“negative face wants,” p.61),指的是說話者會有行動不受他人干

預的需求(the desires to act unimpeded by other people);另一個是正向 face 需求

(“positive face wants,” p.61),指的是說話者會有被他人喜歡的需求(the desires to be

liked by other people)。理想上來說,能夠尊重他人需求是 能夠符合每個人的利益,

但是就實際面來說,為了滿足個人需求常常導致威脅到他人的 face,Brown 與Levinson

主張如此的行為本質上來說是非常威脅到 face 的(face-threatening),於是將禮貌定義

成說話者所採取的補救措施來抵銷這類威脅到 face 的行為所帶來的不好影響

(redressive action taken to counteract the disruptive effects of face-threatening acts, p.25)。

兩位學者進一步地列舉了說話者會使用的五種策略來避免或降低 face-threatening

acts 所帶來的不好影響,前三種策略是 on-record strategies,意指只有一個清楚的、毫

不含糊的交談雙方會認同之意圖(there is only one unambiguously attributable intention

on which both participants would agree, p.69),第一種是毫無補救措施(redressive action)

地做出 face-threatening 的行為,所謂的補救措施,Brown 與 Levinson 指的是可以給交

談對方 face 的行為,比方說,跟別人說‘Open the door’來提出「請求」,另外兩種策略

則是會採取補救措施來進行 face-threatening 的行為,其一是會顧慮到交談對方的正向

face 需求[即正向禮貌(positive politeness)策略];另一則是會顧慮到交談對方的負向

face 需求[即負向禮貌(negative politeness)策略],第四種策略是 off-record strategies,

意指有超過一個清楚的、毫不含糊的交談對方會認定之意圖(there is more than one

unambiguously attributable intention to which the addressee can react, p.69),諷刺用語即

是屬於此例, 後一種策略是根本不做 face-threatening 的行為(don’t do the FTAs)。

就「間接抱怨反應」行為而言,此行為是一個很常有機會碰到而明顯會影響說話

者和聽者間關係的威脅雙方顏面的行為,因為此行為常被用來做為增進交談雙方關係

的一種語言行為(Boxer, 1993b),若是交談對方的回應不如說話者預期,那很明顯地

Page 55:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

48

說話者此目的即無法達成,因而可能影響到雙方之間的關係,既然 Brown 與 Levinson

宣稱他們的理論是跨文化上普遍適用的,那就上述的用來避免或降低 face-threatening

acts 所帶來的不好影響的五種策略如何可以應用到本研究所歸類出的六種「間接抱怨

反應」行為的策略呢?

就 Silence or Topic Switch 策略而言,這種回應的方式應可視為 Brown 與 Levinson

五種策略中的根本不做 face-threatening 的行為,因為交談者藉由沈默或轉移話題而試

圖避免去做「間接抱怨反應」這 face-threatening 的行為。

就 Questions 策略而言,這種回應的方式應可視為 Brown 與 Levinson 五種策略中

的 off-record strategies,因為這樣的回應可以讓抱怨者有一種以上可能的語意揣測

(conversational implicatures),比方說,有可能抱怨者會覺得回應者同意抱怨者所說的

話(比如說前述例子:A: He’s always late! B: Really? Did you say anything about it?中 B

的回應);但另一方面也有可能讓抱怨者覺得回應者是在質疑抱怨者所說的話(比如說

前述例子:A: 昨天的社團活動實在有夠無聊。B: 真的嗎?他們本來不是宣傳說會多

有趣?)。

就 Contradiction 策略而言,這種回應的方式應可視為 Brown 與 Levinson 五種策

略中的 bald on-record strategies,因為回應者毫無補救措施(redressive action)地做出

face-threatening 的行為,換言之,回應者沒有任何對抱怨者的 positive face 或 negative

face 的考量而直接地拒絕接受抱怨者所說的話。

就 Joking or Teasing 策略而言,這種回應的方式應可視為 Brown 與 Levinson 五種

策略中的 positive politeness strategies,因為如上述,「間接抱怨」可以用來顯示說話者

想和對談者拉近彼此之間的距離,假設對談者質疑或不接受抱怨者的抱怨,那對談者

表示出其不喜歡或是不在意抱怨者的需要、行為、人格特質、東西、信念或價值(“wants,

acts, personal characteristics, goods, beliefs or values,” Brown & Levinson, 1987, p.66),因

此損及了抱怨者的正向顏面(positive face)需要,為了避面造成這結果,回應者可能

會被迫用犧牲自己本來的顏面需要而用開玩笑的方式來回應以拉近和抱怨者之間的距

離,從這樣的角度來看,Joke or Teasing 策略實際上是一個正向禮貌策略。

就 Advice or Lecture 策略而言,這種回應的方式應可視為 Brown 與 Levinson 五種

策略中的 negative politeness strategies,此種回應方式表面上似乎是影響了抱怨者行動

的自由,因為對談者提供了一些常是行為上的建議供抱怨者參考,但實際上對談者針

Page 56:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

49

對抱怨者所提的現象而提供解決的方式真正的目的是讓抱怨者的行為不受他人影響,

換言之,抱怨者的不受他人影響行動自由的權利受到認可(“the addressee’s rights to

relative immunity from imposition are recognized,” Brown & Levinson, 1987, p.178)。就前

述的兩個例子而言,當交談者針對抱怨者所說的「她每天晚上都吵得讓我睡不好」而

回應:「妳就別再不好意思了,找個機會跟她好好談談嘛!」,交談者雖然表面上因給

予抱怨者行為建議而干預其行動之自由,但實際上是希望讓抱怨者不會再受人影響而

睡不好而此行動(即「睡覺」)即可不受他人干預;同樣地,當交談者針對抱怨者所說

的‘She’s got a quick temper.’而回應:‘Try to bear with her for now. Maybe things will get

better soon.’,回應者一樣雖然因給予抱怨者行為建議而表面上干預其行動之自由,但

實際上是希望讓抱怨者不會再受他人不好脾氣之影響,從此角度來看,此策略為負向

禮貌策略。

就 Commiseration 策略而言,這種回應的方式亦應可視為 Brown 與 Levinson 五種

策略中的 positive politeness strategies,因為就如同 Joking or Teasing 策略一樣,假設對

談者不接受抱怨者的抱怨,那對談者表示出其損及了抱怨者的正向顏面需要,為了避

面造成這結果,回應者可能會被迫用犧牲自己本來的顏面需要而用 Commiseration 的

方式來回應以讓抱怨者感覺好受一點,從這樣的角度來看,此策略實際上是一個正向

禮貌策略。

簡言之,上述的討論顯示出「間接抱怨反應」行為似乎可以由 Brown 與 Levinson

所宣稱的跨文化普遍適用之禮貌理論來解釋:Silence or Topic Switch 策略應可視為

Brown 與 Levinson 五種策略中的根本不做 face-threatening 的行為;Questions 策略應可

視為 off-record strategies;Contradiction 策略應可視為 bald on-record strategies;Joking or

Teasing 和 Commiseration 策略應可視為 positive politeness strategies;Advice or Lecture

策略應可視為 negative politeness strategies。

前已述及,開方檢定(X2)的結果顯示生活於正向禮貌文化的美國之美語為母語

者比生活於負向禮貌文化的台灣之中文為母語者還常使用 Commiseration 策略,但後

者則比前者還常使用 Advice or Lecture 策略,而上述討論之 Commiseration 策略應可視

為 positive politeness strategies,相對而言,Advice or Lecture 策略應可視為 negative

politeness strategies,這討論結果正好與兩地各自的文化傾向一致,換言之,本研究的

結果從 Brown 與 Levinson 的禮貌理論之申論來看,是可以合理地解釋母語為美語者為

Page 57:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

50

何比母語為中文者還常使用 Commiseration 策略,相對而言,亦可合理解釋後者為何

比前者還常使用 Advice or Lecture 策略。

除了Brown與Levinson的禮貌理論外,Leech於1983年提出的禮貌原則(Politeness

Principle)論述是另一個文獻上引起廣泛討論的理論架構,簡單地說,Leech 架構了一

個由六個準則(maxim)所組成的禮貌行為模式(politeness behavior model),這六個

準則是機智(tact)、慷慨(generosity)、認可(approbation)、謙虛(modesty)、同意

(agreement)與同情(sympathy),Leech 主張跨文化的差異乃是由於不同文化中這些

準則中的某些準則相較其他準則被賦予比較優先的地位(“cross-cultural variations will

be caused by the relative precedence given to one of these maxims vis-à-vis another,” Yu,

1999a, p.172),據此,我們或許可以推論美國文化賦予 sympathy 準則比較優先之地位

以致於母語為美語者比較偏好用 Commiseration 的策略來回應「間接抱怨」,而台灣文

化則是賦予 tact 準則比較優先的地位以致於母語為中文者比較偏好提供自己個人看法

(即 Advice or Lecture)來嘗試替抱怨者解決抱怨事項。

另外,就「間接抱怨反應」的用詞(linguistic options)而言,母語為美語者之用

詞比母語為中文者還較多樣性,從 universality vs. culture-specificity 的角度而言,由於

此六大策略皆可在母語為美語者和母語為中文者身上觀察得到,因此可說對此兩個

ethnic groups 的 speakers 來說,這些策略的體現(realization)是 universal 的;可是從

個別策略在不同語言的呈現中,可發現有些是非常 culture-specific 的對應方式,比方

說,許多母語為英語者的用詞,如‘There’s no way . . .’, ‘I’m sick and tired . . .’, ‘I can’t take

it.’, ‘How dare . . .’, ‘The problem is . . .’, ‘It’s not fair . . .’, ‘It’s a shame . . .’, ‘This is not my

day!’, ‘I’m up to here . . .’, ‘It drives me crazy!’, ‘I can’t stand . . .’, ‘Unfortunately . . .’

(Boxer, 1993a, pp. 30-31),有些是只有英語使用者才會使用出來的,相同地,許多母

語為中文者的用詞也是中文使用者才有的獨特現象,比方說,母語為中文者常會使用

「不好意思」做為回應「間接抱怨」時的起頭語,這在母語為美語者的「間接抱怨反

應」行為中是觀察不到的。換言之,有關語用行為中使用普遍性與文化特定性之議題,

透過語料分析結果顯示雖然在大方向上來看,比如說語用策略,可以發現不同語言使

用者所呈現出來的策略有其普遍性,但進一步分析語言用詞或語言使用背後所代表的

文化意涵後可以發現,此普遍性常只是表面上的類似,換言之,看似相同的策略常受

到文化深層因素的影響而顯示出其特定語言行為表現上的明顯差異(Yu, 2003)。

Page 58:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

51

為回答研究問題二,以上述自然觀察方式所收集到的資料為依據設計成恰當的情

境後,將之試驗到三組受試者(即 native Chinese speakers, Chinese English-as-a-second-

language learners, native speakers of American English),結果如以下之表二:

表二. 中文與英文母語者和母語為中文之外語學習者

「間接抱怨反應」策略使用分佈之百分比

Response Type American Chinese ESL learners Chinese

Silence or Topic Switch 4% 7% 6%

Questions 7% 5% 5%

Contradiction 9% 12% 10%

Joking or Teasing 8% 14% 11%

Advice or Lecture 15% 27% 38%

Commiseration 57% 35% 30%

接著將所收集到資料用開方檢定(X2)來分析三組受試者之「間接抱怨反應」行

為是否有差異,結果顯示三組受試者之「間接抱怨反應」行為有顯著差異,若與上述

自然觀察的兩個母語組結果做一對比,可發現就兩組 L1 control groups 的行為來看,

兩類不同方式的研究結果是一致的,更重要的是,我們還可發現 Chinese ESL learners

雖然處在美國這看似有利的英語學習環境,但他們的行為還是比較像是他們的母語表

現行為:

一、就 Advice or Lecture 這策略而言,開方檢定顯示母語為中文者(native Chinese

speakers)之「間接抱怨反應」行為和台灣留美學生(Chinese ESL learners)的美語「間

接抱怨反應」行為,比母語為美語者(native speakers of American English)之行為還

常可觀察到使用這策略。此外,母語為中文者的行為又比台灣留美的 ESL learners 的

行為還較常觀察到使用這策略。

換言之,就此策略而言,ESL learners 的行為雖然已經與其母語使用者有差別,但

此差異尚不明顯到足以 approach 或 approximate 母語為美語者的行為,以致他們與母

語為美語者的行為比較起來仍然是有差異的,這結果可能表示學習者已經試著朝 target

language speakers 的行為模式努力(所以與中文母語組亦有顯著性差異),只是這努力

Page 59:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

52

的成果仍不夠好,才會讓他們和 target language speakers 的行為比較起來仍然有顯著性

的差異可以觀察得到。

二、就 Commiseration 策略而言,母語為美語者之「間接抱怨反應」行為比台灣

留美學生與母語為中文者的抱怨行為較常觀察到這些策略。

就此策略而言,與前述策略比較起來,可以明顯地發現 Chinese ESL learners 的行

為仍然近似其母語使用者的行為,以致他們和 Chinese L1 group 同時跟 native speakers

of American English 的「間接抱怨反應」行為比較起來有差別,但是這兩組的

Commiseration 策略的使用並沒有顯著差異,也就是說,不同於上述策略,ESL learners

此策略的使用不但未近似母語為美語者的行為,而且還近似其母語使用者的行為(因

為兩者無顯著性差異),因此,跟 Advice or Lecture 策略的使用比較起來,ESL learners

的 Commiseration 策略使用更有改進的空間。

上述結果可發現台灣留美學生和母語為中文者的「間接抱怨反應」行為頗為類似,

除了從大方向的策略使用來分析外,本研究更進一步地分析受試者「間接抱怨反應」

行為的語言用詞(linguistic options),結果發現 Chinese ESL learners 許多外語使用的現

象似是將母語使用的習慣透過直譯(literal translation)的方式直接移轉(transfer)用

在英文中,換言之,有關語言使用移轉的問題,我們可發現不但是策略的使用可看出

語言使用移轉的現象外,更進一步地分析受試者的語言用詞選擇更可以證明或詳細瞭

解此所觀察到的語言使用移轉現象。比方說,前述的母語為中文者常會使用「不好意

思」做為回應「間接抱怨」時的起頭語,而母語為美語者的「間接抱怨反應」行為並

不會如此,但這樣的行為卻可在 Chinese ESL learners 的回應中觀察得到,分析語言用

詞 大的好處之一是在推論統計量化分析沒有顯著差異時,可透過用詞分析這種質性

的方式,幫助研究者可以更精細地看出外語學習者的語言使用是否受到母語之影響,

就前述舉例來說,儘管 Contradiction 策略使用三組並沒影顯著性差異,從量化分析的

角度則該推論三組此行為並沒有差異,但是本研究可發現 Chinese ESL learners 會在此

策略使用時一開始說 ‘I’m sorry’,而在母語為中文者的行為中可觀察到會在

Contradiction 策略前面加上「不好意思」,合理的推論是外語學習者的‘I’m sorry’應該

是從母語習慣的「不好意思」直接翻譯而來。請參下例:

Native Chinese speaker:

A: 這餐廳的服務實在有夠差。

Page 60:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

53

B: 不好意思,我覺得還好吔!

Chinese ESL learners:

A: The service here is really not good.

B: I’m sorry! I think we should give the waiter a break.

一般而言,ESL learners 因所學習英語的環境裡英文即是日常生活周遭所使用的主

要語言,因此比較有高的機率習得成功(e.g., Brown, 2001),但本研究顯示出來的結

果並非如此,這不禁讓人好奇為何外語學習者處於較有利之學習環境,但其外語表現

行為並沒有因此比較明顯地傾向 target language speakers 的行為,由於本研究的設計並

非針對此問題進行研究,因此無法於此提供比較可信的明確解答,未來研究的可能方

向之一或許可以試著探究 ESL learners 此近似母語行為背後可能之因素。

另外,此篇論文雖然嘗試探究母語為中文者和母語為中文的美語學習者之「間接

抱怨反應」行為,但論文中所探究的一些議題只是很初步地一個開始,這些議題毫無

疑問地值得在未來更深入地研究,比方說有關語用使用普遍性相對文化特定性

(universality vs. culture-specificity)的議題,文獻上一些研究已指出 Brown & Levinson

(1978, 1987)的理論主要是以西方母語為英語者的文化為主(Anglo-Saxon culture ) (如

Yu, 2003),並不能真正地如他們所宣稱的跨文化上適用,本研究雖然有很粗淺地觸及

universality 的議題,但很明顯不夠深入,未來另一個可能的研究發展方向可以像 Yu

在 2003 年的研究探究「讚美反應」行為一般,深入地探究「間接抱怨反應」行為所反

映出之 universality vs. culture-specificity 的現象。

總括來說,本研究結果所顯示之「間接抱怨反應」行為有差異之處可從兩大方向

探究:一是就外語學習者之行為(interlanguage behavior)而論,其行為常是受到所學

習外語使用知識的限制和自身文化的影響而產生的 intralingual 和 interlingual 表現行

為,因此造成與其自身母語使用者和所學習外語之母語使用者間的差異;二是就不同

母語使用者而論,他們語言使用的差異常是受到自身語言和文化的影響。可想而知的,

不同語言之間的使用必有差異,而此類差異常又無可諱言地可歸諸於受到文化之影

響,因此外語使用者必須對所學習語言之文化有一定程度的認識,如此才可避免在外

語使用時,有跨文化溝通間的失誤甚或誤解( intercultural miscommunication or

misunderstanding)現象產生。

Page 61:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

54

Works Cited

Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1999). Researching method. In L. Bouton (Ed.), Pragmatics and

language learning, monograph series vol. 9 (237-264). Urbana-Champaign, IL:

University of Illinois.

Beebe, L.M., & Cummings, M.C. (1985). Speech act performance: A function of the data

collection procedure? Paper presented at the TESOL Convention, New York.

Beebe, L.M., & Takahashi, T. (1989). Sociolinguistic variation in face-threatening speech

acts: Chastisement and disagreement. In M. R. Eisenstein (Ed.), The dynamic

interlanguage: Empirical studies in second language variation (199-218). New York:

Plenum.

Blum-Kulka, S. (1982). Learning how to say what you mean in a second language: A study

of speech act performance of learners of Hebrew as a second language. Applied

Linguistics, 3, 29-59.

Blum-Kulka, S. (1983). Interpreting and performing speech acts in a second language: A

cross-cultural study of Hebrew and English. In N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.),

Sociolinguistics and language acquisition (36-55). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Blum-Kulka, S. (1991). Interlanguage pragmatics: The case of requests. In R. Phillipson, E.

Kellerman, L. Selinker, M. Sharwood Smith, & M. Swain (Eds.), Foreign/second

language pedagogy research (255-272). Clevedon and Philadelphia: Multilingual

Matters.

Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests

and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Blum-Kulka, S., & Levenston, E. (1987). Lexical-grammatical pragmatic indicators. Studies

in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 155-170.

Bodman, J., & Eisenstein, M. (1988). May God increase your bounty: The expression of

gratitude in English by native and nonnative speakers. Cross Currents, 15, 1-21.

Page 62:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

55

Boxer, D. (1993a). Complaining and commiserating: A speech act view of solidarity in

spoken American English. NY: Peter Lang.

Boxer, D. (1993b). Complaints as positive strategies: What the learner needs to know.

TESOL Quarterly, 27 (2), 277-299.

Brislin, R.W., Lonner, W.J., & Thorndike, R. M. (1973). Cross-cultural research methods.

New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy.

New York: Longman.

Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1978). Universals of language usage: Politeness phenomena. In

E. Goody (Ed.), Questions and politeness (56-234). Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational Psychological

Measurement, 20, 37-46.

Coulmas, F. (1981). Poison to your soul: Thanks and apologies contrastively viewed. In F.

Coulmas (Ed.), Conversational routine (69-91). The Hague: Mouton.

Ebsworth, M.E., Bodman, J.W., & Carpenter, M. (1996). Cross-cultural realization of

greetings in American English. In S.M. Gass & J. Neu, Speech acts across cultures:

Challenges to communication in a second language (89-108). Berlin: Mouton de

Gruyter.

Eisenstein. W., & Bodman, J. W. (1993). Expressing gratitude in American English. In G.

Kasper & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage pragmatics (64-81). New York:

Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Færch, C., & Kasper, G. (1989). Internal and external modification in interlanguage request

realization. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics:

Requests and apologies (221-247). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Fraser, B., Rintell, E., & Walters, J. (1980). An approach to conducing research on the

Page 63:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

56

acquisition of pragmatic competence in a second language. In D. Larsen-Freeman (Ed.),

Discourse analysis in second language research (75-91). Rowley, MA: Newbury

House.

Fukushima, S. (1990). Offers and requests: Performance by Japanese learners of English.

World Englishes, 9, 317-325.

Garcia, C. (1989). Apologizing in English. Politeness strategies used by native and

nonnative speakers. Multilingua, 8, 3-20.

Golato, A. (2003), Studying compliment responses: A comparison of DCTs and recordings

of naturally occurring talk. Applied Linguistics 24, 90-121.

Hartford, B.S., & Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). Experimental and observational data in the

study of interlanguage pragmatics. In L.F. Bouton & Y. Kachru (Eds.), Pragmatics and

language learning (Monograph No. 3, 33-52). Urbana, IL: Division of English as an

International Language, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Holmes, J. (1988). Paying compliments: A sex-preferential politeness strategies. Journal of

Pragmatics, 12, 445-465.

House, J. (1988). “Oh excuse me please …”: Apologizing in a foreign language. In B.

Kettemann, P. Bierbaumer, A. Fill, & A. Karpf (Eds.), Englisch als zweitsprache

(303-327). Tubingen: Narr.

House, J., & Kasper, G. (1987). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requesting in a foreign language.

In W. Lorscher & R. Schulze (Eds.), Perspectives on language and performance:

Festschrift for Werner Hullen (1250-1288). Tubingen: Narr.

Hudson, T., Detmer, E., & Brown, J. (1992). A framework for testing cross-cultural

pragmatics (Technical Report #2). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Johnston, B., Kasper, G., & Ross, S. (1998). Effect of rejoinders in production questionnaires.

Applied Linguistics, 19, 157-182.

Kasper, G. (1982). Teaching-induced aspects of interlanguage discourse. Studies in Second

Language Acquisition, 4 (2), 99-113.

Kasper, G. (1984). Pragmatic comprehension in learner-native discourse. Language

Learning, 34, 1-20.

Page 64:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

57

Kasper, G. (1989). Variation in interlanguage speech act realization. In S. Gass, C. Madden,

D. Preston, & L. Selinker (Eds.), Variation in second language acquisition: Discourse

and pragmatics (37-58). Clevedon and Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.

Kasper, G., & Blum-Kulka, S. (1993). Interlanguage pragmatics. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Kasper, G., & Dahl, M. (1991). Research methods in interlanguage pragmatics. Second

Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Kasper, G. (2000). Data collection in pragmatics research. In H. Spencer-Oatey (Ed.),

Culturally speaking: Managing rapport through talk across cultures (316-341).

London and New York: Continuum.

Koike, D.A. (1989). A study of Japanese and American perceptions of politeness in requests.

Doshida Studies in English, 50, 178-210.

Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic patterns. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.

Labov, W. (1984). Field methods pf project on linguistic change and variation. In J. Baugh

& J. Sherzer (Eds.), Language in use: Readings in sociolinguistics (28-53). Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M.H. (1990). An introduction to second language acquisition

research. London: Longman.

LeCompte, M, & Goetz, J. (1982). Problems of reliability and validity in ethnographic

research. Review of Educational Research, 52, 31-60.

Leech, G.N. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. New York: Longman.

Lee-Wong, S.M. (1994). Imperatives in requests: Direct or impolite observations from

Chinese. Pragmatics, 4 (4), 491-515.

Lehrer, A. (1989). Remembering and representing prose: Quoted speech as a data source.

Discourse Processes, 12, 105-125.

Levinson, S.C. (1992). Activity types and language. In P. Drew & J. Heritage (Eds.), Talk at

work: Interactions in institutional settings (265-399). Cambridge: Cambridge

university Press.

Page 65:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

58

Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Olshtain, E. (1983). Sociocultural competence and language transfer: The case of apology.

In S. Gass & L. Selinker (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning (232-249).

Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Olshtain, E., & Cohen, A.D. (1983). Apology: A speech act. In N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.),

Sociolinguistics and second language acquisition (137-174). Rowley, MA: Newbury

House.

Rintell, E., & Mitchell, C.J. (1989). Studying requests and apologies: An inquiry into

method. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics:

Requests and apologies (248-273). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Rose, K. (1994). On the validity of DCTs in non-western contexts. Applied Linguistics, 15,

1-14.

Sasaki, M. (1998). Investigating EFL students’ production of speech acts: A comparison of

production questionnaires and role plays. Journal of Pragmatics, 30, 457-484.

Schmidt, R. (1983). Interaction, acculturation and the acquisition of communicative

competence. In N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and second language

acquisition (137-174). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Tanaka, N. (1988). Politeness: Some problems for Japanese speakers of English. JALT

Journal, 9, 81-102.

Thomas, J.A. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4, 91-112.

Trosborg, A. (1995). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requests, complaints and apologies. New

York: Mouton de Gruyter.

Turnbull, W. (1992). A Conversation Approach to Explanation, with Emphasis on Politeness

and Accounting. In M.L. McLaughlin, M.J. Cody, & S.J. Read (Eds.), Explaining one’s

self to others: Reason-giving in a social context (105-130). Erlbaum.

Turnbull, W. & Saxton, K.L. (1997). Modal expressions as facework in refusals to comply

with requests: I think I should say 'no' right now. Journal of Pragmatics, 27,145-181.

Watson-Gegeo, K. A. (1988). Ethnography in ESL: Defining the essentials. TESOL

Page 66:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

59

Quarterly, 22, 575-92.

Wolfson, N. (1989). Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL. New York: Newbury

House.

Wolfson, N. & Manes, J. (1980). The compliment as a social strategy. Paper in Linguistics,

13, 391-410.

Wolfson, N., Marmor, T., & Jones, S. (1989). Problems in the comparison of speech acts

across cultures. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural

pragmatics: Requests and apologies (174-196). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Yuan, Y. (2001). An inquiry into empirical pragmatics data-gathering methods: Written

DCTs, oral DCTs, field notes, and natural conversations. Journal of Pragmatics, 33,

271-292.

Yu, M. (1999a). Cross-culural and interlanguage pragmatics: Developing communicative

competence in a second language. Unpublished doctoral dissertaton, Harvard

University, Boston.

Yu, M. (1999b). Universalistic and culture-specific perspectives on variation in the

acquisition of pragmatic competence in a second language. Pragmatics, 9 (2), 281-312.

Yu, M. (2003). On universality of face: Evidence from Chinese compliment response

behavior, Journal of Pragmatics, 35, 1679-1710.

Yu, M. (2004). Interlinguistic variation and similarity in second language speech act

behavior, The Modern Language Journal, 88, 102-119.

Yu, M. (2005). Sociolinguistic competence in the complimenting act of native Chinese and

American English speakers: A mirror of cultural value, Language and Speech, 48,

91-119.

Yu, M. (2011). Learning how to read situations and know what is the right thing to say or do

in an L2: A study of sociocultural competence and language transfer, Journal of

Pragmatics, 43, 1127-1147.

Page 67:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

60

Cultural Influences on the Responses to

Indirect Complaints

Ming-chung Yu*

Abstract

This paper investigated the interlanguage behavior of adult Chinese learners of

American English, focusing on the ways in which they responded to the speech act of

“indirect complaints” in a second language (L2). By comparing Chinese

English-as-a-second-language (ESL) learners’ indirect complaint response behavior with

that of both native Chinese and English speakers in naturally occurring contexts, this study

was designed to detect the pragmatic difficulties that distinguished these learners’ behavior

from that of native English speakers and to see if these difficulties could be related to

features of their native language (L1).

The present study used an experimental paradigm to generate data through eliciting

responses to indirect complaints under conditions in which the participants were not aware

that the object of study was their conversational contribution. In other words, the corpus of

responses to indirect complaints was collected in contexts that were controlled from the

investigator’s perspective, but spontaneous and natural from the participants’ perspective.

The data gathered were, thus, representative of the types of responses to indirect complaints

that naturally took place in everyday occurrence. To the best of the investigator’s knowledge,

very little research in interlanguage studies thus far has tried to collect data this way (Yu,

2011).

The results showed that native Chinese speakers were more likely to enact advice or

lecture strategies when responding to indirect complaints, while Americans were more likely

to employ commiseration strategies. In addition, contrary to what seems to be suggested in

scholarly literature regarding L2 learners in naturalistic settings, the tendency found among

* Distinguished Professor, Department of English, National Chengchi University.

Page 68:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

間接抱怨反應行為跨文化影響之研究

61

native Chinese speakers was also obviously shown in the L2 of the Chinese ESL speakers.

That is, the performance of these learners could be seen to reflect L1 communicative styles

and transfer L1 sociocultural strategies in L2 behavior. The findings contributed

substantially to a better understanding of what role sociocultural factors could play in the

acquisition of L2 pragmatic behavior; more importantly, these findings had practical

implications for L2 teaching and learning.

Keywords:cross-cultural pragmatics, interlanguage pragmatics, speech acts,

responses to indirect complaints, natural observation

Page 69:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

余明忠 興大人文學報第五十期

62

Page 70:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 63-112 二○一二年三月

63

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:

A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization*

Yuh-huey Lin** Po-chin Ho***

Abstract

This study points out some potential problems in the traditional treatments of the

internal modifications in apology realization and proposes a coding system that adheres to

the functional vs. formal distinction in the analysis of modality markers. A total of 8049

expressions of apology collected from 180 (60 NS Chinese, 60 NS English and 60 Chinese

EFL) sets of Discourse Completion Task (DCT) questionnaire were adopted to test the

validity of the proposed coding system. Results show that many important insights and

cross-cultural and interlanguage patterns can be revealed only when the forms and functions

of modifications are distinguished.

Keywords: speech act, internal modification, apology

* This is a revised version of a paper presented at the ‘2006 Pragmatics in the CJK Classroom’

conference at the University of Hawaii-Manoa. We would like to thank the audience at the conference

for their valuable comments and suggestions. This study was financially supported by the National

Science Council (NSC 93-2411- H-017-011; NSC 94-2411-H-110-010) and National Sun Yat-sen

University for which we express our sincere thanks. ** Associate Professor, Division of Languages and Literature, Northern Virginia Community College. *** Master, Departnent of Foreign Languages & Literature, National Sun Yat Sen University.

(收稿日期:101.02.01;通過刊登日期:102.03.15)

Page 71:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

64

1. INTRODUCTION

Previous research with regard to interlanguage pragmatics (ILP) have drawn a universal

conclusion that Second Language (L2) learners’ nonnative speech act behaviors can deviate

from native norms of the target language in both production (e.g., Blum-Kulka and Olshtain,

1986; Faerch and Kasper, 1989; Murphy and Neu, 1996; Olshtain, 1983, 1989; Olshtain and

Cohen, 1983; Olshtain and Blum-Kulka, 1985; Olshtain and Weinbach, 1993; Vollmer and

Olshtain, 1989; Trosborg, 1987, 1995; Yu, 1999) and perception (Bergman and Kasper, 1993;

Murphy and Neu, 1996; Olshtain and Blum-Kulka, 1985). However, as also indicated in

Kasper and Rose’s (1999) overview on ILP studies, learners were generally found to “have

access to the same range of speech act realization strategies, or conventions of means, as

native speakers, irrespective of proficiency level.” (p.86). For instance, in both Trosborg’s

(1987, 1995) and Maeshiba et al’s (1996) studies on interlanguage apology, learners of all

proficiency levels yielded the same range of apology strategies as did native speakers (NSs).

Such an ILP tendency drives Olshtain (1989) to state “given the same social factors, the

same contextual features, and the same level of offence, different languages will realize

apologies in very similar ways” (p.171). Rather than the choice of main apology strategies,

what has been found to play a more significant role in distinguishing between native vs.

nonnative speakers as well as between high vs. low proficiency L2 learners seems to be the

use of the “modality markers” such as upgraders or downgraders, which function to

“minimize the guilt” or “maximize the apology” (cf. Trosborg, 1995, p. 385) in making an

apology. As remarked by Cohen, Olshtain and Rosenstein (1986) “while natives and

nonnatives were not seen to differ markedly in the use of main strategies for apologizing,

striking differences emerged in what are here referred to as the various modifications of such

apologies” (p.66). Besides, it has also been found that L2 learners tended to use “erroneous

language forms” even though they were aware of the need to apologize (Olshtain and

Cohen’s, 1989, p. 62) and that they either “did not intensify their regret as much as natives”

(Cohen and Olshtain, 1981, p.123) or “over elaborate their speech acts hoping to create

Page 72:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

65

intensification” (Olshtain and Cohen, 1983, p.34).

However, while a number of researchers have advocated the importance of studies on

modality markers or linguistic/grammatical features used in performing speech acts

(Bardovi-Harlig, 1999; Cohen, Olshtain and Rosenstein, 1986; House and Kasper, 1981;

Trosborg, 1987, 1995), until now, there has not been a unified consensus as to how apology

intensifications should be classified. This study thus aims to make a comprehensive review

of this area of ILP research and tries to propose a model of analysis which we believe would

better account for the cross-cultural as well as cross-linguistic variations in the speech act

realization of apology. The following review of previous studies on modality markers

starts with House and Kasper’s (1981) study on the speech acts of request and complaint,

which has set a model for later researchers to follow. After pointing out the potential

problems in previous categorizations of modality markers in apology realization, we then

propose our own multi-leveled coding system and demonstrate its validity with the

interlanguage speech act corpus that we collected from native speakers of English, native

speakers of Chinese, and Chinese EFL learners.

2. MODALITY MARKERS IN SPEECH ACT STUDIES

House and Kasper (1981) is among the earliest study that drew ILP researchers’

attention to modification in speech act realization. Applying the slightly modified version

of Leech’s (1977) categorization of speech acts, House and Kasper (1981) began an early

investigation on whether politeness is a universal phenomenon in the speech acts of

complaint and request by comparing the role-play data produced by German and English

speakers. Eight levels of directness and two types of modality markers, namely,

downgraders and upgraders, were distinguished as indicators of different levels of

politeness. The modality markers were further classified into 11 and 6 subcategories,

respectively, as listed in (1) below:

Page 73:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

66

(1) Modality Markers (House and Kasper, 1981: 167-170)

I. Downgraders

a. Politeness marker: e.g., please/bitte

b. Play-down: e.g., past tense, modal auxiliaries

c. Consultative devices: e.g., Would you mind if…

d. Hedge: kind of, sort of

e. Understater: a little bit, not very much

f. Downtoner: e.g., just, simply, possibly

g. -Committer: e.g., I think, I guess, I believe

h. Forewarn: e.g., you’re a nice guy, but…

i. Hesitator: e.g., erm, er…

j. Scope-stater: e.g., I’m afraid you’re in my seat

k. Agent avoider: e.g., passive, impersonal construction (people, they, one)

II. Upgraders

a. Overstater: e.g., absolutely, purely, terribly

b. Intensifier: e.g., very, so, such, quite

c. +Committer: I’m sure, certainly, obviously,

d. Lexical intensifier: e.g., swear words

e. Aggressive interrogative: e.g., Why haven’t you told me before?

f. Rhetorical Appeal: e.g., You must understand that, anyone can see that

It was assumed that when speakers apply downgraders to modify their requests or

complaints, they are doing so in an attempt to reduce the impact their utterances may have

on their interlocutors, and they may appear more “polite”, accordingly. On the contrary,

upgraders are used when the need to increase “the force of the impact an utterance is likely

to have on the addressee” (ibid, p. 169) is called upon, so that the speakers can perform

complaints and requests more directly. The results of the study showed that overall, the

German speakers were more direct than the English speakers in making complaints and

requests. As for the use of modality markers, the German participants were also more

Page 74:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

67

‘direct’ since they used more upgraders to “intensify the force of their speech act in actual or

potential conflict situations” (p. 182) while the English speakers used more downgraders.

However, since there were no clear correlations between the two types of features

(directness levels and modality markers), House and Kasper suggested that it was always

necessary to take both components into account when interpreting speech act performance.

House and Kasper (1981) did not distinguish lexical and syntactical modifiers within

their classification of the modality markers, so syntactical devices such as interrogative, past

tense, and negation were referred to as play-down markers and were categorized as

downgraders. Later, in another speech act study of request conducted by Faerch and

Kasper (1989), modality markers were distinctively divided as lexical modifiers (e.g.,

politeness marker, consultative device, downtoner) and syntactic modifiers (e.g.,

interrogative, negation, conditional) while external modifications were manifested as

supportive moves such as grounders as illustrated in (2) in the following.

(2) Internal and External Modifications of Requesting (Faerch and Kasper, 1989):

A. Internal Modifications:

I. Lexical/Phrasal Downgraders:

a. Zero marking

b. Politeness marker: e.g., please/bitte

c. Consultative device: e.g., do you think

d. Downtoner: perhaps, possibly, mal, eben, vielleicht

e. Others/Combinations: hedges, subjectivizers, and understaters

II. Syntactical Downgraders:

l. Interrogative

m. Conditional

n. Negation

o. Others (tense, aspect marking, subjunctive)

Page 75:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

68

B. External Modification of Requesting:

I. Zero Supportive Move

II. Grounder

a. Giving reasons

b. Justifications

c. Explanations

III. Combination of the above

Following this convention, Trosborg (1995) further identified three types of internal

modifications and six types of external modifications in her study on Danish EFL speakers’

realization of requests as listed in (3) below:

(3) Internal and External Modification of Requesting (Trosborg, 1995: 209-218):

A. Internal Modifications:

I. Lexical/Phrasal Downgraders

a. Politeness marker: e.g., please; Would you kindly/be so kind as to...

b. Consultative device: e.g., Would you mind...; Do you think...

c. Downtoner: e.g., just, simply, perhaps, possibly, rather

d. Understatement: e.g., a second, a minute

e. Hedge: e.g., kind of, sort of, somehow

f. Hesitator: e.g., er, em

g. Interpersonal marker: I mean, you know, right, okay

II. Syntactic Downgraders

a. Question

b. Past tense/Negation

c. Tag questions

d. Conditional

e. Embedding

f. Ing-form

Page 76:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

69

g. Modals

III. Upgraders

a. Adverbial intensifier: e.g., so, very, really

b. Do-construction: e.g., Oh, really, do come to see us, we'd be so pleased.

c. Commitment upgrader. e.g., I'm sure; I'm certain

d. d. Lexical intensification: e.g., Get the hell out of here.

B. External Modifications:

I. Preparators:

a. Preparing the content

b. Preparing the speech act

c. Checking on availability

d. Getting a pre-commitment

II. Disarmers

III. Sweetners

IV. Supportive reasons

V. Cost minimizing

VI. Promise of a reward

Similar lexical modifiers have been considered in previous apology studies. In the

beginning, focus was centered on intensifiers that strengthen the impact of the illocutionary

force indicating devices (IFIDs), namely adverbials such as so, very, and terribly as in “I’m

so/very/terribly sorry.” (Cohen and Olshtain, 1981; Cohen, Olshtain and Rosenstein, 1986;

Olshtain and Cohen, 1983; Olshtain, 1989). Later on, Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984)

distinguished two other intensifying devices other than the internal modifications within the

IFID, namely, external modifications such as showing concern for the hearer and the use of

multiple strategies as summarized in the following:

Page 77:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

70

(4) Apology Intensification (Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984: 208)

A. Internal Intensification

a. Adverbials: I’m very sorry.

b. Repetition (double intensifier): I’m terribly, terribly sorry.

B. External Intensification

a. Concern for the hearer: Have you been waiting long?

b. Multiple strategies

Vollmer and Olshtain (1989) further claimed that intensity of apology can not only be

increased through internal modification of intensifiers and multiple apology strategies, but it

can also be “downgraded” via “some minimization of the offence in question” (p.213). It

is from this point that the concern of modification of apology started to encompass the

notion of “minimization”.

In similar vein, Trosborg (1987, 1995) borrowed from the coding scheme of request

and complaint established by House and Kasper (1981). She distinguished two types of

internal apology modifications, downgraders, which function to “minimize the guilt” and

upgraders, which serve to “maximize the apology”. These modifiers were further

classified into eight categories as listed in (5) below.

(5) Internal Modification of Apology (Trosborg, 1995: 385-386):

a. Downtoner: Adverbial sentence modifiers, such as just, simply, etc. and adverbial

expressing tentativeness, e.g. perhaps, maybe, possibly. (I just left for five minutes.)

b. Understater: Phrases that under-represent the state of affairs denoted in the

complainable e.g., a little bit, a second, not very much. (I went out for a second only.)

c. Hedges: Adverbials by means of which the complainee avoids a precise propositional

specification e.g., kind of, sort of, somehow, etc. (…I kind of didn’t notice before it was

too late.)

Page 78:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

71

d. Subjectivizers: Modifiers that characterize the proposition as the speaker’s personal

opinion, or indicates his attitude towards the proposition, e.g., I think, I supposed, I’m

afraid, in my opinion

e. Intensifiers: Adverbials intensifying part of the proposition, e.g., intensifying a lack of

intention, an expression of regret or embarrassment. (I’m terribly sorry, I really didn’t

mean any harm.)

f. Commitment upgraders: Sentence modifiers expressing a special commitment towards

the proposition

g. Cajolers: Gambits functioning at the interpersonal level of discourse with the function

of restoring harmony between two interlocutors, e.g., you know, you see, I mean, etc.

h. Appealers: Discourse elements (including tags) intended to elicit a response from the

complainer, appealing to his/her understanding, e.g., okay, right, don’t you think?

According to Trosborg, items a-d are downgraders that “minimize the complainable

and hence play down the blame that can be attached to the complainee” in order to save the

apologizer’s face and make him/her “appear less guilty” (p. 385). Category e, on the other

hand, “maximizes the apology, excuse, etc., and thus upgrades the impact of the apology on

the receiver” (p. 385). However, though termed as commitment upgrader, category f does

not function to ‘maximize the apology’, but to emphasize “the apologizer’s belief in the

complainer’s positive attitude with regard to the proposition” (p. 385), and categories g and

h are neither upgraders nor downgraders in Trosborg’s term.

3. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Some problems can be readily observed from the above review of previous studies on

apology intensifications. First, as also mentioned in the introduction section of this paper,

there seems to be no consensus as to how the apology intensifying devices should be

categorized. For one thing, while Expressing Concern for the Hearer was treated as an

“external intensification” by Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984), it was classified as one of the

main apology strategies by Trosborg (1987, 1995), cf.:

Page 79:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

72

Table 1: Trosborg’s (199: 390) classification of apology strategies

Apology strategies

Opting out

Str. 0 Reject

Apology strategies

Str. 1 Minimizing

Str. 2 Acknowledge

Str. 3 Explain

Str. 4 Apologize

Remedial support

Str. 5 Show concern

Str. 6 Promise forbearance

Str. 7 Offer repair

Besides, even within Trosborg’s own classification, there are discrepancies as to how

the term upgrader was defined. For instance, while upgrader was used as a cover term to

refer to the expressions which “maximize the apology”, as demonstrated in (4) above, it

appeared again as a subcategory, namely, commitment upgraders (e.g., “I was sure that you

would forgive me…”), which did not function to “maximize the apology”.

Another potential problem concerns the definition and function of the two terms

upgraders and downgraders. The two linguistic features were applied in House and

Kasper’s (1981) study to determine the level of politeness in the speech acts complaint and

request that are highly related to the notion of “directness” (vs. “indirectness”). To be more

precise, while downgraders serve to “play down the impact” one’s utterances will have on

the hearer in order to show “more politeness”, the function of upgraders is to “increase the

force of the impact one’s utterance is likely to have on the addressee” (p. 169) so as to make

the complaints and requests “more direct”. While such a distinction between the two

modifying devices is valid in accounting for the realization of complaint and request, it may

lead to questionable results when the same notion is applied to speech acts like apology for

which “sincerity” (Trosborg, 1995; Owen, 1983) rather than “directness” is the main

Page 80:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

73

concern.

In an apology, lexical upgraders and downgraders may take on various functions in

different linguistic as well as situational contexts. For instance, consider the functions of

the intensifier “so” in the following two utterances (6a) and (6b)1:

(6) Functions of the intensifier “so”

a. I’m so sorry to have spilled coffee on you.

b. Laura, sorry I’m late. I didn’t know the traffic to your house would be so bad at this

time.

The “so” in (6a) has been traditionally recognized as an “intensifying expression

within the IFID” (Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984; Cohen and Olshtain, 1981; Cohen,

Olshtain and Rosenstein, 1986; Olshtain and Cohen, 1983; Olshtain, 1989), which functions

as an upgrader that “maximizes the apology” (Trosborg, 1987, 1995). However, the

impact of the “so” in (6b) is to emphasize the seriousness of the cause of the complainable,

which, instead of “maximizes the apology”, actually helps to “minimize the guilt”. A

similar contradiction can be observed in the following two examples of apologies made in

the situation in which one accidentally spills a cup of coffee onto the skirt of the waitress

when being served in a restaurant:

(7) Functions of the intensifier “too”

a. I’m sorry. I was too careless.

b. Sorry, it was just too hot.

Again, following Trosborg’s (1987, 1995) definition, while the same intensifier “too”

may function as an upgrader, which increases the degree of apology (“too careless”), as in

the case of (7a) in which the speaker blames him/herself for the offense, it can as well serve

as a “downgrader”, which helps to intensify the blamable on others so as to minimize the

sense of guilt felt by the apologizer, as is in the case of (7b).

1 These are data taken from our speech act corpus.

Page 81:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

74

The above two sets of examples reveal a general negligence in the treatment of

modality markers in the speech act literature, namely, the function(s) of modifications such

as the intensifiers “so” and “too” as exemplified in (6) and (7) above. First, while such

intensifiers as so/really/very are also frequently found to occur in utterances like (6b) in

which they help to decrease the sense of guilt on the part of the apologizer, such kind of

function has never been mentioned in any previous studies on apology. The only function

ever considered was those that occurred within the IFID to increase the impact of the

apology. What is more, other types of intensifiers such as the “too” in (7a), which also

serves to maximize the apology but which does not occur within the IFID, was also rarely

noticed, not to mention the distinct (sometimes opposite) functions or impacts the same form

might bear, as exhibited in the comparison between the utterances (a) vs. (b) in (6) and (7)

above. Even in Trosborg’s own (1995) analysis, the form-function mapping concerning the

terms intensifiers, upgraders, and maximizing vs. minimizing was not adequately and clearly

distinguished. As can be noted in Trosborg’s (1995) example provided to explain the

function of intensifiers as listed in (5) above., the intensifier “terribly” in “I’m terribly sorry,

I really didn’t mean any harm,” is an adverbial that intensifies “an expression of regret” (p.

386) while the other intensifier “really” functions to “intensify the lack of intention”.

However, while the “terribly” in “terribly sorry” does “maximize the apology”, the “really”

in “really didn’t mean any harm”, on the contrary, “minimizes the complainable or guilt” by

intensifying the apologizer’s lack of intention for the offense (rather than “maximizing the

apology”).

The above discussion brings our attention to the problem of the lack of distinction

between formal or lexical vs. functional levels when applying the terms intensifier,

upgraders vs. downgraders, maximizing vs. minimizing in interpreting speech act data. To

solve the abovementioned problems and to overcome the potential confusion and

contradiction brought about by the inappropriate treatment of modifications as discussed

above, this paper aims to propose a new perspective in viewing modality markers that are

used in performing the speech act of apology. The data used for analysis and discussion in

this paper are taken from the apology data from a large-scale Chinese-English interlanguage

Page 82:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

75

speech act corpus. The validity of the proposed modification coding system will be

illustrated by answering the following ILP research questions:

(8) Research Questions:

1. How do patterns of internal modifications vary between Chinese and English?

2. On the basis that the manifestation of politeness varies cross-culturally, what are the

modification structures in the speech act of apology revealed in Chinese English as a

Foreign Language (EFL) learners as compared to native English speakers?

Due to limit of space, this paper focuses mainly on the argumentation in support of the

proposed coding system. A more detailed sociopragmatic and pragmalinguistic discussion

of the cross-cultural and interlanguage distribution of modality markers combined with

apology strategies will be provided in another paper.

4. METHOD

Data used for analysis in this study is the linguistic corpus established by a National

Science Council (NSC) research project in Taiwan2 starting from August 2004. The

corpus consists of Discourse Completion Task (DCT) and Scale-response Questionnaire

(SRQ) data obtained from three groups of participants, Chinese native speakers (NS),

Chinese EFL learners, and English NS, for six speech acts, namely, refusals, requests,

apologies, disagreements, complaints and expressions of gratitude, respectively. The two

NS groups serve to provide the baseline data for cross-cultural comparisons and further

interlanguage studies. For the purpose of the present study, only the DCT data obtained for

the speech act of apology will be considered in the following discussion. The interactions

between the participants’ SRQ and DCT responses will be discussed in future papers.

4.1 Participants

Sixty native speakers of Chinese in Taiwan and 60 native speakers of English in the US

2 The Interlanguage Speech Acts Project (NSC 93-2411-H-017-011; NSC 94-2411-H-110-010).

Page 83:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

76

participated in the study. They were all university students aged from 23 to 30 at the time

of the study. Each group was composed of 30 males and 30 females. The 60 Chinese

speakers from both National Sun Yat-sen University and National Kaohsiung Normal

University served as informants for both Chinese NS (NS-C) and EFL data. Since

proficiency and/or exposure to the target language is one of the concerns in the project, of

the 60 Chinese participants, 30 were English-majors and the other 30 were non-English

majors. For each of the two subgroups, there were 15 males and 15 females respectively.

They all studied English in Taiwan, started learning English from junior high school, and

never stayed abroad for more than two months. Provided the higher English scores they

obtained in the university entrance exam and more intense EFL trainings they received at

school, the English majors were supposed to be more proficient and to have significantly

more frequent exposure to the English language and culture than were the non-English

majors. In order to ensure that the gap between the two EFL groups was significant in

terms of target language exposure, all the EFL students were in the third grade or up (e.g.,

graduate students). The second group, 60 American university students (also third grade

and up) served to provide the English baseline data (NS-E). They were mostly from the

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign or Harvard University and MIT. Table 2

below displays the grouping of the participants according to the data they provided:

Table 2: Grouping of the participants according to types of data they provided Group Language Gender Num.

NS-C Native Chinese 30 males; 30 females 60

NS-E Native English 30 males; 30 females 60

EFL-H English majors/Advanced EFL learners 15 males; 15 females 30

EFL-L Non-English majors/Intermediate EFL learners 15 males; 15 females 30

4.2 Materials

Although having been criticized by some researchers as failing to reveal the

“sociopragmatic complexities” (Nelson et al., 2002: 163) or the range of semantic formulas

Page 84:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

77

and pragmatic strategies as observed from natural speeches (Beebe and Cumming, 1996;

Beebe and Takahashi, 1989), the Discourse Completion Task (DCT) has been the most

widely adopted data collection method in speech act research. Thus far, it has been

recognized as the best instrument to collect a large amount of data in a short period of time

(Beebe and Cummings, 1996; Beebe et al., 1990; Cohen and Olshtain, 1981, Johnston,

Kasper and Rose, 1998; Wolfson, 1989), to obtain prototypical responses (Hill et. al., 1986)

needed for cross-cultural comparison (DeCapua, 1998; Kasper et al, 1989; Kwon, 2004;

Rintell and Mitchell, 1989) and to gather a consistent body of data with the contextual

factors well controlled (Blum-Kulka et al, 1989; Johnston et al, 1998; Kasper, 2000; Kwon,

2004). Since the purpose of the present study is to compare the speech act realization by

different language groups, which can only be fulfilled when the contextual factors are well

controlled, DCT is believed to be the best method to choose.

The DCT consisted of 20 apology generating scenarios, which were designed with

regard to the four variables to be examined, social distance, power, severity, and gender. In

order to control the speakers’ educational background and age, all the participants selected in

the study were university students, and in order to obtain responses that were as natural as

possible, all the situations designed in the study were events that were likely to take place in

the university setting.

The variable social distance is determined in terms of the degree of familiarity between

the complainer and the addressee (Bell 1984; Holmes, 1992, 1995; Wolfson, 1989).

Following the sociopragmatic research convention, three levels of familiarity were

distinguished, which, when adjusted to the university setting, may be realized as close

friends, classmates, and total strangers, respectively.

As for the social status factor, the conventional three-level distinction, high, equal, low

to capture the “power” relation between the speaker and the addressee was adopted. In the

university setting, the three levels can be realized as professors, classmates, and service

people, respectively.

The last factor concerning the effect of the interlocutor is gender. With other factors

controlled, half of the DCT situations were those in which the interlocutor was a male and

Page 85:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

78

the other half female.

The factor severity of the situation, which has been found to be a determining factor for

the speech act of apology, was also considered in this study. Of the twenty scenarios, half

were of high severity and half of low severity.

To each DCT scenario, a set of Scaled-response Questionnaire (SRQ) designed based

on Berman and Kasper’s (1993) study was attached to obtain the participants perception of

the situations tested.

Following is a sample DCT situation combined with the set of SRQ questions as

appeared in the questionnaire distributed to the participants. Please refer to the Appendix

for the English version of a complete set of the 20 scenarios:

【Situation】 Your classmate Laura Johnson is a good student. When you talk about the

coming quiz, she invites you to her house to study together. Somehow, you

were late for nearly 10 minutes.

low-----------------------------high

(1) severity of the situation is ------------------------------[]1 []2[]3[]4 []5

(2) the possibility of you apologizing is --- --------------[]1 []2[]3[]4 []5

You would say:

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

low-----------------------------high

(3) difficulty of the apology for me is --------------------[]1 []2[]3[]4 []5

(4) likelihood of the apology being accepted is ---------[]1 []2[]3[]4 []5

4.3 Procedure

Both the Chinese and English versions of the questionnaires were proofread and

pilot-tested before they were distributed to the participants. The English version was

proofread by a native speaker of American English who is also familiar with the Chinese

Page 86:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

79

culture so as to ensure that all the situations were cross-culturally equivalent. Besides, in

order to eliminate the factor of participants’ fatigue when filling in the DCT, the sequence of

scenarios was further reordered so that there were two forms of questionnaires for both

languages (Form A and Form B).

Half of the Chinese participants were asked to fill in the Chinese questionnaires (half

Form A and half Form B) and half of them the English questionnaires in the first week.

Two weeks after they filled in the first set of questionnaires, they were then distributed the

one of the other language. That is, those who did the Chinese version would do the English

one in the second round and vise versa. The purpose of so doing was to prevent the

practice effect. The questionnaires were distributed via email and the participants were

requested not to discuss with others when filling in the questionnaire. The same procedure

was adopted when collecting the American English data except that the participants had to

fill only one set of questionnaires (the English one). No time limit was set for the

participants’ completion of the task.

4.4 Data Analysis

Data collected were transcribed, coded, and statistically analyzed by the second author

of the paper and another two graduate students in Applied Linguistics, who were also well

trained in discourse analysis and statistics. The coding system was determined after all the

data had been carefully examined. Whenever necessary, native speakers of English were

consulted to decide on the final coding of the English data.

4.5 Coding System

Unlike other potentially “face-threatening” (Brown and Levinson, 1978) speech acts

such as complaints, requests and refusals, which, if not managed carefully, can damage the

addressee’s face or lian or mienzi (Hu, 1944; Mao, 1994), apologies, as a convivial speech

act (Leech, 1983; Trosborg, 1995), function to maintain social harmony between the speaker

and hearer (Holmes, 1998; Trosborg, 1995) and are generally regarded as a “face-caring”

(Gu, 1990), “hearer-supportive” (Edmondson and House, 1981) or “face-supportive”

Page 87:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

80

(Holmes, 1989) action. Besides, rather than being a pre-event act like requests, apologies

are performed post-event as a compensatory action (Searle, 1969; Blum-Kulka and Olshtain,

1984; Katz, 1977) or remedial interchange (Goffman, 1971) after some offence has been

committed or social norms violated (Olshtain and Cohen, 1983). In other words, when

apologizing, the speaker is actually risking his/her own face, as Blum-Kulka and Olshtain

(1984) put it: “by its very nature, apologies involve loss of face for the speaker” (p. 206).

Such a potential contrast, namely, hearers’ face saving vs. speakers’ face loss, might be

what triggered Trosborg (1995) to distinguish between the two types of apology internal

modifiers—“minimizing the guilt” and “maximizing the apology”. While the former was

realized as downgraders that “minimize the complainable and hence play down the blame

that can be attached to the complainee,” the latter was manifested by upgraders that

“upgrade the impact of the apology on the receiver” (p. 385). While the problem with

previous coding of modality markers have been discussed in the previous section, the

distinction between the two functional notions “minimizing” vs. “maximizing” is, however,

found to capture the notion of the apologizer’s need to reduce his/her own possible “face

loss” (“minimizing the complainable”) vs. adhere to the hearer’s “face need” (“maximize

the apology”). In our proposed coding system of the internal modifiers for apology, the

two terms “maximizing” vs. “minimizing” are, therefore, adopted as functional categories

each of which may be realized by either upgraders or downgraders. On the other hand,

upgraders and downgraders are treated as lexical cover terms in our framework as distinct

from Trosborg (1995) in which they were both lexical and functional. Figure 1 below

captures the hierarchical relation between the two sets of terms:

MAXIMIZER Upgraders

Downgraders

MINIMIZER Upgraders

Downgraders

Figure 1: Functional approach to modality markers

Page 88:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

81

Such a distinction will solve the problem caused by the confusion in (6) and (7) above.

Lexically, both the “so” in (6) and “too” in (7) are upgraders, but functionally speaking,

they serve as MAXIMIZERs, which strengthen the impact of the apology, while those in

utterances (b)s are MINIMIZERs, which, in Trosborg’s (1995) term, help to save the

apologizer’s face by lessening the blame and thus make “him/her appear less guilty” (p.

385):

(6) Functions of the intensifier “so”

a. I’m so sorry to have spilled coffee on you. (MAXIMIZER)

b. Laura, sorry I’m late. I didn’t know the traffic to your house would be so bad at this

time. (MINIMIZER)

(7) Functions of the intensifier “too”

a. I’m sorry. I was too careless. (MAXIMIZER)

b. Sorry, it was just too hot. (MINIMIZER)

Following most speech act studies, we adopt the terms set up by the CCSARP’s

(Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper, 1989) framework and Trosborg’s (1995) coding system in

our categorization of the modality markers. Four types of upgraders (Emotional

Expressions, Adverbials, Repetitions, Lexical/Phrasal Intensification) and four types of

downgraders (Downtoners, Understaters, Hedges, Hesitators) were observed from our

corpus3. While the four types of downgraders invariably function as MINIMIZERs, the

two upgraders Emotional Expressions and Adverbials were found to serve as

MAXIMIZERs in some situations and MINIMIZERs in others. Table 3 below sketches

our proposed categorization of the markers, which will be explained and exemplified in (9):

3 We did not include Subjectivizers and Commitment upgraders in our discussion because they

mostly serve to mitigate the impact of attack on the complainer (e.g., I think you are overreacting,

but I am very sorry.) or within the Remedial support (e.g., ‘…but I was just trying to cheer you

up…I’m sure that the right boy is out there waiting for you.’) but did not appear to function as

either MAXIMIZER or MINIMIZER, which were the main concern of this paper.

Page 89:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

82

Table 3: Categorization of modality markers in apology realization

Functions Linguistic features Modality markers

MAXIMIZERs Upgraders

Emotional expressions

Intensifiers (adverbials)

Double intensifiers or intensifier repetitions

Lexical/Phrasal intensification

MINIMIZERs

Upgraders Emotional expressions

Intensifiers (adverbials)

Downgraders

Downtoners (adverbials)

Understaters

Hedges

Hesitators

(9) MAXIMIZERs and MINIMIZERs in Apology Realization:

I. MAXIMIZERs

Upgraders

1. Emotional Expressions: Discourse elements of exclamations such as oh, oh no,

which are used to show the sincerity of the apology or regret.

a. English

Oh my goodness! I have lost your ring! I feel absolutely horrible.

b. Chinese

Tian a! wo hen baoqian dapo zhè dōngxi。

天啊! 我 很 抱歉 打破 這 東西。

Heaven ah! I very sorry break this thing.

‘My goodness! I’m so sorry to break this.’

2. Intensifiers: Adverbials that are normally used to intensify the proposition of an

utterance, e.g., intensifying an expression of regret or embarrassment. Such

intensifiers may appear within or outside the IFID.

Page 90:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

83

a. English

i. I am deeply sorry. This will never happen again. (within an IFID)

ii. I am so dumb. I am so sorry. I will pay for the damages! (not within an IFID)

b. Chinese

i. baoqian,zhenshi baoqian, ni mei zenyang ba (winthin an IFID)

抱 歉, 真是 抱歉, 你 沒 怎樣 吧?

Sorry, really sorry, you not how prt4 ?

‘Sorry, I’m really sorry. Are you alright ?’

ii. duibuqima!wo tai buxiaoxin le, gai zenme ban ? (not within an IFID)

對不起嘛! 我 太 不小心 了, 該 怎麼 辦?

Sorry! I too careless asp5 , should how do?

‘Sorry! I’m too careless. What should we do?’

3. Double/multiple Intensifiers or Repetition of Intensifiers: Use of two intensifying

adverbials in a series or repetition of intensifying adverbials

a. English

Ma’am, I’m so very sorry to have spilled coffee on you.

b. Chinese

duibuqi,xiansheng, wo zhende feichang baoqian。

對不起, 先生, 我 真的 非常 抱歉。

Sorry, sir, I really very sorry.

‘Sorry, sir. I’m really very sorry.’

4. Lexical/Phrasal Intensification: Lexical items which reveal the apologizer’s

attitude; in extreme cases swear words may be used, e.g.

4 Prt: sentence final particles. 5 Asp: aspect

Page 91:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

84

a. English

Oh shit! I’m so sorry! I’ll pay for the damage.

b. Chinese

a! zaogao,zhe duoshao qian?

啊! 糟糕, 這 多少 錢?

Ah! Too bad, this how much money?

‘Ah! Too bad. How much is this?’

II. MINIMIZERs:

Upgraders

1. Emotional Expressions: Discourse elements of exclamations. Contrary to those

that are used as emotional maximizers, these emotional expressions are used to

pacify the hearer or the situation (e.g., to reduce embarrassment), and are thus

referred to as emotional minimizers.

a. English Response

Whoops, excuse me.

b. Chinese Response

ha! wo e le。

哈! 我 餓 了。

Ha! I hungry.

‘Ha! I’m hungry.’

2. Intensifiers: Intensifiers that are used within strategies with which people try to

blame someone or something else in order to minimize the complainable.

a. English

Laura, sorry I’m late. I didn’t know the traffic to your house would be so bad at

this time. I’ll make sure to leave earlier next time.

Page 92:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

85

b. Chinese

buhaoyisi , zhe hen tang , wo mei na hao.

不好意思,這 很 燙, 我 沒 拿 好。

Sorry. This very hot. I don’t take well’

ni shou haihao ba?

妳 手 還好 吧?

Your hand alright Prt?

‘I’m sorry. This is so hot that I didn’t hot it well. Your hand is okay, right?’

Downgraders

1. Downtoner: Adverbial sentence modifiers, such as just, simply, etc. and adverbials

that express tentativeness, e.g. perhaps, maybe, possibly

a. English

I was just trying to cheer you up..

b. Chinese

wo zhishi xiang anwei ni, meiyou eyi.

我 只是 想 安慰 你, 沒有 惡意。

I just want comfort you, no ill will.

‘I just want to comfort you. I didn’t mean any harm.’

2. Understaters: Phrases that under-represent the state of affairs denoted in the

complainable. To exercise the effect of mitigating, understaters often dress

themselves as a part of explanation or account.

a. English

Traffic was a little heavier than expected.

b. Chinese

baoqian,baoqian,youdian guang guotou le,ha ha~.

Page 93:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

86

抱歉, 抱歉, 有點 逛 過頭 了,哈哈~

Sorry, sorry. A little shop over , ha ha~

‘Sorry, sorry. I spent a little too much time shopping. Ha ha ~.’

3. Hedges: Adverbials by means of which the complainee avoids a precise

propositional specification, e.g. kind of, sort of, somehow, etc.

a. English

Dr. Hull, I'm so sorry. I can't believe this. Somehow the file isn't saved on your

computer.

b. Chinese

buhaoyisi, wo shangci hoaxing buxiaoxin dai hui

不好意思,我 上次 好像 不小心 帶 回

Sorry. I last time kind of carelessly take back

jia le。wo keyi mingtian jiao gei ni ma?

家 了。 我 可以 明天 交 給 你 嗎?

home . I can tomorrow give towards you Prt ?

‘I kind of brought it home last time accidentally. May I bring it back to you

tomorrow?’’

4. Hesitators: By hesitating in explanation or account, the apologizer may sound

more pathetic or appear to be innocent, thus the purpose of mitigating the blame

might be fulfilled.

a. English

I…I….

b. Chinese

e,buhaoyisi!

ㄜ,不好意思!

Page 94:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

87

Er, sorry!

‘Er, I’m sorry!’

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Modality Markers in the Four Participant Groups

A total of 8049 strategies (coded according to a revised system of Trosborg’s (1995))

were obtained from the 3600 DCT responses provided by our four participant groups. As

for the use of modality markers, altogether the four groups yielded 1649 occurrences of the

markers. Table 4 below exhibits the number and average of modality markers used per

strategy by the four groups respectively.

Table: 4 Number and frequency of modality markers used by the four groups

Number and Frequency of modality

markers

Groups

NS-E EFL

NS-C H L

Total number of modality markers 748 217 195 484

Total number of apology strategies 1973 919 843 1749

Average of modality markers used

per strategy 0.3791 0.2361 0.2313 0.2773

Note: NS-C =Native speaker of Chinese; NS-E = Native speaker of English; EFL-H: English

majors; EFL-L =non-English majors

On the whole, the English NS group used modality markers significantly more

frequently than did the Chinese NS group. Statistical results computed by Independent

Sample T-test show that the difference between the two NS groups reached a significant

level (T =2.223, p<.05). As for the two EFL learners, results of One-Way ANOVA and

further tests by Scheffe Post Hoc show that both the H and L groups used significantly fewer

modality markers than did native English speakers (F=12.687, p<.001) and than when they

expressed apology in Chinese, indicating certain linguistic difficulty Taiwanese EFL learners

Page 95:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

88

might encounter when trying to modify their tone of an apology. Such results lend support

to previous findings that linguistic features used to modulate the tone of an apology is

indeed a problematic area that constantly troubles L2 learners (Cohen and Olshtain, 1981;

Olshtain and Cohen, 1983; Trosborg, 1995). As for the effect of proficiency or target

language exposure, our results echo those obtained in Trosborg (1987, 1995) in that the

markers yielded by our EFL-H group outnumbered those obtained from their EFL-L

counterparts. Figure 2 below demonstrates the cross-cultural comparison and the

“underuse” pattern of the interlanguage.

0

10

20

30

40

NS-E EFL-H EFL-L NS-C

Figure: 2 Overall frequency of modality markers by the four g roups

5.2 MAXIMIZERs vs. MINIMIZERs

When the proportion of both kinds of modality markers was examined, the four groups

revealed similar patterns; that is, they all used more MAXIMIZERs than MINIMIZERs as

exhibited in Table 5 below. The graphic representation in Figure 3 captures this universal

preference of MAXIMIZERs over MINIMIZERs in making apologies among the four

participant groups.

Page 96:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

89

Table 5 Number and frequency of MAXIMIZERs and MINIMIZERs used by the four groups

MAXIMIZERs vs.

MINIMIZERs per strategy

Groups

NS-E EFL

NS-C H L

n % n % n % n %

MAXIMIZERs 629 30.40 161 17.57 156 18.01 332 19.76

MINIMIZERs 119 5.75 56 6.11 39 4.50 152 9.10

Note: NS-C =Native speaker of Chinese; NS-E = Native speaker of English; EFL-H: English majors;

EFL-L =non-English majors

Figure 3: Proportion of MAXs vs. MINs in the four language groups

0

10

20

30

40

NS-E EFL-H EFL-L NS-C

Maximizer

Minimizer

Such results might be used to support the claim that apology is a universal speech act

(Cohen, Olshtain and Rosenstein, 1986) in the strategic level. That is, people across

different cultures share the same opinion that when caught up in a complainable occasion

that disturbs the social equilibrium, one should always try to make peace again.

MAXIMIZERs vs. MINIMIZERs and Upgraders vs. Downgraders

Table 6 below displays the numbers and frequencies obtained from each group with

regard to their use of each type of modality markers according to our proposed coding

system:

Page 97:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

90

Table 6: Numbers and frequencies of each type of modality markers used by the four groups

Functions Linguistic

Devices Modality markers

NS-E EFL-H EFL-L NS-C

n % n % n % n %

MAX Upgraders

Emotional

expressions 184 9.32 47 5.11 63 7.47 80 4.57

Intensifiers 415 21.03 100 10.88 86 10.20 170 9.71

Double

intensifiers 24 1.21 11 1.19 5 0.59 72 4.11

Lexical/Phrasal

intensification 6 0.3 3 3.26 2 0.23 10 0.57

Sum 629 31.8 161 17.51 156 18.50 332 18.98

MIN

Upgraders

Emotional

expressions 42 2.12 16 1.74 14 1.66 45 2.63

Intensifiers 28 1.41 21 2.28 12 1.43 53 3.03

Downgraders

Downtoners 27 1.36 12 1.30 9 1.06 18 1.02

Understaters 18 0.91 2 0.21 3 0.35 27 1.54

Hedges 4 0.20 1 0.10 0 0 3 0.17

Hesitators 0 0 4 0.43 1 0.11 6 0.34

Sum 119 6.03 56 6.09 39 4.62 152 8.74

Total 748 37.91 217 23.61 195 23.13 484 27.73

Note:

1. MAX: MAXIMIZER; MIN: MINIMIZER

2. %: number of modality markers/number of strategies used

As can be noted from the table above, although the function of “maximizing the

apology” is invariably realized by upgraders, both upgraders and downgraders were used to

“minimize the complainable”. In fact, most of the MINIMIZERs were actually upgraders

rather than downgraders, and this is true for all of the four language groups examined in the

study as illustrated by Table 7 and Figure 4 below, which display the numbers and

Page 98:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

91

percentages of upgraders vs. downgraders used as MINIMIZERs found among the four

language groups respectively.

Table 7: Number and frequency of upgraders vs. downgraders used as MINIMIZERs

by the four language groups

N and % of MINIMIZING Upgraders vs. Downgraders

NS-E EFL

NS-C H L

N % n % n % n % Total Number of MINIMIZERs 119 6.03 56 6.09 39 4.62 153 8.74MINIMIZING Upgraders 70 3.54 37 4.02 26 3.08 99 5.66MINIMIZING Downgraders 49 2.48 19 2.06 13 1.54 54 3.08

Significance T= 1.716,

p=.092 T=2.188*

p=.037 T=1.749 p=.091

T= 3.146** p=.003

Figure 4: Number of Minimizing Upgraders vs. MinimizingDowngraders

0

20

40

60

80

100

NS-E EFL-H EFL-L NS-C

Minimizing Upgraders

MinimizingDowngraders

Such results obviously challenge Trosborg’s (1995) categorization of ‘intensifiers’

solely as a MAXMIZER (or ‘upgrader’ in Trosborg’s term) and support our claim for a

functional-formal distinction in the categorization of modality markers.

5.3 MAXIMIZERs vs. MINIMIZERs and Language Groups

As displayed by Table 4 and Figure 2 above, overall, the English natives produced

Page 99:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

92

significantly more modality markers than did all the other groups. However, further

examination based on our proposed coding framework reveals that such a pattern holds only

for MAXIMIZERs but not for MINIMIZERs. That is, while NS-Es used more modality

markers to maximize the apology than did NS-Cs, NS-Cs on the other hand, used more

MINIMIZERs than NS-Es did to reduce the blame. Statistical results as indicated in Table

8 below show that such differences reach significant levels for both groups. Figure 5

below captures such discrepancies:

Table 8: Frequency of MAXIMIZERs vs. MINIMIZERs for NS-E vs. NS-C

MAXIMIZERs MINIMIZERs Overall

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

NS-E .3212 .15944 .0591 .05673 .3804 .17230

NS-C .2063 .15972 .0963 .08498 .3026 .20918

Sig. T=3.943***, p <.001 T=-2.813**, p<.05 T=2.223*, p<.05

Figure 5: Frequency of MAXIMIZERs vs. MINIMIZERs for NS-Evs. NS-C

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

MAX MIN Overall

NS-E

NS-C

Again, such results cannot be obtained by any of the coding schemes in previous

Page 100:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

93

studies on apology or modality markers. In other words, this significant cross-linguistic

difference will never be revealed if we treat modality markers as a whole without

distinguishing between their forms and functions.

Such a cross-cultural difference between the two NS groups explains why the Chinese

natives generally yielded higher ratings than their NS English counterparts in judging the

“severity” of the DCT situations and “difficulty of apology”. As indicated in Table 9 and

Figure 6 below displaying the overall comparison between the two NS groups’ responses to

the four SRQ questions, the average rating yielded from the NS-C group with regard to the

“severity of the situation” for the DCT scenarios is significantly higher than that obtained

from their NS-E counterparts (T=2.505, p<.05). As such, it was also more difficult for

them to apologize (T=3.099, p<.005) and they were, therefore, less likely to apologize

(T=-6.616***, p<.001)6.

Table 9: Means of the ratings on ‘severity of the situation’, ‘likelihood to apologize’,

‘difficulty of the apology’, and ‘acceptability of the apology’ by NS-C & NS-E

NS-E NS-C

Mean SD Mean SD T value p-value

Severity 3.3067 1.5009 3.4625 1.4293 2.505* 0.012

Difficulty 2.2350 1.3698 2.4192 1.4139 3.099** 0.002

Likelihood 4.4308 1.1407 4.0981 1.2300 -6.616*** 0.000

Acceptability 3.4275 1.3290 3.4837 1.2880 .996 0.312

p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

6 As for the reason why such differences occurred, they will be addressed in detail in another paper

from the socio-psychological perspective.

Page 101:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

94

Figure 6: SRQ ratings by NS-E vs. NS-C

2

Severity Difficulty Likelihood Acceptability

NS-E

NS-C

Another reason for this contrast can be attributed to the NS-Es’ overwhelmingly

frequent use of intensifiers within IFIDs. For the NS-E group, such expressions constitute

more than 50% (383/748=0.5213) of the total number of modifications while for the NS-C

group, less than 37% (179/485=0.3690) of the markers are of this type. The English

natives’ pervasive use of such expressions may be the reason why traditionally only this type

of intensifications was considered in the speech act studies of apologies (Cohen and Olshtain,

1981; Cohen, Olshtain and Rosenstein, 1986; Olshtain and Cohen, 1983; Olshtain, 1989).

5.4 Emotional Expressions and Intensifiers as MAXIMIZERs vs.

MINIMIZERs

Another interesting phenomenon revealed from our analysis of the data in terms of the

proposed coding scheme concerns the distribution of the upgraders Emotional Expressions

and Intensifiers, which were found to function as both MAXIMIZER and MINIMIZER.

As can be observed in Table 10/Figure 7 and Table 11/Figure 8 below, although for

both NS-C and NS-E groups, upgraders were more frequently used as MAXIMIZERs than

as MINIMIZERs, cross-linguistic comparisons reveal that while the NS-Es used these two

markers as MAXIMIZERs more frequently than did the NS-Cs, NS-Cs on the other hand,

used them as MINIMIZERs more often than the NS-Es did. Results of between-group

sample T-tests show that the two L1 groups significantly differ from each other in their use

Page 102:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

95

of Emotional Expressions as MAXIMIZERs. As for Intensifiers, the pattern is even more

interesting: although overall, the NS-Es adopted significantly more intensifiers than did the

NS-Cs (p<.001), when the functions of the modifications are concerned, a reverse pattern

arises when the two groups’ use of such expressions as MINIMIZERs is compared, and such

a cross-linguistic difference also reaches a highly significant level (p<.005). And again,

like the patterns discussed in the sections above, such patterns also cannot be observed

without the functional vs. linguistic distinction of categorization as proposed in this paper.

Table 10: Emotional expressions as MAXIMIZERs vs. as MINIMIZERs

MAX-Emotional MIN-Emotional Emotional-Overall

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

NS-E .0944 .08771 .0228 .05015 .1172 .12101

NS-C .0493 .08211 .0277 .04318 .0771 .10829

Sig. T=2.904**, p <.01 T=-.576, p>.05 T=1.914, p=.058

Figure 7: Frequency of Emotional Expresions as MAXIMIZERvs. as MINIMIZER by NS-E vs. NS-C

0

5

10

15

MAX-EmotionalExpressions

MIN-EmotionalExpressions

Overall

NS-E

NS-C

Page 103:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

96

Table 11: Intensifiers as MAXIMIZERs vs. as MINIMIZERs

MAX-Intensifiers MIN-Intensifier Intensifier-Overall

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

NS-E .2120 .12099 .0130 .02069 .2250 .12087

NS-C .1064 .10224 .0354 .05038 .1418 .12169

Sig. T=5.164***, p <.001 T=3.188*, p>.005 T=3.757***, p<.001

Figure 8: Frequency of Intensifiers as MAXIMIZER vs. asMINIMIZER by NS-E vs. NS-C

0

5

10

15

20

25

MAX-Intensifiers MIN-Intensifiers Overall

NS-E

NS-C

With its pervasive occurrences in our corpus, the modality markers, intensifiers,

deserve a deeper examination, and again, in order to achieve a more comprehensible insight,

intensifiers will be discussed in terms of within vs. not within IFIDs in the following section.

5.5 Intensifiers Within vs. Not Within IFIDs

The significant result revealed from our empirical data that justifies the need for

considering also intensifiers that do not occur within IFIDs is that such intensifiers actually

occur quite frequently, especially among the Chinese natives. As shown in Table 12 below,

more than 38% of the 295 intensifiers obtained from the NS-C group are those that occur not

Page 104:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

97

within IFIDs. Here we include also “double intensifiers” such as those in “so very sorry”7.

Table 12: Number and proportion of intensifiers within vs. not within IFIDs

N and % if intensifiers NS-E EFL NS-C

H L

n % n % n % n %

Within

IFIDs

Single 359 76.87 81 61.36 71 68.93 115 38.98

Repetition 24 5.1 10 7.57 5 4.85 67 22.71

Sum 383 82.01 91 68.93 76 73.78 182 61.69

Not within IFIDs

Single 84 17.98 40 30.30 27 26.21 108 36.61

Repetition 0 0 1 0.75 0 0 5 1.69 Sum 84 17.98 41 31.06 27 26.21 113 38.30

Total Number of 467 100 132 100 103 100 295 100

%: number of markers/total number of intensifiers

As can be also noted in Table 12, such a tendency to use intensifiers not within IFIDs

yielded by Chinese natives seem to have been transferred to their EFL interlanguage as

revealed by their overuse (as compared to the NS-E pattern) of such expressions in their EFL

responses. The same “transfer” pattern can also be observed in the interlanguage pattern of

the use of intensifiers within IFIDs in that the proportions obtained from the EFL groups lie

in-between the NS-E and NS-C groups. See Figure 9 below for this interlanguage pattern

of both types of intensifiers. And as illustrated in Table 13 and Figure 10 below, such a

difference between the two L1 groups is even more drastic if we exclude the double or

multiple intensifications.

7 In such cases, the double intensifiers or multiple intensifiers (e.g., ‘I’m so so so sorry.’) were

counted only once in our coding of the data.

Page 105:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

98

Figure 9: Intensifiers within vs. not within IFIDs (incl.double/multiple intensifiers

0

20

40

60

80

100

NS-E EFL-H EFL-L NS-C

within IFIDs

not within IFIDs

Table 13: Number and proportion of intensifiers within vs. not within IFIDs

(excluding double/multiple intensifiers)

N and % if intensifiers NS-E EFL NS-C

H L

n % n % n % n %

Intensifiers within IFIDs

(excl. repetitions) 359 81.03 81 66.94 71 72.44 115 51.56

Intensifiers not within

IFIDs (excl. repetitions) 84 18.96 40 33.05 27 27.55 108 48.43

Total Number of Intensifiers 443 100 121 100 98 100 223 100

%: number of markers/total number of intensifiers

Page 106:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

99

Figure 10: Intensifiers within vs. not within IFIDs (excl.double/multiple intensifiers)

0

20

40

60

80

100

NS-E EFL-H EFL-L NS-C

within IFIDs

not within IFIDs

Another interesting tendency to be noted in Table 12 is that the Chinese natives used

significantly more repetitions of intensifiers than did the English native group (72:24).

Further examination of the data revealed that the combination of chen-de hen “really very”

in Chinese constitutes more than 80% of the total repetitions of intensifiers within IFIDs

while in English the distribution is more scattered. Besides, while repetitions of intensifier

were also used not within IFIDs in Chinese (for instance, with the strategy “self-blame” such

as “I’m really too careless.”), in our English L1 data, no such combinations were observed.

Compare Tables 14-1 and 14-2, which display the number of occurrence of each type of

intensifier repetition in our Chinese and English L1 data respectively.

Page 107:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

100

Table 14-:1 Repetition of intensifiers in the Chinese L1 data

Intensifiers Strategy Number

Within IFIDs Direct apology Total=72

Chen-de hen ‘really very’

Bao-chien/ dwei-bu-chi / bu-hao-yi-si ‘sorry’

58

Shi-tsai hen ‘truly very’ Shi-tsai-shi hen ‘truly very’

3 2

Chen-de fei-chang ‘really very’ 3

Chen-de shi-fen ‘indeed very’ 1

Not Within IFIDs Self-blame

Chen-shi tai ‘really too’ Bu-xiao xin / tsu xin ‘careless’ 5

Table 14-2: Repetition of intensifiers in the English L1 data

Intensifiers Strategy Number

Within IFID Direct apology Total=24

so so

sorry

7

so very 7

really really 4

very very 2

terribly terribly 1

so very very 2

so so so so so 1

It is worth noting here that this tendency to repeat the IFIDs seems to be a common

practice in Chinese discourse (at least when compared with English), especially in

performing speech acts like apology and thanking. For instance, in making an apology, our

NS Chinese group repeated IFIDs more than four times as often as did their NS English

counterparts (32:7) and the types of combination are also more varied as shown in Table 15

below. Such a tendency in Chinese IFIDs has also been found to be transferred to their

interlanguage as exemplified by expressions such as “Sorry, sorry” yielded from the EFL-Ls,

which is not pragmalinguistically appropriate for English natives.

Page 108:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

101

Table 15: Types and numbers of occurrence of repetition of IFIDs

NS-C NS-E

Dwei-bu-chi! (Chen-de) Dwei-bu-chi!

‘Sorry! (Really) sorry!’

14 Excuse me! I’m sorry! 5

Dwei-bu-chi!( Chen-de/Chen-shi hen)

Bao-chien!

‘Sorry! (really very)Sorry!’

4 I’m sorry. Excuse me. 1

Dwei-bu-chi!Bu-hao-yi-si!

‘Sorry! Sorry!’

1 Sorry. Excuse me. 1

(Hen/ Chen-shi) Bao-chien! ( Chen-shi)

Dwei-bu-chi!

‘(Very/Really)Sorry!(Really)Sorry!’

2

Bao-chien! ( Chen-shi) Bao-chien!

‘Sorry!(Really)Sorry!’

7

Bao-chien! Bu-hao-yi-si!

‘Sorry!Sorry’

1

Bu-hao-yi-si! Bu-hao-yi-si!

‘Sorry!Sorry!’

1

(Chen) Bu-hao-yi-si! Wo dao chien.

‘(Really) Sorry! I apologize.’

1

Bu-hao-yi-si! Dwei-bu-chi!

‘Sorry! Sorry’

1

Total 32 Total 7

EFL-H EFL-L

I’m sorry! I’m sorry! 1 I’m sorry! I’m sorry! 1

Sorry. I’m (really) sorry (for this). 2 Sorry. I’m (so/really) sorry. 3

Sorry. I (really) feel (so) sorry. 1 Sorry. I (really) feel (so) sorry. 1

Sorry. Sorry. 1 Sorry. Sorry. 1

Sorry. Sorry. Sorry 2

Total 5 Total 8

Page 109:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

102

6. CONCLUSION

This study finds its interest in the internal modification of apology realization.

However, rather than following the traditional trend to consider only intensifications within

IFIDs and describe the patterns of modification in terms of upgraders vs. downgraders, we

proposed a coding system that adheres to the functional vs. formal distinction in our analysis

of modality markers. In doing so, we have achieved a more accurate interpretation of and

comprehensible insight into the cross-cultural and cross-linguistic variability of speech act

modifications, which might be ignored when such forms are analyzed in the traditional

fashion.

The first problem discussed in this paper is the applicability of the categorization of the

modality markers into upgraders vs. downgraders across different speech acts. The two

linguistic features were first applied in House and Kasper’s (1981) research to determine the

level of politeness in the speech acts complaint and request in relation to the notion of

“directness” (vs. “indirectness”). Problems may arise when such a distinction between the

two modifying devices is applied to speech acts like apology for which “sincerity” (Trosborg,

1995; Owen, 1983) rather than “directness” is the main concern. Another problem is

revealed even more clearly after certain upgraders were found and proved to function

contradictorily in different contexts (e.g., the “so” in ”I’m so sorry!” and “The coffee was so

hot!”) To overcome the potential confusion and contradiction brought about by the

inappropriate treatment of modifications as discussed above, this paper proposes a new

perspective in viewing modality markers, especially those used in performing the speech act

of apology, with functional categories, namely, MAXIMIZERs vs. MINIMIZERs, each of

which may be realized by either of the linguistic devices upgraders or downgraders. The

function of MAXIMIZERs is to “strengthen the impact of the apology” while the

MINIMIZERs are utilized to lessen the blame and thus make the apologizer “appear less

guilty” (Trosborg, 1995). A series of analysis of the empirical data collected from a

well-controlled speech act study reveals that when this concept of functional classification

for modality markers was put into real practice, more in-depth observations could be made

Page 110:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

103

to yield insightful results that cannot be obtained by any of the coding schemes in previous

studies on apology or modality markers. For example, although NS-Es were found to

produce significantly more modality markers than all the other groups, further examination

revealed that while NS-Es used more modality markers to maximize the apology than did

NS-Cs, NS-Cs on the other hand, used more minimizers than NS-Es to reduce the blame.

As the investigation went further, detailed discrepancies were excavated based on the

proposed coding framework. Concerning the distribution of Emotional Expressions and

Intensifiers, results show that the two NS groups revealed remarkably contrasting

preferences in utilizing these two upgraders for different functions. Other results in support

of the proposed functional scheme concern whether Intensifiers (single and/or double) exist

within IFIDs. As discovered, Chinese natives tended to show a balanced use of Intensifiers

within IFIDs and not within IFIDs. English natives, on the other hand, preferred

Intensifiers within IFIDs. Both groups of EFL learners produced in-between patterns,

which indicate the effect of L1 transfer.

Limitations and Further Studies

Due to space limit, this paper focuses mainly on the argumentation in support of the

proposed coding system. With the rationale for such a coding system well established, we

were able to code the data with higher precision and therefore, yield more plausible account

and obtain more insightful cross-cultural and cross-linguistic observations when discussing

how the contextual factors affect the choice of the modality markers, how the DCT corpus

differ from the role-play data, and how the participants’ perceptions of the apology situations

elicited by the SRQ task interact with their actual responses (which will be elaborated in

another paper).

To validate the proposed idea that modality markers should be analyzed in terms of

both their form and function, this present paper chose to start and deal with what troubled

the authors most—the internal lexical and phrasal modifications in the speech act of apology.

However, as also advocated by a number of speech act researchers, speech act modification

is manifested by not only lexical devices and grammatical structures but also prosodic

Page 111:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

104

features (Bardovi-Harlig and Hartford, 1996; Dittmar and Terborg, 1991; Kasper, 1984;

Holmes, 1984; Wildner-Bassett, 1984). As such, further studies should be done to

encompass other linguistic features in speech act modification in order to gain an even

deeper understanding of this interesting linguistic phenomenon.

Appendix

DCT Scenarios (English Version)

1. Your classmate Laura Johnson is a good student. When you talk about the coming quiz,

she invites you to her house to study together. Somehow, you are late for nearly 10

minutes. (10 minutes late/study: - severity; = status; = distance; female)

2. You are so thirsty that you open a pop while you wait in line to pay the bill. When you

take out your purse, you realize that you are out of money. The cashier guy is waiting.

(No money: - severity; + status; male)

3. You order a hot chocolate at Starbucks. It is so hot that when the lady hands the mug to

you, it slips and burns the lady’s hand. (Burn a lady’s hand: + severity; + status; female)

4. You are in a very famous restaurant filled with many antiques. While you are

appreciating these antiques, you knock down one vase made in the Ming Dynasty and it

breaks! A gentleman comes to see what happened. (Break an expensive vase/restaurant:

+ severity; - status; male)

5. You are going to have lunch with one of your male friends today on campus. Since you

don’t have class this morning, you went to do some shopping first. When you arrive at

the cafeteria, you are 10 minutes late. (10 minutes late/lunch: - severity; = status;

=distance; male)

6. A UPS deliveryman is delivering something to you. Suddenly, your stomach rumbles

very loud. You are sure it is heard. (Stomach rumbles: - severity; + distance; male)

7. You are talking to your best friend David Mckay. Suddenly you start hiccupping very loud.

You almost can’t talk. (Hiccup: - severity; - distance; male)

8. Your best friend Bridget Garfield is complaining about not having a boyfriend. You wish

Page 112:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

105

to cheer her up and tell her that she may be better off on her own. She is surprised that

you say this and tells you she is really hurt. She thinks that you said that because you do

not consider her to be suitable for a male-female relationship. (Say something that hurts

your friend: - severity; -distance; female)

9. You are an excellent driver. Your best friend Andy White has just got his driver’s license.

He invites you to try out his new car since you are an expert. You accepted. However, you are

so concentrated on giving out tips that you hit a street light. Both of you are shocked. (Hit when

Driving: + severity; - distance; male)

10. One of your classmates is getting married. All of the classmates ask to see her wedding

ring. When it’s your turn, you accidentally drop it and can’t find it anywhere! (Drop the

wedding ring: + severity; = status; = distance; female)

11. A few days ago, someone told you that your former high school teacher is a professor in

your college now. Though you never talked with each other before, when you see her on

campus today, you are so excited and want to tell her that you are a student in her former

school. When you present yourself in front of her, however, you can’t recall her name.

(Forget the name: - severity; + status; female)

12. You are in a line waiting to get a movie ticket and you accidentally step on a lady’s foot. (Step on

a lady’s foot: - severity; + distance; female)

13. You are rushing to a class and bump into a lady. She is badly hurt and syas that nobody was ever

so rude to her in her 15 years of teaching in this university. (Bump into a lady: + severity; + status;

female)

14. You are shopping in a department store. You accidentally bump into a gentleman with a

shopping bag. You hear something crash. It is a very expensive vase. (Brake an expensive

vase/department store: + severity; + distance; male)

15. Your classmate Paul Levinson bought a new digital camera. You ask him to let you try it.

However, you carelessly drop it and it breaks! (Break a camera: + severity; = status; =

distance; male)

16. You are drinking coffee in a famous coffee shop. While you are appreciating the street

scene, you knock over your coffee and burn a lady beside you. Her white coat is now

Page 113:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

106

stained. (Coffee on the coat: + severity; + distance; female)

17. Your best friend Vivian Rowing just came back from her trip to Africa and is visiting

you and your family for she misses your family so much. She takes out a mysterious

crystal ball that is said to be magical. You like it so much and ask to hold it. But, it is

really slippery and you drop it and it breaks. (Break the crystal ball: + severity; -

distance; female)

18. You have a meeting with your advisor Dr. Hull. After the meeting you accidentally took

his book home with you. You don’t realize this until you are home. The next day, he asks

you if you have seen his book, but you have forgotten to bring it with you today. (Take

the wrong book: - severity; + status; male)

19. You go to a very important international conference with your advisor Dr. Hull as an

assistant. You are there to make sure things like time arrangement, technical equipment,

etc. are not going to be a problem at the presentation. When the session starts, you

discover his file has not been saved in the computer. He has to make the speech without

the materials he asked you to bring. (Forget the presentation materials: + severity; +

status; male)

20. You are really tired today. You go to McDonald’s for lunch and carelessly order

something you don’t want. Since the girl taking your order has not left yet, you’ve

decided to change your order. (Change order: - severity; - status; female)

Page 114:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

107

Works Cited

Aijmer, K. (1996). Conversational Routines in English Conversation and Creativity. London:

Longman.

Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1999). Exploring the interlanguage of interlanguage pragmatics: A

research agenda for acquisitional pragmatics. Language Learning, 49(4), 677-713.

Beebe, L. M., and Cummings, M. C. (1996). Natural speech act data versus written

questionnaire data: How data collection method affects speech act performance. In S.

M. Gass and J. Neu (Eds.), Speech Acts across Cultures: Challenges to

Communication in a Second Language (pp. 65-86). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Beebe, L. M., and Takahashi, T. (1989). Sociolinguistic variation in face-threatening speech

acts: Chastisement and disagreement. In M. R. Eisenstein (Ed.), The Dynamic

Interlanguage: Empirical Studies in Second Language Variation (pp. 199-218). New

York: Plenum.

Beebe, L. M., Takahashi, T., and Uliss-Weltz, J. (1990). Pragmatics transfer in ESL refusals.

In R. C. Scarcella, E. S. Andersen, and S. D. Keashen (Eds.), Developing

Communicative Competence in a Second Language (pp. 55-73). New York: Newbury.

Bell, A. (1984). Language style as audience design. Language in Society, 13,145-204.

Bergman, M. L., and Kasper, G. (1993). Perception and performance in native and nonnative

apology. In G. Kasper and S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (pp.

82-107). New York: Oxford University Press.

Blum-Kulka, S., House, J. and Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural Pragmatics: Requests and

Apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Blum-Kulka, S., and Olshtain, E. (1984). Request and apologies: Across-cultural study of

speech act realization patterns (CCSARP). Applied Linguistics, 5(3), 196-213.

Blum-Kulka, S., and Olshtain, E. (1986). Too many words: Length of utterance and

pragmatic failure. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 8, 47-61.

Brown, P., and Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage.

Page 115:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

108

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cohen, A. D., and Olshtain, E. (1981). Developing a measure of socio-cultural competence:

The case of apology. Language Learning, 31(1), 113-134.

Cohen, A. D., Olshtain, E., and Rosenstein, D. S. (1986). Advanced EFL apologies: What

remains to be learned. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 62, 51-74.

DeCapua, A. (1998). The transfer of native language speech behavior into a second

language: A basis for cultural stereotypes? Applied Linguistics, 9, 21-35.

Edmondson, W., and House, J. (1981). Let’s Talk and Talk about It. München: Urban and

Schwarzenberg.

Faerch, C., and Kasper, G. (1989). Internal and external modification in interlanguage

request realization. In S. Blum-Kilka, J. House, and G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural

Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies (pp.221-247). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in Public: Microstudies of the Public Order. Harmondsworth:

Penguin.

Gu, Y. (1990). Politeness phenomena in modern Chinese. Journal of Pragmatics, 14(2),

237-257.

Hassall, T. (2003). Requests by Australian learners of Indonesian. Journal of

Pragmatics, 35(12), 1903-1928.

Hill, B., Ide, S., Ikuta, S., Kawasaki, A., and Ogino, T. (1986). Universals of linguistic

politeness: Quantitative evidence from Japanese and American English. Journal of

Pragmatics, 10, 347-371.

Holmes, J. (1989). Sex differences and apologies: One aspect of communicative competence.

Applied Linguistics, 10, 194-213.

Holmes, J. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Longman.

Holmes, J. (1995). Sex differences and apologies: One aspect of communicative competence.

In H. Douglas Brown and Susan T. Gonzo (Eds.), Readings on Second Language

Acquisition (pp. 362-383). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

Holmes, J. (1998). Apologies in New Zealand English. In J. Cheshire and P. Trudgill (Eds.),

The Sociolinguistics Reader (pp.201-239). London: Edward Arnold.

Page 116:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

109

House, J., and Kasper, G. (1981). Politeness markers in English and German. In F. Coulmas

(Ed.), Conversational Routine: Explorations in Standardized Communication

Situations and Prepatterned Speech (pp. 157-185). New York: Mouton.

Hu, H. C. (1944). The Chinese concept of face. American Anthropology, 46, 45-64.

Johnston, B., Kasper, G., and Ross, S. (1998). The effect of rejoinders in production

questionnaires. Applied Linguistics, 19, 157-182.

Kasper, G. (2000). Data collection in pragmatic research. In S. O. Helen (Ed.),

Culturally Speaking: Managing Rapport through Talk across Cultures (pp.

316-341). London and New York: Continuum.

Kasper, G., and Rose, K. R. (1999). Pragmatic and SLA. Annual Review of Applied

Linguistics, 19, 81-104.

Katz, J. J. (1977). Propositional Structure and Illocutionary Force: A Study of the

Contribution of Sentence Meaning to Speech Acts. New York: T. Y. Crowell.

Kwon, J. (2004). Expressing refusals in Korean and in American English. Multilingua, 23,

339-364.

Leech, G. N. (1977). Language and Tact. Trier: Linguistic Agency University of Trier.

Leech, G. N. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman.

Mao, L. R., 1994. Beyond politeness theory: ‘Face’ revisited and renewed. Journal of

Pragmatics, 21, 451-486.

Maeshiba, N., Yoshinaga, N., Kasper, G. and Ross, S. (1996). Transfer and proficiency in

interlanguage apologizing. In S. Gass and J. New (Eds.). Speech Acts across Cultures:

Challenge to Communication in a Second Language (pp.155-187). Berlin: Mouton de

Gruyter.

Murphy, B., and Neu, J. (1996). My grade's too low: The speech act set of complaining. In

S.M. Gass and J. Neu, (Eds.), Speech Acts across Cultures (pp.191-216). Berlin:

Mouton de Gruyter.

Nelson, G. L., Carson, J., Al-Batal, M., and El Bakary, W. (2002). Cross-cultural Pragmatics:

Strategy Use in Egyptian Arabic and American English. Applied Linguistics, 23,

163-189.

Page 117:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

110

Olshtain, E. (1983). Sociocultural competence and language transfer: The case of apology.

In S. Gass and L. Selinker (Eds.), Language Transfer in Language Learning (pp.

232-249). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Olshtain, E. (1989). Apologies across languages. In S. Blum-Kilka, J. House, and G. Kasper

(Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and Apologies (pp.155-173). Norwood, NJ:

Ablex.

Olshtain, E., and and Blum-Kulka, S. (1985). Degree of approximation: Nonnative reactions

to native speech act behavior. In S. Gass and C. Madden (Eds.), Input in Second

Language Acquisition (pp. 303-325). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Olshtain, E., and Cohen, A. (1983). Apology: A speech act set. In N. Wolfson and E. Judd

(Eds.), Sociolinguistics and Language Acquisition (pp. 18-35). Rowley, MA: Newbury

House.

Olshtain, E., and Cohen, A. (1989). Speech act behavior across languages. In H. Dechert and

M. Raupach (Eds.), Transfer in Language Production (pp. 53-68). Norwood, NJ:

Ablex.

Olshtain, E., and Weinbach, L. (1993). Interlanguage features of the speech acts of

complaining. In G. Kasper and S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (pp.

108-122). New York: Oxford University Press.

Owen, M. (1983). Apologies and Remedial Interchanges. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Rintell, E. M., and Mitchell, C. J. (1989). Studying requests and apologies: An inquiry into

method. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, and G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural Pragmatics:

Requests and Apologies (pp. 248-272). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Takahashi, S. (1995). Pragmatic Transferability of L1 Indirect Request Strategies Perceived

by Japanese Learners of English. Unpublished PH.D dissertation of the University of

Hawaii.

Trosborg, A. (1987). Apology strategies in native/non-natives. Journal of Pragmatics, 11,

147-167.

Page 118:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Internal Modifications in Apology Realization:A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization

111

Trosborg, A. (1995), Interlanguage Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints, Apologies. Berlin:

Mouton de Gruyter.

Yu, M. C. (1999). Universalistic and cultural-specific perspectives on variation in the

acquisition of pragmatic competence in a second language. Pragmatics, 9(2), 281-312.

Vollmer, H. J., and Olshtain, E. (1989). The language of apologies in German. In S.

Blum-Kilka, J. House, and G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural Pragmatics: Requests and

Apologies (pp.155-173). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Wolfson, N. (1989). Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL. New York: Newbury House.

Page 119:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Yuh-Huey Lin Po-Chin Ho 興大人文學報第五十期

112

言談行為研究中多層分析之必要性

——以道歉語行之內部修飾語為例

林玉惠* 何博欽**

摘 要

本文點出傳統道歉語行之修飾語的分類方式之潛在問題,並進而提出功能性的修

飾語分類方式。本研究所蒐集之 8049 筆漢語、英語、以及以漢語為母語之英語學習

者的言談情境填充問卷語料分析之結果顯示,許多跨文化差異及中介語之現象,必須

經由本文所提出的功能性之分類方式方能有效的顯現。例如,兩種母語使用者於道歉

時皆使用較多的增強語句特徵,但是比起中文使用者,英語母語使用者運用更多增強

功能的語句特徵。相反的,以中文為母語的使用者比英語母語使用者運用較多規避的

語意特徵。另一方面,中介語言的修飾模式則反映了英語學習者的態度受到了本國文

化思想的影響而比較類似中文。但是因為語言能力的關係,修飾模式中語句特徵的運

用不僅不及英語母語使用者,甚至也低於他們在使用中文時的表現。這些顯著的差異,

皆無法透過傳統的分析方式得知。本文於文末指出,雖然實驗證明語句特徵必須經由

功能性的分類才具備可以反應修飾模式的能力,但是要確實表現語言行為語氣的強

度,不僅需要討論內在修飾模式,外在修飾模式也必須一併被包括。因此,研究完整

的修飾模式應是未來值得努力的方向。

關鍵詞: 言談行為、內在修飾語、道歉語行

* 美國北維州社區大學語言與文學系副教授。 ** 國立中山大學外文系碩士。

Page 120:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 113-142 二○一三年三月

113

Politeness of Japanese Learners in

Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

Chun-mei Chen*

Abstract

This study investigates how politeness of Japanese learners is delivered in their L2

Mandarin inquiry, agreements or disagreements, and how their politeness is perceived by

their instructors and peers in cross-cultural Mandarin classrooms. Based on 60 hours of

video-taping and transcription of Elementary Chinese classroom discourse, in which data

from 3 Mandarin language instructors, 8 Japanese learners, and 36 learners from other

countries were included, Japanese learners have been reported as the most indirect in

classroom inquiry and discussion. Negative responses from Japanese learners have been

reported the least among the elementary-level learners of Mandarin. When pairing with

English-speaking learners of Mandarin in cross-cultural communication, Japanese-speaking

learners of Mandarin have been reported the most cooperative. Discourse analysis of

classroom data has revealed that silence and repairs as are important cues for refusal and

disagreements. The politeness of Japanese learners was further verified by the quantitative

number of the usage of L2 Mandarin hao ‘okay’ and dui ‘right’ in response to the

instructor’s initiation, feedback, or inquiry. The study provides implications for teaching and

learning Chinese as a second language in cross-cultural contexts with specific reference to

L2 learners’ cross-cultural communication.

Keywords: politeness, Japanese learners, Chinese as a second language,

second language classroom, cross-cultural communication

* Associate professor, Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, National Chung Hsing

University.

(收稿日期:102.02.04;通過刊登日期:102.03.15)

Page 121:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

114

1. Introduction

This study investigates how politeness of Japanese learners is delivered in their L2

inquiry, agreements or disagreements, how the politeness of Japanese learners is perceived

by their language instructors and the peer in multicultural language classrooms. Politeness

has received a great deal of attention across a range of fields (Brown and Levinson, 1987;

Lakoff, 1973; Leech, 1983). Diverse criticism or modification focuses on the concepts of

face, face-threatening act, and the factors that determine the production and interpretation of

politeness. Following Brown and Levinson’s (1987) work, politeness can be treated as a

system through which a speaker can minimize the threat to one’s or the other’s face, with the

purpose of avoiding conflict. Brown and Levinson (1987) further propose positive politeness

and negative politeness. Positive politeness includes asserting common ground, displaying

interest, and avoiding disagreement, whereas negative politeness includes being indirect,

minimizing imposition, and giving deference. Japan is characterized as a

‘negative-politeness culture’, because speakers tend to minimize imposition, and use

indirectness and honorifics. Yet, both positive and negative politeness is central to everyday

interaction to varying degrees in Japan. In Japanese, it is often not considered polite to ask

what others want in more formal or impersonal situations, at least not directly (Haugh, 2007).

More examples of indirect inquiry in Japanese have been verified in pragmatic and

cross-cultural studies (Suzuki, 1997; Haugh, 2004, 2005; Haugh and Hinze, 2003; Burdelski,

2010; Ohashi, 2003, 2008). Japanese speakers prefer to use politeness formula rather than

be original (Clancy, 1986). Research in politeness of Japanese-speaking learners in second

language (L2) contexts, specifically Chinese as a second language context, however,

remains undeveloped. What is needed is an analysis of the integration of L2 verbal strategies

of politeness into cross-cultural communication.

While more and more studies on politeness give more consideration to assessment of

appropriateness by the hearers (Eelen, 2001; Mills, 2003; Watts, 2003), the present study

discusses Japanese learners’ politeness strategies with the consideration of the interpretations

Page 122:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

115

and assessments by their Mandarin instructors and peers in cross-cultural language

classrooms. When propositional content is kept constant, the use of more indirect illocutions

will generally result in more politeness (Leech, 1983). There is an intrinsic ranking of

politeness strategies in terms of indirectness (Brown and Levinson, 1987). On the other hand,

it has been found that the extensive use of face-saving silences by Japanese students was

found to be negatively evaluated by Australian lecturers whose response strategies also

resulted in lack of rapport (Nakane, 2006). Face, according to Goffman (1955, 1967), is ‘the

public self image’, reputation, the mutual interest of interlocutors to save, maintain, or

support each other’s face. Face Threatening Acts (FTA) are either avoided or different

strategies are employed. Silence can be used to avoid the imposition, confrontation or

embarrassment which may not be avoided when one uses verbal expression (Jaworski, 1993,

1997; Jaworski and Stephens, 1998; Sifianou, 1997). Silence can be used to perform most of

the politeness strategies (Sifianou, 1997). Silence can be used as an off-record strategy when

it serves as the most indirect form of a speech act (Saville-Troike, 1985; Tannen, 1985).

Silence in a cross-cultural language classroom setting, in the context of Chinese as a second

language, however, needs to be further investigated.

It is widely agreed that researchers need to base their analysis of politeness on the

participants’ behavior and perceptions in relation to the local context of interaction, the

specific institutional context, and the wider cultural context (Holmes and Stubbe, 2003;

Mills, 2003; Watts, 2003). Communication problems are more likely to occur among

participants from different socio-cultural backgrounds, due to gaps in the tacit agreement

among native speakers as to which forms are conventionalized (Sifianou, 1992). Positive

politeness cultures are ones like Australia and America where deference and formality are

seen as an impediment to communication (Brown and Levinson, 1987). Bousfield (2008)

has made attempts to challenge the notion that UK culture is a negative politeness culture

while US culture tends towards positive politeness. Analysts often contrast Asian deference

to the role that deference would play in British culture and therefore make the assumption

that Asian cultures are in general more concerned with status difference and roles in society

than British culture (Mills, 2009). In the present study, the context of L2 Mandarin

Page 123:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

116

classrooms involves its teaching and learning goals, its norms of interaction, and the

understanding of the relationships. Factors such as the cultural backgrounds of the L2

learners and the number of the participants could affect the choices of the politeness

strategies in a classroom setting.

As far as politeness in L2 language learning is concerned, the application of pragmatics

to problems in second language learning is based on the assumption that there are likely

significant differences not only in the structure of languages but in their use (Hymes, 1972).

There is considerable room for cross-cultural misunderstanding, such as German speakers

seem to be significantly less polite in requests and complaints than English speakers (House

& Kasper, 1981). Politeness in classrooms, according to Pavlidou (2001), teachers used

positive politeness strategies for developing cooperative atmosphere of learning, while

students attended to teachers’ negative positive face in orientations of teachers and students.

Because of the roles assigned to the participants in classrooms, teachers do not need to

attend to students’ negative face, while students do not need to attend to the teachers’

positive face. In Haugh and Hinze’s (2004) analyses of ‘face’ in Chinese and English, they

have found that what is common to culture-specific constructs is that they emerge from the

dynamic relationship between “what B thinks A thinks of B”’ and “what A shows A thinks of

B”. In order to describe the cross-cultural usage of ‘politeness’ strategies I believe that an

analysis based on verbal expressions from natural language avoids obscurity. The concern

about the perception of L2 learners’ politeness can be used as the basis for facilitating a

deeper understanding of the interpersonal communication in a cross-cultural classroom

setting.

This study aims to identify politeness strategies of Japanese-speaking learners of

Mandarin employed in cross-cultural classrooms, the perceptions of Japanese learners’

politeness, and the role of politeness at the initial stage of language learning in cross-cultural

classroom communication, which are crucial issues in terms of successful communication

across cultures. This study is important as it focuses on data from university L2 Mandarin

classrooms and the students from diverse cultural backgrounds. It is expected that findings

from the data will provide insights to cross-cultural communication studies, and second

Page 124:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

117

language learning and teaching research.

2. Method

In the present study, 60 hours of video-taping data were collected from 3 language

classrooms of Elementary Chinese I (First-Year Chinese). Participants include 3 Mandarin

language instructors, 8 Japanese learners, and 36 learners from other countries. The target

language in the classrooms was Mandarin, whereas the languages for communication were

English and Mandarin. The data for this study were collected in one university in Taiwan,

including interviews with the peers from different cultural backgrounds who participated in

the recorded sessions. Data consisting case studies will be discussed extensively in this paper.

All the interviews with the language instructors were conducted in Mandarin Chinese, and

the comments were translated into English by the author. Interviews with the peers in the L2

Mandarin classrooms were conducted in both English and Mandarin and later transcribed by

the author.

2.1. Participants

The Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin used as participants in case studies were 4

males and 4 females, aged 18-24. The Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin were either

exchange students or international students in the university. The Japanese-speaking learners

of Mandarin were recorded in three different L2 Mandarin classrooms (Class A, Class B,

and Class C), at the same level of Elementary Chinese. Table 1 is a description of the

Japanese participants in the case studies. All the names were pseudonyms.

Page 125:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

118

Table 1: Japanese participants

Case Participant Sex Age Residency in

Taiwan

(months)

Classes observed

and recorded

Number of

the peers

1 Ayako F 21 2 Class A 7-8

2 Chieko F 24 8 Class B 12-13

3 Emi F 21 6 Class C 18-20

4 Natsumi F 18 6 Class C 18-20

5 Kenji M 22 6 Class B 12-13

6 Masumi M 23 2 Class A 7-8

7 Naoki M 24 6 Class B 12-13

8 Shuji M 21 2 Class C 18-20

In Class A, the language course was conducted three hours per day, five days per week.

In Class B and Class C, the language course was conducted three hours per week. Among

the eight Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin, two had no learning experience of

Mandarin before they arrived in Taiwan, and they were enrolled in Class A. Japanese

participants enrolled in Class B and Class C had learned Mandarin for at least three months

in Japan. All of them had stayed in Taiwan for less than one year at the time of classroom

observation, video-recording, and data collection.

The peers participated in this study were first-year learners of the Mandarin language

from thirteen countries, including the United States, Canada, South Africa, Germany, Poland,

Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy, Indonesia, Korea, Thailand, Australia, and Ukraine. All of

them were L2 learners of Mandarin at elementary level.

Language instructors in the three L2 Mandarin classrooms were in their late 30s and

had at least 10 years of experience teaching Mandarin Chinese as a second language in

college-level programs. Consent forms were obtained prior to the recordings of their

classroom teaching, and interviews were conducted at the end of the course. The three

Mandarin instructors were coded as Instructor A, Instructor B, and Instructor C in the

Page 126:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

119

transcription. For certain types of politeness, such as silences or voidance of disagreement,

the interview data provide valuable information concerning the perceptions of Japanese

participants’ reasons for politeness in L2 Mandarin classrooms.

2.2. Procedure

The participants were video-recorded in their L2 Mandarin classrooms. Each language

classroom was recorded at least four times every month during one semester. Pairing

dialogues, conversation, and role plays were tape-recorded, with regular classroom

observations of the investigator.

The investigator did not interfere in the classroom discourse but was either standing

behind the video-camera, or sitting quietly in a corner of the room. The Japanese participants

and their peers were engaged in various kinds of classroom tasks.

A set of questionnaire was filled by the language instructors and the peers at the end of

the semester. Questions in the survey include polite and impolite verbal expressions in L2

Mandarin, their interactions with Japanese learners, and their perceptions of Japanese

learners’ politeness. Interviews were also conducted along with the questionnaire survey.

2.3. Linguistic forms of politeness in L2 Mandarin

Data recorded from classroom discourse were transcribed. Linguistic forms concerning

politeness delivery were targeted. In any token-identifying procedure, there is a certain

degree of subjective interpretation. To get some indication of the reliability of the

identification, the politeness linguistic forms were double-checked with the language

instructors who participated in the recording. A random selection of the total tokens of

linguistic forms of politeness was confirmed by the language instructors, with an agreement

in 95% of the cases. Linguistic forms received disagreed judgements were excluded from

the analyses. Linguistic forms of politeness in Japanese learners’ L2 Mandarin include: hao

‘okay’, dui ‘right’, buhaoyisi ‘excuse me/I’m feeling embarrassed’, duibuqi ‘excuse me,

sorry’, xiexie ‘thank you’, etc. The question cases include examples where it is impossible to

determine the function of a particle, as in wo shi B ma ‘Am I (playing) B (part)’, where it is

Page 127:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

120

difficult to determine whether or not the particle has an inquiry intention.

3. Findings

As all student participants in the present study were first-year learners of Mandarin,

silence and pauses were often used as a strategy to avoid loss of face. Insufficient language

proficiency and second language anxiety generally resulted in lack of voluntary participation

in elementary-level classroom of Chinese as a second language. Japanese-speaking learners

of Mandarin, though with the advantage of reading and writing Chinese characters, often

hesitated to express their verbal opinions or initiating a dialogue in L2 Mandarin classrooms

unless assigned. The three Mandarin instructors in the classrooms usually had to initiate a

dialogue, had their students warm up to asking each other questions and pair off, and

continue to content explanation, followed by role-play or dialogue/narrative presentation. In

the following transcription of classroom interaction and interviews, all the names of the L2

learners from other countries were pseudonyms.

L2 learners of Mandarin are socialized into politeness through the use of the target

language. In general, verbal routines are crucial to language learning. However, due to the

lack of language proficiency, elementary-level L2 learners occasionally used either English

or their mother tongue in classroom face-to-face interaction.

Interaction excerpt 1 is an example of a Japanese-speaking learner of Mandarin

speaking English in L2 Mandarin classroom, to accommodate her English-speaking peer.

The instructor asked the Japanese student Ayako (Case 1) to get acquainted with Anne, also

a beginner of L2 Mandarin from the United States.

[Interaction excerpt 1]

1 Ayako: (In English) Hello, your name?

2 Anne: Anne...and your name…?

3 Ayako: (silence) Ayako…so…in Japanese…

4 Anne: Nice to meet you.

5 Ayako: (long silence) thank you… (silence) nice to meet you.

Page 128:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

121

In the excerpt 1, it is interesting to see Ayako initiated the dialogue in English and

responded to ‘nice to meet you’ with ‘thank you’, though the instructor encouraged the

students to use Mandarin in the classroom. It seemed that Ayako made attempts to express

her gratitude for the comment or expression of ‘nice’ and finally end the conversation with

‘nice to meet you’. Silence in the conversation seemed to indicate the anxiety of Ayako

when using English to communicate with a native speaker.

The frequent usage of ‘thank you’ in the verbal expression of the Japanese-speaking

learner Ayako was attested in another pair dialogue with a student Phanit from Thailand. The

following excerpt illustrated Ayako’s preference for polite form in her L2 Mandarin.

[Interaction excerpt 2]

1 Phanit: Ni hao.

‘Hello.’

2 Ayako: Ni hao.

‘Hello.’

3 Phanit: Ni hao ma?

you good PT

‘How are you?’

4 Ayako: ni hao, >xie xie.<

‘hello, thank you.’

5 Phanit: Ni jiao sheme mingzi?

you call what name

‘What’s your name?’

6 Ayako: Wo jiao Ayako, wo shi Ribenren,

I call Ayako I am Japanese

‘My name is Ayako, and I am Japanese.’

7 >buhaoyisi<, ni ne?

excuse me you PT

‘Excuse me, and you?’

Page 129:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

122

8 Phanit: Wo jiao Phanit.

I call Phanit

‘My name is Phanit.’

9 Ayako: >Xie xie.<

‘Thank you.’

Ayako, described by her peers Anne (excerpt 1) and Phanit (excerpt 2) in later

interviews as often expressing a polite attitude to her classmates, delivered her politeness in

her delayed inquiry. Both Anne and Phanit agreed that working with Ayako in pair dialogues

was a very pleasant experience and could ease their L2 anxiety.

In the following excerpt, Instructor A asked Ayako to work with Rumpai, a female

student from Thailand, because Rumpai did not know the name of Ayako yet. Ayako realized

that she did not make Rumpai have a chance to know her name, and she initiated the

dialogue with ‘I did not intend to’, followed by ‘sorry’. The purpose of the dialogue was to

know each other’s name. Ayako refrained from making an inquiry by filling the gap with

laughter and polite verbal form of ‘sorry’ in Mandarin. Finally, Rumpai took the turn by

asking the name of Ayako. Rumpai described the experience as being treated ‘politely’, as

getting to know each other required mutual agreement and cooperation. “Ayako did not need

to say ‘sorry’ in this case”, said Rumpai.

[Interaction excerpt 3]

1 Ayako: wo meiyou a…

I no PT

‘I did not intend to…’

2 Rumpai: Oh, (laughter)

3 Ayako: (laughter) >Duibuqi.<

‘Sorry.’

4 Rumpai: Ni jiao sheme mingzi?

you call what name

‘What’s your name?’

Page 130:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

123

When pairing with English-speaking learners of Mandarin in classroom activities,

Japanese learners have been reported the most cooperative and never delivering refusal, as

pointed out by Instructor A and Instructor B. Negative responses from Japanese learners

have been reported the least among the elementary learners in Class A and Class B. Another

Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin, Chieko (Case 2), who had learned Mandarin in

Japan and had lived in Taiwan for eight months at the time of recordings, delivered her

agreements in the excerpt below. Laura was an English-speaking learner of Mandarin from

Canada.

[Interaction excerpt 4]

1 Laura: (In English) Chieko, you play the boy’s part.

2 Chieko: Okay.

3 Laura: I read this part, and you read the other part…the longer part.

4 Chieko: Okay.

5 Laura: I’ll go first.

6 Chieko: Okay.

(Instructor B walked to Laura and Chieko.)

7 Laura: (silence) Ni xihuan kan…kan dianying ma?

you like see see movie PT

‘Do you like to see movies?’

8 Chieko: Dui dui dui (nodding), wo xihuan kan dianying,

right right right I like see moive

‘Right, right, right, I like to see movies.’

9 Wo…… ye xihuan kan dianshi,

I also like watch TV

‘I also like to watch TV.’

10 Dianying, dianshi, wo dou xihuan.

movie TV I both like

‘I like both movies and TV.’

Page 131:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

124

11 >Xie xie.<

‘Thank you.’

It is interesting to see the language shift from line 7, after Instructor B walked to Laura

and Chieko. As all the Mandarin instructors encouraged their students to use Mandarin as

much as possible, L2 learners in the classrooms had to speak Mandarin in front of their

instructors, though they occasionally spoke English or their mother tongue when the

instructors were not standing aside. Chieko accepted all the requests made by Laura and

responded in English to show her cooperation, though by saying ‘okay’ she had to be in

charge with the longer part in the conversation. No negotiation or request was found in the

interaction with Laura. In line 8, Chieko positively answered Laura’s question with nodding,

which was not found in Laura’s or any other English-speaking learner’s response. Chieko

ended the conversation with ‘thank you’, which was described by Laura in her later

interview as ‘kind and polite’. Laura also commented Chieko’s nonverbal nodding and

described Chieko’s nodding as ‘adorable’ politeness.

Chieko’s verbal agreement shown in excerpt 4 above did not indicate her overall

deference in L2 Mandarin classrooms. Another day, Chieko was assigned to finish a

role-play with David, a classmate from Australia, in front of the whole class. David had no

idea about what was going on due to his absence of the previous class. Chieko seemed to

take the major turns in the conversation, as shown in the following excerpt.

[Interaction excerpt 5]

1 David: (long silence)……

2 Chieko: He bu xihuan me…(laughter)

he NEG like me

‘He (David) doesn’t like me (code-switching).’

3 Ta bu xihuan wo…

he NEG like me

‘He (David) doesn’t like me.’

4 David: NO!!! (English)

Page 132:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

125

5 Chieko: Dui dui dui, ni bu xihuan wo.

right right right you NEG like me

‘Right, right, right, you don’t like me.’

6 Dui bu dui ?

right NEG right

‘Right?’

7 Instructor B:David, ni shi Li xiansheng,

David you are Li gentleman

‘David, you are (play the role of) Mr. Li.’

8 Chieko shi nide pengyou.

Chieko is your friend

‘Chieko is your friend.’

9 Chieko: Dui (nodding), ni shi Li xiansheng.

right you are Li gentleman

‘Right, you are Mr. Li.’

10 Wo shi nide pengyou, >qing duo zhijiao.<

I am your friend please more give advice

‘I am your friend. Please give me more advice.’

11 David: Okay. Wo dong le.

okay I understand LE

‘Okay, I got it.’

12 Chieko: Hao, >xie xie.<

okay thank you

‘Okay, thank you.’

Before David got the rule of the role-play, he kept silent. Chieko took the chance to

play a joke on David by saying ‘he doesn’t like me’ in semi-English and Mandarin. Chieko

delivered her positive answer with nodding again, as indicated in line 9. Chieko had lived in

Taiwan for eight months and learned qing duo zhijiao ‘please give me more advice’ from her

Page 133:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

126

Taiwanese friends. Although Chieko was the one who gave real ‘advices’ to David, she

modestly introduced the rule in the role-play on a different footing. Chieko ended the

conversation with ‘thank you’ again. In later interviews with David, he commented on

Chieko’s response and positively confirmed Chieko’s verbal and nonverbal politeness. He

appreciated Chieko’s cooperation and humor.

When refusing to take an assignment, Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin often

delivered their intention indirectly. The following excerpt shows Case 3 Emi’s disagreement.

Case 3 Emi was assigned to finish a pair dialogue with Paul, a classmate from the United

States.

[Interaction excerpt 6]

1 Instructor C: (to Case 3 Emi) Ni shi Wang xiansheng.

you are wang gentleman

‘You are Mr. Wang.’

2 Emi: (long silence)

(Emi was looking at the Paul and another classmate in front of her.)

3 Wo shi….Wang xiansheng…Wang xiansheng.

I am Wang gentleman Wang gentleman

‘I am Mr. Wang…..Mr. Wang.’

4 Paul: Wang xiaojie.

Wang lady

‘Miss Wang.’

5 Emi: Wang xiaojie…dui…Wang xiaojie.

Wang lady right Wang lady

‘Miss Wang. Right, Miss Wang.’

As there were 18-20 students in Class C, Instructor C had to finish pairing off within a

very short time. She did not notice the gender of her student and the role in the dialogue did

not match in Emi’s case. She randomly assigned Emi to play the role of Mr. Wang.

Obviously, Emi did not agree with her instructor’s assignment but did not deliver a direct

Page 134:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

127

refusal or made any correction. After a long silence, she repeated the key word ‘Mr. Wang’.

It was Paul who figured out the ‘conflict’ and repaired the role of Emi. It can be seen from

the excerpt above that silence and repairs are important cues for refusal and disagreements in

Emi’s L2 Mandarin.

On the other hand, silence without any repairs may indicate the lack of L2 proficiency

in other L2 learner’s discourse in the classroom, as shown in the excerpt below. Case 4

Natsumi was assigned to finish a pair dialogue with Michael, a classmate from South Africa.

[Interaction excerpt 7]

1 Natsumi: >Duibuqi<, qing wen, nimen xuexiao zai nali?

excuse me please ask you (pl.) school ZAI where

‘Excuse me. May I ask: where is your school?’

2 Michael: (long silence)…

3 Natsumi: >Buhaoyisi<, qing wen, nimen xuexiao zai nali?

excuse me please ask you (pl.) school ZAI where

‘Excuse me. May I ask: where is your school?’

4 Michael: Zai Taizhong.

ZAI Taiching

‘In Taichung.’

5 Natsumi: >Xie xie.<

‘Thank you.’

Natsumi initiated the dialogue by asking Michael a question and ended the dialogue

with ‘thank you’, after the short answer from Michael. In line 3, Natsumi repeated his

questions, starting with ‘excuse me’ in response to Michael’s long silence, which was

considered ‘a very polite expression’ in later interviews with Michael.

Japanese learners have been reported by their instructors as most conservative in

inquiry and presentation. In the following excerpt, Instructor B checked the written answers

of Case 5 Kenji in a blank-filling task and asked Kenji to work together with Martin, a

classmate from the Czech Republic. It was found that Kenji preferred checking answers on

Page 135:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

128

his own, as shown in line 4. It was Martin who confessed his insufficient mastery in the

‘tension’, as indicated by Kenji’s long silence in line 4. Kenji, though later figured out the

error, delivered his verbal hesitation to present his hand writing to Martin. According to

Instructor B, Kenji’s characters were very neat and beautiful. Instructor B commented on

Kenji’s verbal response and stated Kenji was too modest in later interviews.

[Interaction excerpt 8]

1 Instructor B: Zhe ge bu dui.

this MW NEG right

‘This one is incorrect.’

2 Kenji: >Duibuqi.<

sorry

‘I am sorry.’

3 Instructor B: Ni zhidao nali bu dui ma?

you know where NEG right PT

‘Do you know which part is incorrect?’

4 Kenji: (long silence)

(Kenji kept typing on his digital dictionary pad while Martin, sitting

next to Kenji, was asking the following question.)

5 Martin: Laoshi, wo ye bu hui xie zhe ge zi.

teacher I also NEG can write this MW word

‘Teacher, I can’t write this character either.’

6 Instructor B: (Turned to Martin) Hao, wo xie zai zheli.

okay I write ZAI here

‘Okay, I write it here.’

(Instructor B wrote the correct form on Martin’s sheet. Kenji took a look at

Martin’s sheet.)

7 Kenji: Hai (in Japanese)…wo dong le.

yes I understand LE

Page 136:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

129

‘Yes, I got it.’

8 Martin: Wo bu dong.

I NEG understand.

‘I don’t understand’

9 Instructor B: Kenji, ni keyi xie yi ci ma?

Kenji you can write one time PT

‘Kenji, can you write it once (for Martin)?’

10. Kenji: >Buhaoyisi<, wo xie de bu haokan.

embarrassed I write DE NEG good-looking

‘I feel embarrassed. My character is not beautiful.’

(Keiji then wrote the character on Martin’s sheet.)

Japanese learners often said ‘excuse me’ even when it was not necessary. In the

following excerpt, Case 6 Masumi was assigned to finish a pair dialogue with Frank, a

classmate from Germany. Before answering ‘I am very busy’, Masumi said ‘excuse me’,

which was considered redundant and ‘too polite’ in later interviews with Frank. “In German,

we are very direct. I am very busy, and it is true. No excusing me.”, said Frank. Masumi also

ended the dialogue with ‘thank you.’

[Interaction excerpt 9]

1 Frank: (silence) Ni mang bu mang?

You busy NEG busy

‘Are you busy?’

2 Masumi: >Duibuqi<, wo hen mang. Ni ne?

excuse me, I very busy you PT

‘Excuse me, I am very busy. And you?’

3 Frank: (silence) Wo bu mang.

I NEG busy

‘I am not busy.’

4 Masumi: >Xiexie<

Page 137:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

130

‘Thank you.’

When being corrected by their instructors, most L2 learners repeated the correct form in

the following turn. Japanese learners, however, liked to say ‘sorry’ to their instructors. In the

following excerpt, Case 7 Naoki was assigned to finish a pair dialogue with Niran, a

classmate from Thailand. Both Naoki and Niran were corrected by their instructor on their

third tone. Naoki said ‘sorry’ first before he made a correction with a soft voice. Niran, a

Thai-speaking learner, simply repeated the word with a wrong tone. Instructor B sated in

later interviews that Naoko did not need to say sorry when he produced the wrong tone, as

making tonal errors was very common among the L2 learners of Mandarin.

[Interaction excerpt 10]

1 Naoki: Qing wen, ni xihuan he jiu ma?

please ask you like drink alcohol PT

‘May I ask: do you like to drink alcohol?’

(Instructor B interrupted Naoki.)

2 Instructor B: Naoki, jiu shi disan sheng.

Naoki, alcohol is third tone

‘Naoki, the word alcohol is with the third tone.’

3 Naoki: >Duibuqi<, ni xihuan he jiu ma (soft voice)?

Sorry you like drink alcohol PT

‘I am sorry. Do you like to drink alcohol?’

(soft voice)

4 Niran: Wo bu xihuan he jiu.

I NEG like drink alcohol

‘I don’t like to drink alcohol.’

(Instructor B interrupted Niran.)

5 Instructor B: Niran, jiu shi disan sheng.

Niran, alcohol is third tone

‘Niran, the word alcohol is with the third tone.’

Page 138:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

131

6 Niran: (long silence) jiu (with the wrong tone)

alcohol

‘Alcohol.’ (with the wrong tone)

Shuji, a male Japanese student in Class C, was confirmed by his classmates and the

instructor as a chorus member in Japan. However, he also delivered his verbal hesitation

when being asked to present his singing in front of the whole class. In the following excerpt,

Case 8 Shuji was assigned to finish a conversation with Emma, a classmate from Canada, in

front of the whole class. Emma made a request all of a sudden. Though verbal agreement

was not attested in the excerpt, Shuji finally accepted Emma’s requests and presented his

singing.

[Interaction excerpt 11]

1 Emma: Shuji, tingshuo ni change hen haoting.

Shuji, heard you sing very melodious

‘Shuji, I heard your singing sounds nice.’

2 Shuji: (silence) Etto (in Japanese)…meiyou …meiyou.

and no no

‘Umm…no…no.’

3 >Buhaoyisi<, bu haoting … bu ting.

embarrassed NEG melodious NEG melodious

‘I feel embarrassed. (My singing) doesn’t sound nice

…doesn’t sound nice.’

4 Emma: Ni jiao women chang Riwen ge, hao ma?

you teach us sing Japanese song good PT

‘You teach us Japanese songs, all right?’

5 Shuji: >Duibuqi<, wo chang de bu hao…

sorry I sing DE NEG good

‘I am sorry. My singing is not good.’

6 Emma: No, hen hao.

Page 139:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

132

no, very good

‘No, (your singing is) very good.’

(Other students applauded and asked Shuji to sing a Japanese song.)

7 Shuji: >Duibuqi<, zhengde bu haoting.

sorry really NEG melodious

‘I am sorry. (My singing is) really not good.’

(Shuji then sang a Japanese song.)

Emma recalled this experience in later interviews and described Shuji as being too

polite and too shy. Emma thought Shuji would not take her request, as he kept saying ‘my

singing is not good’, which was considered as a rejection in Emma’s language. Emma was a

little surprised when Shuji sang a song after the verbal hesitation.

Japanese learners’ tendency toward deferential behavior was not always positively

evaluated by all the instructors in L2 Mandarin classroom. In cross-cultural L2 Mandarin

classrooms, the deference, delayed inquiry, indirectness, silence, hesitation in class

presentation of Japanese learners could be a burden in accelerating their language

proficiency. The following interview excerpts show the instructor’s comments.

[Interview excerpts]

Instructor A:

(1) “Ayako always agrees with what I say in class without any comments.” (Case 1)

(2) “Ayako seldom asked me any question and did not volunteer in question-initiation. I

think she is too polite…” (Case 1)

(3) “Masumi is very polite and often says thank you. But I think he should talk more in

class.” (Case 6)

Instructor B:

(4)“Chieko often says hao ‘okay’ or dui ‘right’ (agreements), or English okay during

classroom activities.” (Case 2)

(5) “Chieko is very polite and often says words with smile and nodding in a softening

voice.” (Case 2)

Page 140:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

133

(6) “Kenji often feels embarrassed. His Mandarin is good, compared with the other

students in my class. He is very modest, and I think he should do more oral

presentations.” (Case 5)

(7) “Naoki is a gentleman. He should speak Mandarin loudly and confidently. He is very

quiet and never interrupts his classmates and me in the class.” (Case 7)

Instructor C:

(8) “I felt that Emi would have been happy to be in the corner and kept silence.” (Case

3)

(9) “Emi is very quiet and always follows my imperatives without any opinions.”(Case 3)

(10) “When Natsumi pronounced the words during the routine drills, I could hardly hear

her voice. I asked her to repeat again, but she did not seem to raise her voice.”

(Case 4)

(11) “Shuji often responds to my proposal with positive answers, and he says xie xie

‘thank you’ to me very often. (Case 8)

In addition to the instructor’s comments, deferential behaviour of Japanese-speaking

learners of Mandarin toward their instructors were verified by the quantitative number of the

usage hao ‘okay’ and dui ‘right’ in the responses to their instructor’s initiation, feedback, or

inquiry. Based on 15 hours of video recordings from Week 4 to Week 8, the verbal tokens of

hao ‘okay’ and dui ‘right’ between Japanese-speaking and English-speaking learners of

Mandarin were compared, as illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2: Number of positive answer tokens from L2 learners

L2 Learners hao ‘okay’ dui ‘right’

Japanese-speaking learners

(n=8)

68 102

English-speaking learners

(n=8)

48 51

Total (N=16) 116 153

Page 141:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

134

Obviously, Japanese-speaking learners of Mandairn used dui ‘right’ much more often

than English-speaking learners of Mandarin in the interactions with the language instructors.

The deferential expression of ‘non-negotiation’ could be considered as the politeness

strategy of Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin. By delivering a positive answer in their

L2 Mandarin, they can minimize the threat to their instructor’s face in a classroom setting.

4. Discussion

The findings reported above have revealed the polite patterns of Japanese-speaking

learners of Mandarin in cross-cultural classrooms. The frequent usage of L2 Mandarin

‘thank you’ and ‘excuse me’ in the verbal expressions among the Japanese learners was

attested in the classroom discourse. The politeness of Japanese learners could ease the

anxiety of some L2 learners at the initial stage of language learning in cross-cultural

classroom communication, at least for those from English-speaking and Thai-speaking

cultures. Japanese learners have been reported most cooperative and often say hao ‘okay’

and dui ‘right’. The positive agreements and indirectness in disagreements of Japanese

learners prevented the face loss of their peers and their instructors. Interviews with the peers

from other countries have shown that working with Japanese learners in pair dialogues was a

very pleasant experience. Japanese learners’ verbal and nonverbal politeness was also

confirmed by German-speaking and Czech-speaking learners of Mandarin. Japanese

speakers prefer to use politeness formula rather than be original (Clancy, 1986). This study

reconfirms the politeness of Japanese-speaking learners, in the context of cross-cultural

Mandarin classrooms.

On the other hand, politeness strategies of Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin in

response to the language instructors include positive agreements, indirectness, silence,

repairs, and delayed inquiry. Japanese learners tended to express deference in L2 classroom

discourse. When being asked to deliver answers or doing presentations in front of their peers,

Japanese learners tended to be hesitant and involuntary. Although Japanese learners

expressed no negotiations with their instructors, silences would be selected by Japanese

Page 142:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

135

learners to express negative answers. Japanese learners refrained from expressing

disagreements in response to their instructor’s assignments. The use of silence, instead of

verbal expressions of refusal or disagreement, can be identified as the politeness strategy in

the cross-cultural language classrooms. Silence in disagreements could be a realization of

the ‘Don’t do the Face Threatening Act (FTA)’ strategy. Sifianou (1997) claims that

silence can be used to perform most of the politeness strategies identified by Brown and

Levinson (1987). In the classroom setting of the present study, silence can be used as a

politeness strategy when it functions as a sign of rapport. However, silence of Japanese

learners was not always positively evaluated by their language instructors. Silence strategy

avoided face-threatening but on the other hand hindered the progress of verbal

communication in second language learning. To prevent from being impolite, Japanese

learners might avoid verbal expressions. Interviews with the instructors have shown that

constant and extensive silence will affect the overall pragmatic development of Japanese

learners. In the framework of Japanese schooling, teachers are often regarded as holding the

authority for knowledge, and students perceive the knowledge without question (cf.

Yoneyama, 1999). Japanese learners seemed to transfer their Japanese schooling culture to

their L2 Mandarin classrooms.

Following Goffman’s (1967) definition of face, ‘‘the positive value a person effectively

claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact’’

(Goffman, 1967:5), it is assumed that L2 learners of Mandarin wish to behave and speak in

particular ways by which they achieve a positive public self image. The particular ways in

which they choose to behave and speak are influenced by their cultures. Japanese learners’

silence or indirectness as a politeness strategy to protect their positive face includes ‘the

desire to be ratified, understood, approved of, liked or admired’ (Brown and Levinson,

1987:62). It should be noted that in the institutional setting of university language

classrooms, a large amount of knowledge is shared, and the relative expectations associated

with the L2 learners are reinforced through classroom interactions. Many of the inquiries in

the data presented in this study involve what House (1989) terms a ‘standard situation’. The

contextual information provided by such a ‘standard situation’ is to bridge the gap between

Page 143:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

136

the meaning of a verbal polite expression and its pragmatic force. The task in L2 Mandarin

learners’ pragmatic development in the next step is to find out what social norms of

politeness prevail in a context beyond language classrooms, such as specific local language

communities. Such norms may be relative to the cultural backgrounds of the L2 learners,

levels of L2 proficiency, kinds of situations, the relation between speakers and hearers, etc.

The analyses of the empirical data in the present study seem to show that Japanese

learners’ use of politeness strategies is negotiated in each relationship and classroom context.

It can be seen from the pair dialogues with L2 learners from other cultures that Japanese

learners engaged in assessing threats to their own faces as well as to other L2 learners’ face

in different situations. Avoidance of inquiry in oral presentations can be a strategy to

maintain positive face of Japanese learners, whereas indirectness in disagreement and

silence can be a ‘Don’t do the FTA’ strategy to save the peer’s or the instructor’s face.

Analyses of the classroom discourse have also revealed that silence or repairs can be used as

realization of face-saving strategies by Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin in

cross-cultural language classrooms.

5. Conclusion

In this study, politeness strategies of Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin in a

classroom setting have been investigated. From the receiver’s perspectives, Japanese

learners have been reported the most indirect in classroom inquiry and disagreement. In a

cross-cultural classroom with L2 learners from different cultures, Japanese learner’s

politeness strategies were positively evaluated by their peers. Avoidance of disagreement can

be a typical strategy to prevent face-threatening and save the hearer’s face in cross-cultural

classrooms. The politeness of Japanese learners is verbally and nonverbally delivered in

their L2 Mandarin inquiry, agreements (with nodding), or disagreements. Negative

responses from Japanese learners have been reported the least among the elementary-level

learners of Mandarin. When pairing with English-speaking learners of Mandarin in

cross-cultural communication, Japanese-speaking learners of Mandarin have been reported

Page 144:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

137

the most cooperative. Japanese learners’ deferential behavior was not always positively

evaluated by all the instructors in L2 Mandarin classrooms. Extensive silence, delayed

inquiry, indirectness, or involuntary participation in class presentations can be seen as an

impediment to language proficiency acceleration. It is suggested that L2 Mandarin

instructors create more negotiation opportunities and encourage Japanese learners to

participate in voluntary initiation and inquiry in cross-cultural classroom discourse.

It was also found in the present study that silence and repairs are most important cues

for refusal and disagreements among the Japanese learners. The politeness of Japanese

learners was further verified by the quantitative number of the usage of L2 Mandarin hao

‘okay’ and dui ‘right’ in response to the instructor’s initiation, feedback, or inquiry. The

present study also emphasises the importance of considering the cross-cultural context in

research on L2 learners’ pragmatics and language teaching. The analysis of the perceptions

on the politeness strategy of Japanese learners revealed that there are high levels of

cross-cultural agreements among English-speaking and Thai-speaking learners of Mandarin.

This cross-cultural agreement can be explained by the standard nature of the situations. The

study provides implications for teaching and learning Chinese as a second language in

cross-cultural contexts with specific reference to L2 learners’ cross-cultural communication.

In conclusion, it is hoped that more attention will be given to politeness in cross-cultural

pragmatics research. Indirectness, silence, deferential behaviour, for example, could play a

role in politeness in cross-cultural communication. Further research could explore how L2

Mandarin learners use their politeness and socializing strategies in interaction with other

native speakers of Mandarin and how L2 Mandarin learners develop their cross-cultural

pragmatic competence in a local language community.

Works Cited

Bousfield, Derek. (2008). Impoliteness in interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Brown, Penelope, Levinson, Stephen. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language

usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Page 145:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

138

Burdelski, Matthew J. (2010). Socializing politeness routines: Action, other-orientation, and

embodiment in a Japanese preschool. Journal of Pragmatics, 42, 1606-1621.

Clancy, Patricia M. (1986). The acquisition of communicative style in Japanese. In B. B.

Schieffelin & E. Ochs (Eds.), Language socialization across cultures (pp. 213-250).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Eelen, Gino. (2001). A critique of politeness theories. Manchester: St Jerome.

Goffman, Erving. (1955). On face-work: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction.

Psychiatry: Journal of the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 18, 213-231.

Goffman, Erving. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. New York:

Pantheon Books.

Haugh, Michael. (2004). Revisiting the conceptualisation of politeness in English and

Japanese. Multilingua, 23, 85-109.

Haugh, Michael. (2005). The importance of ‘place’ in Japanese politeness: implications for

cross-cultural and intercultural analyses. Intercultural Pragmatics, 2, 41-68.

Haugh, Michael. (2007). The co-constitution of politeness implicature in conversation.

Journal of Pragmatics, 39, 84-110.

Haugh, Michael, Hinze, Carl. (2003). A metalinguistic approach to deconstructing the

concepts of ‘face’ and ‘politeness’ in Chinese, English and Japanese. Journal of

Pragmatics, 35, 1581-1611.

Holmes, Janet, Stubbe, Maria. (2003). Power and politeness in the workplace: A

sociolinguistic analysis of talk at work. London: Pearson.

House, Julianne, and Kasper, Gabriele. (1981). Politeness markers in English and German. In

F. Coulmas (Ed), Conversational routine (pp. 157-185). The Hague: Mouton.

House, Juliane. (1989). Politeness in English and German: The functions of please and bitte.

In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests

and apologies (pp. 96-119). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Hymes, Dell, H. (1972). Models of the interaction of language and social life. In Gumperz, J

and Hymes, D. (Eds.), Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of

Communication. (pp. 35-71). New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.

Page 146:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

139

Jaworski, Adam. (1993). The power of silence: Social and pragmatic perspectives. Newbury

Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Jaworski, Adam (Ed.), 1997. Silence: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de

Gruyter.

Jaworski, Adam, Stephens, Dafydd. (1998). Self-reports on silence as a face-saving strategy

by people with hearing impairment. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8 (1),

61-80.

Kramsch, Claire. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Lakoff, Robin. (1973). The logic of politeness: or, minding your p’s and q’s. Papers from the

Ninth Regional Meeting (pp. 292-305). Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.

Leech, Geoffrey N. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. London: Longman.

Mills, Sara. (2003). Gender and politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mills, Sara. (2009). Gender and colonial space. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Nakane, Ikuko. (2006). Silence and politeness in intercultural communication in university

seminars. Journal of Pragmatics, 38, 1811-1835.

Ohashi, Jun. (2003). Japanese culture specific face and politeness orientation: a pragmatic

investigation of yoroshiku onegaishimasu. Multilingua, 22 (3), 257-274.

Ohashi, Jun. (2008). Linguistic rituals for thanking in Japanese: balancing obligations.

Journal of Pragmatics 40, 2150-2174.

Pavlidou, Theodossia-Soula. (2001). Politeness in the classroom?: evidence from a Greek

high school. In A. Bayraktaroglu & M. Sifianou (Eds.), Linguistic politeness across

boundaries: The case of Greek and Turkish (pp. 105-136). Amsterdam: John

Benjamins.

Saville-Troike, Muriel. (1985). The place of silence in an integrated theory of

communication. In D. Tannen & M. Saville-Troike (Eds.), Perspectives on silence (pp.

3-18). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Sifianou, Maria. (1992). Politeness phenomena in England and Greece: A cross-cultural

perspective. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Page 147:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

140

Sifianou, Maria. (1997). Silence and politeness. In A. Jaworski (Ed.), Silence:

Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 63-84). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Suzuki, Mutsumi. (1997). Nihongo kyooiku ni okeru teineitai sekai to futsuutai sekai [The

worlds of polite and non-polite forms and Japanese language education]. In Yukinori

Takubo (Ed.), Shiten to Gengo Koodoo [Perspective and linguistic behaviour] (pp.

45-76). Tokyo: Kuroshio.

Streeck, J., and Knapp, M. L. (1992). The interaction of visual and verbal features in human

communication. In F. Poyatos (Ed.), Advances in nonverbal communication (pp. 3-24).

Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Tannen, Deborah. (1985). Silence: anything but. In D. Tannen & M. Saville-Troike (Eds.),

Perspectives on silence (pp. 93-111). Norwood, NJ: Ablex..

Watts, Richard J. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yoneyama, Shoko. (1999). The Japanese high school: Silence and resistance. London:

Routledge.

Page 148:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms

141

跨文化華語課室日籍學習者禮貌言談行為之研究

陳春美*

摘 要

本篇論文調查日籍華語學習者的禮貌言談行為如何在他們的第二語言詢問、同意

與意見不一的表達中呈現,以及他們的禮貌言談行為在跨文化的華語課室中如何讓他

們的同儕與老師察覺到。本研究以 60 個小時的課室錄影與課室言談謄寫的語料為基

礎,包含了 3 位華語老師、8 位日籍華語學習者與 36 位來自不同國家的初級華語學習

者語料。調查結果發現,日籍華語學習者在詢問與討論過程中最為迂迴,負面的反應

語句也最少。當與母語為英語的學習者進行小組跨文化溝通練習時,日籍華語學習者

最為樂意合作。言談分析結果發現,沉默與修正為日籍華語學習者拒絕或否定的重要

提示。日籍華語學習者的禮貌言談行為進一步由他們在回應老師時口語使用華語「好」

與「對」的數量得到證實。本研究提供跨文化環境下第二語言學習者跨文化溝通表現

的華語教學與華語學習啟示。

關鍵詞:禮貌言談行為、日籍學習者、對外華語、第二語言課室、跨文化溝通

* 國立中興大學外文系副教授

Page 149:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

陳春美 興大人文學報第五十期

142

Page 150:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 143-170 二○一三年三月

143

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生

──以女性為切入點

徐培晃*

摘 要

本文將《水滸傳》中的女性劃分為考驗英雄的女色、協助事業的伙伴、引導命運

的母神三種形象,以女性腳色為切入點,藉以闡明梁山英雄的歷劫成長,終而回歸天

界。梁山集團帶有強大的求生意志,視女色為死亡的威脅,需要加以斥喝。因此企圖

削弱成員的女性特色,以兄弟結義掩蓋夫妻結髮。最後則端賴母神的引導,面對死亡

的威脅,將生命的價值從封閉的個人求生,轉而對他人開放。

關鍵詞:水滸傳、英雄、女性

*朝陽科技大學通識中心兼任講師。

(收稿日期:101.10.15;通過刊登日期:102.02.01)

Page 151:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

144

一、前言

《水滸傳》以北宋末年的政治凋弊為背景,在民生困苦的大環境中,刻畫一百零

八條好漢聚嘯山林,始於抗衡官軍,終於保家衛國的英雄故事。雖然《水滸傳》是以

男性角色為主,傾全力刻畫好漢之間肝膽相照的義氣,但是女性的形象、力量,從未

消失,反而籠罩全局,形成推進情節的動力。因此本文擬以女性為切入點,以容與堂

百回本為準1,參酌百二十回本,從文本內部進行分析,觀察水滸英雄的歷練。

《水滸傳》固然旨在描述男性集團的非常行徑,但是卻從未忘情對女性的描寫,

紅杏出牆、謀殺親夫,形成搶眼的印象,顯然可見對女性的詆毀厭棄。然而不妨反向

思考,處理不重要角色的 好方式,是忽略其存在,在無關宏旨的陪襯中,削弱角色

的價值;《水滸傳》卻大肆著墨,不厭其煩的暗示紅顏禍水,德色相妨,反而揭露出對

女性形象無法忘懷。

若進一步綜觀《水滸傳》的女性角色,歸納分析角色意涵,會發現梁山好漢的英

雄行徑,與女性角色的形象意義相始終,耀眼的英雄歷險──啟程、啟蒙、回歸2──往

往藉由女性角色擔任情節的推手,牽引故事的發展。就細部來說,女性,尤指淫婦,

時常是引爆衝突的重要觸媒,宋江之所以由一介皁吏,離家歷劫,躍身為梁山泊的領

袖,閻婆惜便居中扮演轉折情節的力量。就宏觀來看,梁山泊從強盜集團,蛻變為民

兵組織,歸順朝廷,乃是藉由九天玄女的引導,方能應其天命。

由此可見,潘金蓮、潘巧雲、閻婆惜等人的角色固然怵目驚心,全書亦不乏女子

難養也的基調,但是如果在歸納角色形象之後,進一步廓清角色在故事中的情節功能,

1 《水滸傳》的版本流傳極為繁複,大致分為文繁事簡本、文簡事繁本、文繁事繁本,隨後金聖

嘆又刪訂七十回本。本文既不以考證版本為要,重點著眼在情節骨架的完整,因此以上海古籍

出版社之容與堂百回本為探討範圍。施耐庵、羅貫中著,《容與堂本水滸傳》(據北京圖書館藏

杭州容與堂《李卓吾先生批評忠義水滸傳》為底本)(上海:上海古籍,1988)

關於七十回本之不足,前人論述已詳,例如樂蘅軍從故事結構、李豐楙從宗教思想的角度,認

為七十回本未能收束全局。見樂蘅軍,《意志與命運》(臺北:大安,2003)、李豐楙,〈出身與

修行:明代小說謫凡敘述模式的形成及其宗教意識──以《水滸傳》、《西遊記》為主〉,收入林

明德策劃:《中國文學新境界》(臺北:立緒,2005)。 2 坎伯(Campbell, Joseph)著,朱侃如譯,《千面英雄》(The hero with a thousand faces)(臺北:

立緒,1997)。

Page 152:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

145

會發現女性角色呈現在不同的關係身份,具備不同的功能意義。

至於如何歸納女性角色在《水滸傳》中的關係身份,本文參考保羅-羅宏•亞舜

(Paul-Laurent Assoun)的觀點。他在《佛洛依德與女性》一書中,運用佛洛依德對男

女關係的劃分──生殖者、陪伴者、毀滅者──進一步對應於角色身份,認為:

只有在做為母親時,女性才能為男性所辨識,因此必須以母親的元素重新謄寫

這三種女性的形象。……因此男性接連三次與母親的形象有關:母親本身……

接著是他的妻子,最後是死亡。3

當中所謂「母親的元素」,即是埃利希•諾伊曼(Erich Neunann)提出的女性原型表

現──大母神。原型本是「在人類心理中起作用的內在意象……無意識一旦被察覺,

他便以意象的象徵形式面對著意識。」4因此透過大母神各種不同的意象,得以表現潛

意識中的女性原型。

表現在角色關係上,本文擬將《水滸傳》中的女性角色劃分為三類,一者是考驗

英雄的女色,他們可能是家中妻妾,或是素未謀面的落難女性,或是青樓女子、權貴

身邊的寵妾。

是以考驗英雄的女色,內含有所差異。循規蹈矩的良家婦女,因其美色而受人覬

覦,激起好漢們挺身護衛,雖然是見義勇為、甚至只是保護自家妻小,卻因此觸怒了

權貴、誤蹈法網。女子因自身美色而無辜遭殃,實是指向昏潰的世道,穿針引線地帶

出好漢們對抗惡勢的綠林生涯。

至於權貴人家身邊,貌美而巧言搧弄的寵妾,歷經一番搬弄後,好漢們憤而挺身

行兇,矛頭同樣是指向美色身後的掌權者。除此之外,於私德、律法皆有虧的淫婦,

受到好漢們嚴酷的懲罰之後,私刑觸法也落得亡命的下場。綜合來說,雖然女色帶來

不同形式的考驗,但都因其貌美,而觸動了死亡的威脅。

第二是協助事業的伙伴,主要是梁山泊中的女性成員,尤其是母大蟲顧大嫂、母

夜叉孫二娘、一丈青扈三娘。《水滸傳》對他們的描述,多半側重其男性氣質,前身既

3 保羅-羅宏•亞舜(Paul-Laurent Assoun)著,楊明敏譯,《佛洛伊德與女性》(Freud et la femme)

(臺北:遠流,2002),頁 60。 4 埃力希•諾伊曼(Erich Neumann)著,李以洪譯,《大母神:原型分析》(The great mother)(北

京:東方,1998),頁 3-5。

Page 153:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

146

是帶殺劫的魔君,今世又是剽悍驍勇的戰將,殺人越貨的手段熟練在行,被賦予男性

特質,本身為天罡地煞中的一員,與眾好漢聚夥,同枝聯氣,三人雖然分別和孫新、

張青、王英結為夫妻,但文中不見其呢喃歡好,反而比較像是聚義堂上的結拜兄弟,

深刻表現出在團體中同化的傾向,以高度的凝聚力,排除差異,不論是性別外貌或出

身背景,在同化中打造出封閉的、求生的集團,藉以抵抗外部的、死亡的威脅。

第三是引導命運的母神,以九天玄女為代表,降格到人間則是道君皇帝──宋徽

宗──的寵妓,同時兼負國母角色功能的李師師。雖然在故事中登場的部分不多,但

是卻左右了天罡地煞的命運,影響梁山泊的成形與走向,一方面導致梁山泊的毀滅,

同時又促使魔星脫胎為星君,猶如孕育重生的母親。在這再生的過程中,梁山集團從

封閉、自我求生中,轉向蒼生,以護國護民為要旨,躍升為開放的、以蒼生生機為念

的星君。

總觀《水滸傳》全篇,固然不乏斥喝女性的論調,但是女性角色卻與英雄故事相

始終,透過女性角色,能穿針引線地,發掘《水滸傳》的內涵,發現梁山集團因死亡

的威脅而結合,打造出封閉的求生團體, 後在守護百姓中,歷經死亡的再生。女性

角色成為微妙的媒介,意味著死亡與再生,契合英雄歷練再生的過程。

值得注意的是,就故事情節來看,人物角色可能極多,有限的情節功能卻是跨越

時空的骨幹,繽紛萬象的英雄故事,核心情節可能大同小異。普羅普站在整體結構的

立場,認為功能「不依賴由於誰來完成以及怎樣完成」5,同樣的功能任務,可以由不

同的角色替換執行。反過來說,英雄啟蒙歷險的結構不變,由誰推動、如何推動,卻

是因時因地置宜,從中也就表現出獨特的風貌,以差異彰顯特色,而故事的流傳選擇,

透露出閱聽大眾的嗜好,成為群體(潛)意識的出口。坎伯曾就廣義的神話立論,「夢

是個人的神話,神話則是非個人的夢」6,如果能撥開神話,或者說英雄故事的面紗,

從個別角色形象的描述,潛浸到整體功能意義的探討,或者能直指一條象徵式的英雄

路線。

5 弗拉基米爾.雅可夫列維奇.普羅普(Пропп, Владимир Яковлевич)(Propp,V.K.(Vladimir

kovlevich))著,賈放譯,《故事型態學》(北京:中華,2006),頁 18。 6 同註 2,頁 17。

Page 154:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

147

二、考驗英雄的女色:死亡的威脅

總觀《水滸傳》全書,籠罩在死亡的陰影之下,整篇故事環繞著「死亡」的主旨

開展推演, 後收束在水滸英雄的風流雲散。挽繫住死亡的核心意識,方能沿波討源,

探析這幫強梁好漢的作為。

水滸故事將一百零八條好漢,定位在「張天師祈禳瘟疫,洪太尉誤走妖魔」,從宋

仁宗「三登之世」入筆,「那時百姓受了些快樂。誰想到樂極生悲:嘉佑三年上春間,

天下瘟疫盛行。」(《水滸傳•引首》)是以遣洪太尉登龍虎山,敦請張天師祈禳。仁宗

時候的太平盛世,驟爾轉衰,此間的時空運行規律,乃是劫運所致,無可防避。但是

在難以窮究因由的災變中,如何應對劫運,卻又是關係君臣百姓的修身立命。張天師

禳疫功成的機緣,乃是奠基在赤腳大仙降世為仁君,文曲武曲轉生輔佐的太平盛世,

僅只需要七晝夜普施符籙,禳救災病,就能盡消瘟疫。天命難違與天人感應,兩套思

想在《水滸傳》交會融合,這段楔子也成為全書定調的基音。一百零八位好漢在數十

年後誕生崛起,同樣是時運所致,所不同者乃是仁宗時君仁臣賢,徽宗時則佞臣當道。

「末世」與「末嗣」兩種概念7,將天地失序的災變「末世」,對照朝代衰敗的「末嗣」,

梁山泊乃是應劫而生,在政道敗壞下無從祈禳,這股毀滅的力量亂動天下,負責肅殺

生命。

也就是說,一百零八位魔君臨世,本質上等同於瘟疫流傳、天下死傷,疾病或戰

亂,只是天地肅殺之氣的不同面貌,既然已經預言注定,全書從這樣的立場開卷展圖,

自然對眾魔君怵目驚心的殺戮,免去道德上的指責。

就存在的狀態來看,一百零八位妖魔之所以有衝破封印的契機,乃是肇因於天下

百姓在大疫中,祈福禳禍,苦苦求生的欲望,換言之,梁山眾人因求生而存在,反過

來說,其存在就是為了求生,滿足生之欲。強烈的生之欲,導致對死亡特別的敏感,

對喪生的疑懼,構成這群橫行的好漢強烈的焦慮感,為了求生,不僅時常陷入非你死

7 「『末嗣』一詞所指陳的是朝廷嗣命的微末……『末世』就由一個王朝的終結、王命的墜落,

而深進一層較廣泛地涉及整個世界的終末,也就是人倫的失序、社會的失序以致於宇宙的失序。」

李豐楙,〈傳承與對應:六朝道經中「末世」說的提出與衍變〉,《中國文哲研究集刊》(臺北:

中央研究院中國文哲研究所),第九期,1996 年 6 月,頁 101。

Page 155:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

148

不能我活的對決困境,同時也表現出對物質強烈的需求。

強烈的生存意志,深刻埋藏在英雄形象的內裡,雖然一再刻畫好漢們不怕死的氣

概,但是其核心卻是為了求生。因為強大的生之欲,《水滸傳》中不時可見大碗喝酒、

大口吃肉的場景。飲食作為生存的基本條件,某種心理意識上,越能大量的吃喝,似

乎越能表現強壯的體魄、蓬勃的生命力。《史記•廉頗藺相如列傳》載廉頗為了表現自

己尚可馳騁沙場,在趙使面前「為之一飯斗米,肉十斤,被甲上馬,以示尚可用。」

使者也以「尚善飯」回稟8。太史公以通古今之變的態勢,也傾向以不可思議的食量,

表現非同常人的能力,下貫千餘年,《水滸傳》中的好漢也身兼令人咋舌的食量。魯智

深一個人吃了半條狗肉,喝了一桶多的酒,才揣著一腳狗腿,醉醺醺的上五台山,打

壞半山的亭子與山門下的金剛。武松足足喝了十八碗烈酒,是常人六倍,還能上景陽

岡,空手打死吊睛白額虎。強烈的飲食需求,配合過人的氣力,可以從兩方面來探討,

一是難以滿足,需要不斷爭取。例如阮家三兄弟家境貧窘,一家宴請吳用,卻需要二

十斤生熟牛肉與一對大雞,吳用慫恿他們劫生辰綱,也是為了滿足「論秤分金銀,異

樣穿綢錦;成瓮吃酒,大塊吃肉」(第十五回)。二是以過度的飲食,表現逾越的生存

狀態。例如一向行止合度的林沖,在無可忍讓之際,殺了陸虞侯,切斷赦罪返鄉的退

路,隨後便飲酒醉倒在雪地上。逃亡未遠就喝醉,不僅表現緊繃的精神狀態需要藉酒

鬆懈,舉止規矩的林沖在殺人之後,首見醉倒,步上了亡命梁山之路,飲食的過度,

搭連上生命的逾矩,成為生命力的湧現。

蓬勃的求生意志,相應表現出對死亡的疑懼。孫述宇指出,梁山泊的英雄內心有

很重的恐懼,充滿了迫害故事,可以從迫害感的角度,解讀這批強梁好漢的作為:

迫害感是很真實的強人心理。亡命之徒既然無法無天,生命也就缺少了社會秩

序的保障,這是很重的代價;經常生活在不安之中,迫害感便油然而生。這種

心理,在《水滸》中不僅表現為這諸多迫害故事,還表現在梁山泊英雄那種「先

下手為強」、「寧可我負天下人」的不顧他人死活的心態。9

8 司馬遷,〈廉頗藺相如列傳第二十一〉,《史記》(臺北:藝文印書館,清乾隆武英殿刊本),卷八

十一,頁 989。 9 「他們自己內心裏頭是有很重的恐懼的。聽眾心裡也有──否則這些女人故事起不了警戒作用。

《水滸》充滿了迫害故事,有牽涉女人的,有不牽涉女人的。小說中英雄們的個人經歷,差不

Page 156:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

149

如果進一步追問,究竟是誰在迫害這群梁山好漢,造成他們內心強烈的恐懼──也就

是生存的敵人,答案不外乎貪官污吏、淫女蕩婦10。

不難理解貪官污吏會剝奪生存的空間,社會的不公義,使少數人竊佔公眾資源。

但是面對亂由上作的朝政,並非人人都願意落為官府口中的強梁,成為躍身掀起風浪

的健兒,梁山的這批強人正是因為內在蓬勃的生命欲力,更能深刻的感受到匱缺與不

義,奮力抵抗壓迫,是以喊出替天行道的口號,起身衝撞貪官污吏等生存的敵人。

至於淫女蕩婦如何能在好漢們的內心投射龐大深沈的陰影,背後的意涵更顯得複

雜。《水滸傳》中,姣好的女性往往被當成招惹殺機的禍源,帶來死亡的威脅,藉由這

些女性角色,穿針引線地,點出梁山好漢奮力抵抗的陰影:權貴惡勢、兄弟鬩牆──

簡而言之,就是死亡的威脅。

文中以弱女子受到權貴惡勢的調戲欺壓,點出亂從有錢有權者起,美貌成為對權

勢者照鑑。魯智深拳打鄭關西是路見不平的英雄行徑,立意良善;豹子頭得罪高衙內

是丈夫保護妻室的舉動,天經地義,然而在好漢們在挺身而起之際,也被一步步逼上

梁山,是以「弱女子」在《水滸傳》中,成為男性社會中的一鏡子,照鑑出昏潰的世

道。

至於雷橫則是因為與「色藝雙絕」(第五十一回)的伶人白秀英有所齟齬,導致白

秀英在知縣耳邊軟言煽動,歷經一番搬弄後,雷橫憤而挺身行兇。伶牙利嘴的美貌、

逾越規矩的私生活,一介女子以其美色而獲得了上位者的垂幸,不再只是柔弱被欺侮

的對象,躍升為壓迫者,美貌與權勢的結合,致使女色也成為權勢的直接展露,一介

女流也能壓迫好漢的生存空間。

相對上列二者──女色照鑑權勢、女色結合權勢,曲折引燃了好漢的生存危機,《水

滸傳》還刻意渲染女性淫蕩的一面,爬牆偷情,外結姘頭,聯手背棄親夫,使得好漢

們身陷困阨當中,甚至直接指出女色等於死亡。

《水滸傳》中,幾段血淋淋挖心肝的情節,主要針對兩種對象,一是構陷好漢的

奸人,一是謀害親夫的淫婦。將淫婦與奸人並列,成了書中顯著的標誌,貌美而性淫

多必有遭受毒害的情節……」孫述宇,《水滸傳的來歷、心態與藝術》(臺北:時報,1981),

頁 39、40。 10 夏志清指出,水滸戲中「英雄所關心的主要是懲治貪官污吏與淫女蕩婦。」夏志清著,胡益民、

石曉林、單坤琴譯,《中國古典小說史論》(南昌:江西人民,2001),頁 78。

Page 157:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

150

的女人,本身就是禍胎,會主動為好漢們招來殺身之禍,因此英雄必須遠離女性,更

精確來講是女色,方能脫離虎口,保生延命。

淫婦外結姘夫,威脅到好漢的生存,落得私刑處決的下場,楊雄在殺妻之前便稱:

「一者壞了我兄弟情分,二乃久後必然被你害了性命,不如我今日先下手為強。我想

你這婆娘心肝五臟怎地生著,我且一看!」(第四十六回)挖心之舉,便是從根本上,

否定潘巧雲作為人的存在,但其原因,還是為了求生,抵抗死亡陰影的壓迫。

《水滸傳》口中的淫婦潘巧雲等人,勾搭外人,於私德或律法有虧,並對好漢的

生存造成威脅,以致不得善終,但是如果再進一步檢視,會發現這些淫婦在實質的逾

越之前,美色就已經被視為可能招致禍害,乃至於被視為禍害本身。《水滸傳》對女色

深沈的焦慮具體落實在淫婦的身上,然而就算撇開淫婦而論,這群好漢對女色的提防

也不曾放鬆,視女色為生存的考驗。

女性,尤其是美貌的淫婦,之所以能作為考驗英雄的關卡,著眼在兩方面,一是

「但凡好漢,犯了『溜骨髓』三個字的,好生惹人恥笑。」(第三十二回),二是「壞

了我兄弟情分」(第四十六回)。

《水滸傳》中在描寫淫婦的體態情韻時,細膩比擬五官肢體的綽約風姿,不忘指

出女子纖纖嬌弱之態。再從外在的肉體,引介出內心的肉欲,強調「風塵娼妓的性格」

(第二十一回),完全與孔武有力、不好情慾的英雄形象強烈對比,女性猶如是對立的

異類,形成我輩與他者的衝突,深沈流露對女色的疑懼。

歸納文中的女性角色特質,不外乎美貌、柔弱,負面形象則表現為口齒伶俐、工

於心計、結交外人,對比好漢們鹵率剛毅、不拘小節、強調團體內部兄弟義氣的男子

氣概。越是注重男子氣概的團體,越能感受女性特質所帶來的壓力,面對迥異、未知、

無法控制的他者,女人無疑是心理陰影──安尼瑪──的具體浮現,唯恐會帶來「單

調沈悶、害怕生病、害怕無能或害怕發生意外的心理」11。女性作為內心壓抑的陰影、

照映自身匱缺的他者,好漢們急急忙忙的努力擺脫,唯恐自己像個女人一樣──用梁

山好漢努力求生的眼光來看,就是無法保障自己的生命──柔弱。

11 瑪莉-路易斯•弗蘭茲,〈個體化過程〉(The Process of Individuation),收入卡爾•容格(Carl G. Jung)

主編,龔卓軍譯:《人及其象徵:榮格思想精華的總結》(Man and his symbols)(臺北:立緒,

1999),頁 213。

Page 158:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

151

努力保有旺盛的生命力,落實在形而下,就是對「溜骨髓」的恐懼;精液-骨髓

-生命(力),作一連貫的串聯,正是《水滸傳》排斥女性的原因,唯有藉由禁欲,還

精養身,方能常保男子氣概的生命力。文中還刻意設定李逵斧劈羅真人的情節:

李逵搶將入去,提起斧頭便望羅真人腦門上劈將下來,砍倒在雲床上,流出白

血來。李逵看了,笑道:「眼見的這賊道是童男子身,頤養得元陽真氣不曾走瀉,

正沒半點的紅。」(第五十三回)

將禁欲的功效神化到修真登仙的地步,只要維持童男子身,元陽不瀉,甚至連血液都

可以變成白色!而童男身的羅真人當然沒有被李逵一斧劈死,不過是砍了兩個葫蘆。

既然精液如此珍貴,代表蓬勃的生命力,方外藉之可修神人,方內藉之可為英雄,當

然不可妄加揮霍,認為男子在性行為的過程中,會斲喪自身的生命力,理所當然會傾

向禁欲。

需知欲望必然落實到欲望的對象,內在的禁欲向外投射到欲望的對象時,表現為

禁色的舉動,禁欲與禁色之間微妙的流轉,從自身到他者,牽涉到主體與對象的角力。

再者禁欲也是意志力的表現,擺脫欲望,同時是擺脫外在的對象,希望能藉以肯

定自我的完整。用尼采的話來講:

禁欲主義理想起源於一種業已敗落,但仍在為其生存而孰死搏鬥的生命的自我

保護和自我拯救的本能。12

換言之,藉由禁欲,企圖除卻外在對象的牽絆,再無他者能映現自身的匱缺,也就是

「要擺脫折磨」13,以個人意志肯定生存的價值,內在禁欲,外在則與欲望對象保持

距離。

《水滸傳》充分表現出對女性的厭棄,在介紹潘巧雲時,還不忘舉詩為證:「二八

佳人體似酥,腰間仗劍斬愚夫。雖然不見人頭落,暗裏教君骨髓枯。」(第四十四回)

12 尼采(Nietzsche, Friedrich)著,周紅譯,《論道德的起源》(Zur Genealogie der Moral)(香港:

勤+緣,1992),頁 165。 13 「現在讓我們回到最初提出的問題中去:『如果一個哲學家尊崇禁欲主義,那意味著甚麼?』我

們至少已經得到了第一個提示:他要擺脫折磨。」同註 12,頁 143。

Page 159:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

152

認為女性所象徵的色欲,會造成男子內在生命力的消耗,是 為兇險的考驗──凡此

種種,都是欲望對象的問題。

一旦將禁欲的考驗歸諸於對象,對象成為欲望的本身,那麼,萬般有錯,錯不在

男性觀看者,毋須男性的觀看與投射,女性自身就是欲望的存在!誠如書中所言:「水

性從來是女流」(第二十四回),將好色視為女流的「天性」,女性既然是欲望的本身,

當然無法被滿足,《水滸傳》的敘述聲音,順勢融入禁欲的英雄的視角,眼中自然看見

欲求不滿的淫婦;強調閻婆惜「風塵娼妓的性格」(第二十一回),並非是宋江鎮日耍

槍弄棍,不重女色,才導致閻氏出牆,一切肇因於閻氏本身的「天性」。蕩婦的縱欲對

比好漢的節慾,兩者的關係如此緊張,衝突往往以英雄手刃淫婦作結,以外鋤淫婦,

象徵英雄消滅內在色欲,處決時當然毫不手軟,除惡務盡。

相較於大塊吃肉、大口喝酒,以過量的飲食表現生命力的大量蓄積,色欲則會耗

損英雄的生命力,導致死亡,那麼女性不僅是欲望的具體示現,甚至是死亡的代言,

對抗女色變成了對抗死亡。《水滸傳》以謀害親夫的情節,加強淫婦的死亡意涵,凡是

沾染上淫婦的人,不論是丈夫或奸夫,必然會面臨死亡的威脅,武大郎、西門慶的下

場歷歷在目。擴大來說,只要是貌美的女性,都可能帶來死亡的危機,白秀英本是賣

唱的粉頭,與插翅虎雷橫素無恩怨,卻因出言譏訕、嬌痴唆使縣令種種,雷橫一惱便

將之擊殺,方才申明無落草之志的插翅虎,不消多久,自己也成了亡命之徒,落得夜

奔梁山。帶來死亡威脅的女性,同時也帶來生命的轉折,為了抗衡死亡,原先奉公守

法的好漢,終究也開啟了強梁之路。

然而禁色在梁山泊上,絕對不只是個人意志的問題而已,犯了「溜骨髓」三個字

固然惹人恥笑,不足稱為英雄,還會壞了兄弟情分,害己害人,當然需要嚴加懲辦。

何以擔心女色會壞了兄弟情分,跟梁山泊的集團性格,強調兄弟義氣,有莫大關

係。梁山聚會的大廳,高懸「聚義」、「忠義」的宗旨,義,當然是粘和眾多個體的關

鍵要素。但是所謂義也者,絕非行而宜之的道德規範,而是表現為「朋輩之間的忠誠」

與「捐輸施與」14,換句話說,也就是共生的關係。孫述宇指出,《水滸傳》的特色之

一,就是好漢之間結拜、結盟的頻率不僅頻繁、同時速度也驚人:

14 「在『正義』的籠統意思之中,『朋輩之間的忠誠』與『捐輸施與』兩種意思在小說中最常見,

而這兩種意思都有與『正義』脫節的傾向……」同註 9,頁 280。

Page 160:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

153

讀者初時會以為結義之事,表示好漢們惺惺相惜,由於大家珍視這份相互的情

誼,於是冠以「兄弟」之名……可是,結拜是許許多多在危險環境活動的人的

習慣,他們為了求生存,盼望與伙伴們團結得更緊密,以得到支援與保護。15

藉由結盟,相互馳助,無非是為了增加生存的保障,宋江正是因為平時仗義輸財,公

門關節處通融好漢,才能換得梁山泊好漢劫法場,僥倖保住一命。因此梁山好漢們的

仗義,還是依循互助求生的原則,與道德秩序未必有關,武松醉打蔣門神,也是受到

施恩請託,終歸是黑吃黑的江湖手腕16。

立足在共生互利的關係上,表現出共享的行為模式,一榮俱榮,一損俱損,肝膽

相照的兄弟義氣,自然是車馬衣裘與共,敝之而無憾。然而妻室終究是各自所有,不

在共生互利共享的範圍內,夫妻關係成了兄弟義氣未及之處,當然擔憂女人會疏遠了

兄弟關係。潘巧雲勾搭石秀不成,惱羞成怒,便在丈夫楊雄面前誣告挑撥,離間兄弟,

同樣的情節也發生在潘金蓮身上,《水滸傳》站在兄弟的立場,女人成了外人,兄弟義

氣當然不容外人離間。

換言之,照鑑權貴橫行的弱女子、與權貴結合的美色,二者指向外在敵人,淫婦

卻可能潛藏在身邊,從內部瓦解組織;女人背負著兄弟團結與否的責任,當然需要嚴

加防範。David. Gilmore 指出,男人一旦開始進行戰鬥,便會猜疑所有的陌生人,女

人在此又被視為可疑地方的外來者,尤其是父系血親觀念愈強烈的社會,也就愈將女

性視為兄弟團結的威脅17。

正因女人是格格不入的外人,李逵一旦錯認宋江強擄民女,回到梁山,便把杏黃

旗上「替天行道」四個字扯碎,揮動雙斧要砍殺宋江。李逵強調:

我當初敬你是箇不貪色慾的好漢,你原正是酒色之徒,殺了閻婆惜,便是小樣。

去東京養李師師,便是大樣。你不要賴,早早把女兒送還老劉,倒有箇商量。

你若不把女兒還他時,我早做早殺了你,晚做晚殺了你。(第七十三回)

15 同註 9,頁 40。 16 參考薩孟武,〈快活林酒店的所有權問題〉,《水滸傳與中國社會》(北京:北京,2005),頁 82

-93。 17 David. Gilmore 著,何雯琪譯,《厭女現象: 跨文化的男性病態》(Misogyny)(臺北:書林,2005),

頁 162、173

Page 161:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

154

除了反映「不貪色欲」在梁山泊是好漢的必備條件,連「替天行道」的招牌,都必須

豎立在不貪女色的基礎上,背後還隱藏著強烈的排外心態。雖然梁山泊並不禁止娶親,

小旋風柴進、美髯公朱仝等人,在梁山上也都各有妻室,但是李逵顯然將閻婆惜視為

宋江過去的污點,即便夜訪李師師事出有因,眼見大哥密會名妓,李逵還是耿耿於懷。

身為梁山泊首座,不貪色欲只是基本要求,還要進一步達到無私。

《水滸傳》一再強調,宋江統領得以統領眾好漢,是因為他重義氣,為頭的愛結

交英雄,當武松籍籍無名便慧眼相識,傾心結交;關勝雖曾領軍來攻,淪為階下囚,

但宋江一見面就將他扶在正中交椅上,納頭便拜,叩首伏罪,說道:「亡命狂徒,冒犯

虎威,望乞恕罪!」(第六十四回)嚇得關勝連忙答禮,閉口無言,手足無措,深覺梁

山一班頭領,義氣深重,終而來降。但是對自己的親弟弟宋清呢?不過讓他掌管排設

筵宴,毫無私心偏倚。身為大哥,不只需要有福同享,還要做到均享。《莊子》就提到,

成為天下大盜的必備條件之一,就是「分均」,並且將有福同享、無私一體視為「仁」

的表現18。

在無私的檢視下,女人不只是私欲的表露,反映出個人欲望,也是私心的代名詞,

男女情愛間的私密繾綣,與兄弟義氣強調開誠布公,某種程度上會相互排擠。比起打

劫的財貨可以聚眾分贓、群體聚餐時的杯觥交錯,夫妻情侶間的枕邊細語,代表的是

無法公開、難以檢視、脫離掌控的私心。既然妻室成為私心的表現,在彰顯水滸好漢

團結重義氣的同時,必然會壓抑男女間私情歡好的部分,唯恐私心會瓦解兄弟間的團

結,在分崩離析後遭到各個擊破,難逃死亡的魔爪,職是之故,女性又成了私心的具

體示現。視為可疑的外來者,尤其是父系血親觀念愈強烈的社會,也就愈將女性視為

兄弟團結的威脅19。也正是因為把女人視為格格不入的外人,李逵一旦錯認宋江強擄

民女,回到梁山,就如同看到滲入組織、可能破壞組織的有害細胞,必除之而後快。

整體而言,女性,尤其是具備姿色的女性,會帶來死亡的威脅,成為生命的考驗,

唯有解除威脅,生命方能延續。從個人來看,女色代表私欲,會斮喪生命力;從團體

18 「故跖之徒問跖曰:『盜亦有道乎?』跖曰:『何適而無有道邪?夫妄意室中之藏,聖也;入先,

勇也;出後,義也;知可否,知也;分均,仁也。』」見莊子,郭象註,〈胠篋第十〉,《莊子》,

第四卷(臺北:藝文印書館,2007),頁 199。 19 同註 17,頁 162、173。

Page 162:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

155

來看,女色代表私心,會鬆動組織──危機是如此真實,因此使用暴力的手法也是真

實的。勒內•吉拉爾在《替罪羊》指出:

整個運作的方向是將危機的責任推到受害者身上,並透過消滅他們,或至少把

他們驅逐出受「污染」的團體,來改變危機。20

在梁山集團內部,對女性有多恐懼,就反射梁山好漢有多沉重的憂生之嗟。

三、協助事業的伙伴:求生的團體

梁山泊實際上並未嚴格實施禁欲的措施,包括地太歲阮小二、撲天鵰李應、金槍

手徐甯等人原先就有家室。此外山寨內也舉行過婚禮,宋江作主,小李廣花榮的妹妹

嫁給霹靂火秦明、一丈青扈三娘嫁給矮腳虎王英,眾人也都讚許宋江的決定。但是除

了一丈青扈三娘等少數幾位,其他女性在《水滸傳》中幾乎毫無面目,不出場,完全

是沒有聲音的內助,連勝告捷時看不到他們歡喜,潰敗死傷時也沒有表現憂傷的餘地,

當然更不可能有卿卿我我的畫面,幾乎讓人錯覺梁山泊是純男性的組織,巧妙營造出

集體禁欲的閱讀效果。

如果從角色形象的演變著眼,會發現《水滸傳》正是朝去女性的方向發展,與原

先不避酒色相差甚遠。南宋龔聖與在《宋江三十六贊》中提到智多星吳用是「酒色粗

人」,被金聖嘆視為神人的武松,在《宋江三十六贊》中則是「酒色財氣,更要殺人」

21;至於余嘉錫考實水滸三十六人來歷,也指出燕青的浪子之名,不外乎風流狎暱22。

但是隨著時代的刪修增補,全都成了不近女色的好漢,即使第一名妓李師師投懷送抱,

燕青也毅然拒絕。故事發展的趨向一者彰顯閱讀的風尚習慣,孫述宇就認為水滸故事

在流通的過程中,經過忠義人、強人的改寫,為了符合讀者群需要、宣傳效果,特別

著重不近女色的部分,強調組織的紀律與團結23。另外就故事情節的發展來說,去女

20 勒內•吉拉爾(Rene Girard)著,馮壽農譯,《替罪羊》(Le bouc emissaire)(臺北:城邦,2004),

頁 55。 21 龔聖與,《宋江三十六贊》,收入周密,《癸辛雜識•續集》卷上。見里仁書局,《水滸資料彙編》

(臺北:里仁,1981)頁 452-455。 22 余嘉錫等,《水滸人物與水滸傳•水滸傳三十六人考實》(臺北:台灣書局,1971),頁 87-88。 23 同註 9,頁 32-39。

Page 163:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

156

色的發展脈絡,有助於塑造梁山好漢團體化的傾向。

《水滸傳》的故事結構與角色性格,在大聚義後轉向團體化,前此是以個人為主

的英雄故事,盡是好漢闖江湖的傳奇歷險,各自的面目躍然紙上。之後則是團體戰爭

的描述,生命便與戰爭分不開,再難見識到個人魅力,故事趨於俗套。夏志清認為,

說書人對戰爭的描寫往往落入窠臼,戰爭之間充滿沿襲的痕跡24。整篇《水滸傳》的

結構一步步從個人走向團體,與之相應,設計角色性格時,必須考慮到桀驁不馴的好

漢,如何能匯聚成流,在帶頭大哥的領導下,奉命行事。

角色形象與情節相配合,人物必須經由去個人化,才能集合成群體,明顯的以團

體行動取代個人英雄作為,好漢上了戰場也是要依令行事,個人的脾氣暫且按捺一旁,

並且刻意避開家室妻小等等的私人面向。

如果將梁山泊全員寫成光棍集團不近常理,則弱化之,妻孥家室隱居幕後,若有

似無;如果需要聲明好漢毫無私欲私心,則強化之,或與妻子決離,或孤家寡人。林

沖與李逵就是明顯的例證。林沖在飽受顛簸之後,本想接引妻子、岳父上梁山,但斯

時家人早已亡故。李逵也想帶母親上山奉養,但是半路休憩取水時,母親卻遭虎襲,

吃得只剩條腿。孤苦伶仃的的林沖、李逵,始終反對招安,從根本上視梁山泊為歸宿。

李雲在入夥前也說:「只喜得我又無妻小,不怕吃官司拿了」(第四十四回)。以世俗的

眼光來看,九紋龍史進也絕對是不成材的子孫,鎮日弄刀甩棍不務家業,惹下事端後,

便放火燒了莊院,開啟江湖生涯,個人的終結成為團體的開始。

表面上看起來,去除外累之後,得以為所欲為,再無忌憚,無須屈居人後,但是

深入來談,上梁山的好漢們,各自對迫害感的體驗,促使他們願意拋下部分個性,藉

以尋求同盟。大致來說,遭遇挫折之後的反應,不外乎退縮、侵犯、妥協三種,直接

以武力攻擊施壓的對象,是梁山好漢面對挫折時 常見的第一反應,但是與此同時,

不斷衝撞他者的好漢,也不斷的在尋求同盟,大丈夫固然可以兩肋插刀,但是密集的

結盟拜把,也幽微的透露出尋求庇護的退縮心理,不敢確保能獨自面對所有的考驗。

當然,結盟能夠成功,端賴妥協心態的作用,在現實處境與個人意志之間揣摩平衡,

與其耗損生命力,不如以團體分攤風險,而結義正是強化團體緊密度的手段,藉由模

24 夏志清,〈戰爭小說初論〉,《夏志清文學評論經典:愛情•社會•小說》(臺北:麥田,2007),頁

106。

Page 164:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

157

擬血緣,確保彼此的忠誠。

生長環境的挫折,轉為內在的驅迫力,逼使頭角崢嶸的好漢們尋求結盟,願意放

棄堅持、彼此妥協,藉由投入團體,得到擴大感:

自我的一般性限制,透過著迷而被超越了。我稱呼這個著迷的經驗為「併入」

(merging),自我的一般性界限鬆動或消解了,形成豐富與沒有界限的感覺。

在心裡分析中,這個經驗稱為「大海的祝福」(ocwanic bliss)。自我界限的鬆動

造成……擴大感。25

在被迫放棄或自動拋棄個人的意見、堅持、理念的同時,擴大感填補了遺失的部分,

感覺自己擁有更強大的能力抵禦環境的壓迫,換言之,也就是與集體的同一化。

梁山泊的好漢之間,同戈同袍,不斷強化結義的兄弟關係,再加上忠義堂上的石

碣天文,更加肯定共生的命運,雖然各有來歷背景,但是天命所歸,猶如是上天作保

的血緣關係,具有模擬家庭的效果。

這種類似血緣上的信任,在《水滸傳》中,完全壓倒了夫妻關係,畢竟娶進門的

媳婦總是流著別家人的血,在生死關頭是否效忠我方仍有待檢視,血緣親情才是天生

的保障。因此一百零八條好漢中,孫新-顧大嫂、張青-孫二娘、王英-扈三娘,夫

妻關係被削弱了,以結義的擬血緣關係加以取代,《水滸傳》中看不到他們恩愛結髮的

畫面,反而比較像互助的兄弟,成為協助事業的伙伴。從英雄故事個情節架構來看,

梁山泊山寨,猶如是普羅普所謂的「男性公房」。普羅普考察神奇故事的情節單元指出,

主角在授禮活動完成後,會進入「男人的屋子」,過著特殊的公社式生活:

凡是一起進行割禮或傳授禮的人,就被視為是有特別親密的關係,幾乎跟親兄

弟一樣……這個公社裡的所有成員都以兄弟相稱。……一方面,生活在男性公

房中的目的就在於將男女青年們與婦女阻隔開,整個屋子及屋中的一切事情不

許婦女涉足。……在另一方面看也是明顯的:它針對的是屋外的婦女。26

25 泰瑞斯•瑞爾(Terrence Real)著,黃漢耀譯,《男人其實很憂鬱》(I don’t want to talk about it:

overcoming the secret legacy of male depression)(臺北:張老師,2003),頁 59。 26 弗拉基米爾.雅可夫列維奇.普羅普(Пропп, Владимир Яковлевич)(Propp,V.K.(Vladimir

kovlevich))著,賈放譯,《神奇故事的歷史根源》(北京:中華,2006),頁 133、146。

Page 165:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

158

內部的親密感,不斷強化彼此的同盟關係,相互類化,形成了「我輩」的團體感。就

組織內部來說,排除了差異,儘量使團員間的同質性增加,聯繫愈趨緊密;對外而言,

則製造了差異,我們-他們,格格不入,團體內部的趨同,加深了對外的趨異。

因此,梁山泊山寨的男性公房,對外造成隔絕的效果27,阻擋外界的女色滲入,

對內則將個體同化。孫勇進歸納《水滸傳》的女性形象時,就將顧大嫂、孫二娘稱呼

為「魔女」,認為魔女是「好而不美的女性」28,孫勇進強調,所謂的好,指的是可以

進入好漢級別,在水泊梁山大寨中坐一把交椅;至於不美,當然是指極度男性化的行

為、外貌。換言之,就是各方面都符合山寨內的默契規範,全面男性化,不讓性別成

為大結義的阻礙,順利打入梁山集團。文中描述顧大嫂長相眉麄眼大、胖面肥腰,家

裡殺牛開賭,不碰針線,一身本事就算二三十人也不得近身,連丈夫孫新都不及,有

時怒起,提起井欄便朝丈夫打去。至於孫二娘則是轆軸般蠢坌腰肢,棒槌似桑皮手腳,

昏迷的武松就算兩名漢子也抬不動,孫二娘「一面先脫去了綠紗衫兒,解下了紅絹裙

子,赤膊著便來把武松輕輕提將起來。」(第二十七回)解衣使力的形象,比起武松「把

上半截衣裳脫下來,拴在腰裏,把那箇石墩只一抱,輕輕地抱將起來。」(第二十八回)、

魯智深「走到樹前,把直裰脫了,用右手向下,把身倒繳著,卻把左手拔住上截,把

腰只一趁,將那株綠楊樹帶根拔起。」(第七回)有異曲同工之妙。顧大嫂、孫二娘早

已徹底男性化,因此能順利入夥,與梁山集團站在同一陣線。

至於一丈青扈三娘則是以祝家莊女將的身份登場,容貌標致,天然美貌海棠花,

卻功夫過人,巨斧把雄兵亂砍,先擒王英,後戰歐鵬、馬麟、林沖。敗在林沖手下後,

宋江囑咐連夜送上梁山泊,交由父親宋太公收管,由宋太公收為義女,宋江再以義兄

的身份,將一丈青許配給手下敗將矮腳虎王英,「一丈青見宋江義氣深重,推卻不得。

兩口兒只得拜謝了。」(第五十一回)

扈三娘原本在莊園內養尊處優,數日之間家破人亡、淪為階下囚,生死難料,劇

烈的變動切斷了原先的人際網絡,頓時成為無所依靠的孤零人。生死交關之際,宋太

公以救命長者的身份收養,階下俘虜得以拜宋太公為義女,在梁山泊內無疑是一張護

27 「這座房子的其餘特徵都可以用企圖與世隔絕來解釋」,同註 26,頁 135。 28 孫勇進,〈紅顔禍水——《水滸傳》中的女性問題〉,

http://intermargins.net/intermargins/TCulturalWorkshop/sex&gender/female%20sexuality/%AC%F5

%C3C%BA%D7%A4%F4%BD%CD%A4%F4%E2q%B6%C7.htm

Page 166:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

159

身符。雖然迫害者與救援者是同一集團的不同人,但是在危難困頓的時候竟能保命,

恩惠被擴大了,宋江臨危救難的義氣與率眾來攻的生命威脅,二者無法切割,感激與

恐懼剎時之間難以區隔,求生的心理防禦機制,轉成對侵略者的認同29。因此嫁給王

英,成為扈三娘加入梁山集團的表現,嫁給王英的婚禮,同時是融入水滸寨的手續儀

式。乍看之下風姿綽約的扈三娘,與相貌麄魯的顧大嫂、孫二娘不可並語,但是從天

罡地煞大聚義的情節來看,加入集團、彼此同化的路數並無不同,「義氣深重」作為婚

配的理由,強調集團的伙伴關係遠遠勝過夫妻。當扈三娘在戰場上辱罵瓊英「賊潑賤

小淫婦兒,焉敢無禮!」30已經徹底是梁山泊集團的口吻。

雖然說顧大嫂、孫二娘、扈三娘是山寨內少數的女性,以女流的身份能在天罡地

煞中排座次,特別令人矚目,但是就功能來看,女性的身份缺少描述,在情節意義上

也沒有多大影響,名為夫妻,實同兄弟,共創事業,在天命加持之下,得以儕身好漢

的行列,與眾夥伴們融為一體,婚姻關係在故事中顯得若有似無,團體當中的同化,

才是描述的重點。

真正因為婚姻而影響戰局者,反倒是天捷星張清與瓊英這對善打石子的夫妻。身

在田虎陣營的瓊英青春貌美,曾夢見神人引請張清來教導打石子的絕技,又言明兩人

有宿世姻緣,習得一身本領後,連敗王英、扈三娘、顧大嫂、孫新、林沖、李逵眾人,

驍勇善戰。當梁山眾人束手之際,吳用獻策,讓張清易名投效田虎陣營,迎娶瓊英,

再加以策反,裡應外合,方能攻破田虎。

雖然投身梁山的瓊英,屢建功勳,但是終究不屬天罡地煞之列,在梁山裡排不上

座次;即使在連番戰役中陸續折損諸多好漢,但是忠義堂上的職位始終遇缺不補。從

中可見梁山集團已經不是普通的群眾組織了,兄弟情分的重視,遠超過職位功能的考

量,在天命的背書下,兄弟結義乃是血緣的模擬,投效(嫁入)的外人到底有血緣上

的隔閡,血親亡故也斷無找人頂替的道理。

29 「對侵略者的認同:……一種防禦機制……指主體面對外在危險時(典型代表為一出自權威的

批評)認同於侵略者:或將侵略原樣不改地承受下來,或在身體上或精神上模仿侵略者個人,

或採納指明侵略者勢力的某些象徵物。」尚•拉普朗虛(Jean Laplanche)、尚-柏騰•彭大歷斯(J.-B.

Pontalis)著,沈志中、王文基譯,《精神分析辭彙》(Vocabulaire de la psychanalyse)(臺北,行

人,2000),頁 206。 30 施耐庵、羅貫中,《水滸全傳校注》(據北京大學圖書館藏楊定見序袁無涯刊一百二十回《忠義

水滸全傳》為底本),九十八回〈張清緣配瓊英 吳用計鴆鄔梨〉,(臺北:里仁,2001)。

Page 167:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

160

職是之故,可以將梁山泊視為一座大家庭,在大家庭的眼光下,彼此是兄弟姊妹,

夫妻關係於是被減弱了。再者,這是一座認為女性容易引來殺生之禍的大家庭,既然

如此,姊妹們 好儘量符合團體的規矩,在相貌舉止上,不要處處昭告自己是貨真價

實的女性,以免破壞默契,如此方能齊心奮鬥事業。將妻子描寫成事業的伙伴,有助

於加強團體的同化,以內部的緊密連,對抗外在的、死亡的危機。

於是乎,梁山好漢基於求生而結盟,相互同化又各獻其長,整座山寨 後已然自

給自足,成為封閉的團體,天罡地煞既成,再容不得他人加入,打家劫舍,不必考慮

他人眼光,山寨內有醫生安道全、雕刻師金大堅、獸醫皇甫端、建築匠陶宗旺等,職

務功能分配齊全,大家庭既然不假外求,不必受制於人,一者可減少外來的威脅,二

者可發揮有效的抵禦,家庭成員的生命也就越受到保障。雖然從個人的眼光來看,成

員容易失去個性,但是從團體來說,梁山泊越顯得獨立自主,內部自有一套生存的規

矩,與社會秩序的脫鉤越來越遠,若無旁人。所謂求生,當然是求團體內部的我輩之

生。

四、引導命運的母神:求生的昇華

梁山眾人既因求生而集結,集結之後又該如何求生,成了宋江始終盤桓在心頭的

大哉問。一百零八條好漢本是魔星轉世,所謂魔,具備原始生命力的意涵,魔星降生

引來一場肅殺,但肅殺的行動肇因於求生的意欲,整座梁山泊,如同一位充滿力量的

勇士,如何運用力量,決定了勇士生命的層次。

站在招安與造反的轉折路口,兩位女性──賜與宋江天書的九天玄女、引薦梁山

泊入朝的名妓李師師,決定了梁山泊的命運走向。

九天玄女如師似母,以天界引導者的姿態,指示宋江應合天命考驗,先使宋江意

識到自身背負的天命,在賜天書之際暗示宋江必須順天道而行,方能歷劫歸天,重登

仙班,否則則將墮入無間地獄當中,直接影響梁山泊日後的行動方針。是以在招安與

造反的內部衝突中,宋江始終力主歸順,九天玄女成了操作梁山泊走向 重要的推手。

至於李師師則是促使宋徽宗再度下詔招安梁山的關鍵人物,以姊弟之名引介燕青晉見

宋徽宗,使得燕青得以秉告高俅、童貫等人的罪狀,投效朝廷。天罡地煞作為力抗女

色(死亡)威脅的結義團體,反過頭來,卻是由兩位女性決定發展走向,邁向死亡。

Page 168:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

161

胡萬川從九天玄女的形象來源入手,指出在古典小說中,通常以九天玄女擔任兵

法天書的授與者、英雄人物危機的救助者、未來前途指引者、掌劫大神31。就《水滸

傳》而言,九天玄女兩次現身,都是在危阨險阻之際,一是救宋江脫離追捕,並賜下

天書;一是與遼軍對峙之際,夢授兵法。在兩次面見中,九天玄女都耳提面命,告誡

宋江務必要以忠義行事:

宋星主,傳汝三卷天書,汝可替天行道為主,全忠仗義為臣,輔國安民,去邪

歸正。他日功成果滿,作為上卿。……玉帝因為星主魔心未斷,道行未完,暫

罰下方,不久重登紫府。切不可分毫失忘。若是他日罪下酆都,吾亦不能救汝。

(第四十二回)

九天玄女在傳達天命的同時,也指明宋江必須「全忠仗義」、「輔國安民」,對於梁山泊

內,歸順、造反兩派的衝突,起了關鍵性的定向作用。先是點破天機,透露宋江等人

的前身原是魔王災星,而後忠義堂又天降石碣,排定名號座次,恢恢天命籠罩在天罡

地煞身上,九天玄女成了神秘難測的天命傳聲者、代言人,如同母親一般,在背後護

衛、指導眾人,象徵一種未可知的力量,在關鍵的時刻伸出援手。

然而「全忠仗義」所以能得到實踐,李師師是 重要的牽線人。同樣兩次扮演引

介者的角色,先是以姊弟之名,介紹燕青晉見宋徽宗,秉告梁山泊忠君護國的理念,

促使水滸寨歸降。後來當盧俊義、宋江相繼遭高俅等人以毒酒謀害,魂魄也是在李師

師房中,才得以托夢皇帝,陳訴眾兄弟一心報國,卻遭奸臣坑陷的冤屈。待徽宗驚醒,

還是李師師舉薦宋江等為正直之人、護國忠臣,方能順利「建立廟宇,敕封烈侯」(第

一百回)。

表面上看來,九天玄女與李師師的地位落差不知凡幾,角色形象涇渭分明,但是

再深入探討,會發現她們一位是隱居幕後,全知全能的指導者,一位則是實際扭轉梁

山軍隊身份的引介者,角色功能相互搭配。在神女與妓女的對比中,以天命相呼應,

其中隱藏著對母親的雙重認知。

先就角色形象來看,九天玄女與李師師之間,形成女神-國母-妓女的形象對比。

李師師本身具有雙重身份,一方面是青樓豔妓,半點朱唇萬人嘗;一方面又深受帝王

31 胡萬川,〈玄女、白猿、天書〉,《真假虛實──小說的藝術與現實》(臺北:大安,2005),頁 130。

Page 169:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

162

寵信,呢喃軟語足以左右君主決策,如同國母。

《水滸傳》曖昧遊走在李師師妓女-國母的形象中,既寫李師師援助梁山眾人,

相當程度上,也是替朝廷消弭大患,不負國母之職,另一方面也寫李師師挑逗燕青,

不忘其妓女的風塵興味,只是帝王專寵的國母形象顯然壓過了妓女的身份,挑逗不成

隨即自衿身份,言而有信,在國母的形象底下,妓女身份的陰影一閃即逝。

就角色功能來看,從抵抗朝廷的強盜集團,到四方征討的歸降勁旅;從含冤待雪

的遊魂,到立廟享祀的神靈,九天玄女是天界的指導者,李師師則是現實中的引介者。

梁山泊得以從反賊而成為正規軍,由魔王而成為星君,李師師展現了她足以影響決策

的國母姿態,也確實為朝廷引薦一群忠君護國的英雄好漢。九天玄女與李師師,一隱

一顯,一聖一凡,正如佛洛依德所謂聖女與妓女同樣導自於母親的原型32,神女與妓

女一體兩面,合成大母神的姿態,引導神秘的天機,左右了天罡地煞的命運走向,將

不可一世的強盜集團,導入朝廷法治, 終邁向死亡,為之風流雲散,轉化成天界神

靈,換言之,就是引導梁山泊走向死亡與再生。

九天玄女與李師師作為死亡-再生的形象化,導源於對母親的雙重認知,母親既

是 重要的哺育者,提供生命存在的能量,但也因為母親的缺席,代表能量的斷送、

生命的消失,因此成為死亡的代表。吳心怡在〈血染空白的一頁〉33中,則闡述了月

經流血所聯想到的受創、傷口、痛苦、死亡,導致女人的形象被賦予死亡的力量。但

是月經之血又表現出生命的可能,孕育的功能又使女人成為生命的表現,匯集生的能

量。

總觀《水滸傳》,在九天玄女與李師師的引導下,梁山集團歷經兩次蛻變再生。第

一次是從強盜蛻變為政府軍,由反賊而歸降,梁山泊作為一群衝撞體制的強盜集團,

九天玄女與李師師所扮演的功能,便是將他們收編到體制之內,使得政權與天道相契

合,魔星在天上牴牾了玉帝的規矩,於是乎謫降人間,以護國忠君為使命,加以磨練。

九天玄女位居天界與人世之間,引領人間的懵懂眾生,探索天道,奉行天命任務。

李師師則身居朝廷與強盜之間,開啟梁山泊投效國家的途徑,站在居中斡旋者的位置,

32 佛洛依德(Sigund Freud)著,林克明譯,《性學三論•愛情心理學》(Three essays on the theory of

sexuality)(臺北:志文,1993),頁 137-149。 33 吳心怡,〈血染空白的一頁 從文學/藝術作品中「血」的意象談女性創造力〉,《中外文學》,

第 27 卷第 10 期(1999 年 3 月)。

Page 170:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

163

協助燕青在妓院晉見帝王。以青樓作為女體的象徵,代表接合帝王與民間的陰暗通道,

協助天罡地煞從強盜集團,轉生為政府軍,人間的朝廷如同仿製的天庭,在為朝廷征

討的同時,執行天命。換言之,從強盜到正規軍,從對抗地方衙府,到討平割據地方

的派系勢力,梁山集團經歷了第一層的再生。

至於二層的再生,則是從帶煞的魔星,轉生為歷劫返天的神靈,整個蛻變的過程,

由剝而復,自否而泰,同時也是死亡的考驗。梁山集團進入朝廷後,勢力的擴展也為

之停頓,在一連串的征討當中,成員有損無補,朝廷對之有功無賞,整個集團面臨大

量的死亡消耗,然而作為指引者的九天玄女,卻早已言明:「天凡有限,從此永別。」

將宋江等導入體制後,在孤立的環境中,任其生滅。埃利希•諾伊曼指出:

拒棄是女性的基本功能,即釋放長大了的青年……拒棄功能與剝奪功能密切相

關,在基本特徵的圓裡,剝奪功能與給予功能相對……「愛的撤回」就決定著

一切人和動物與原型女性的關係。34

代表創生撫育的善良母神,同時也是掌握死亡秘儀的恐怖母神,忠君護國的征討,成

了恐怖的死亡儀式。然而母性力量的特性也正是表現於此,擺脫舊的型態才能得到新

生,九天玄女與天罡地煞在天闕重會,李師師則促成宋江等人立廟享祀。立功社稷、

為國捐軀,成就了由忠魂而封神的徑路,導致死亡的母性力量,轉化為促成永生的原

動力。

職是之故,梁山集團作為天道的執行者,冥冥之中是藉由母性力量的牽引,由體

制外進入體制內,九天玄女與李師師既將其引入死亡,同時也使之孕育重生。《水滸傳》

刻意安排天罡地煞崛起於梁山水泊,殞落於長江畔征方臘,同樣也是呼應水具有孕育

-死亡的雙重力量。巴什拉從乳汁的物質想像加以申論,指出水是母親的暗示,具有

哺育的功能35,深沈的水泊如同涵養生命的玄牝之門,又像母親的胸懷,形成安全的

屏障,養育梁山好漢的生長。但是孕藏生命的水同時也可以淹沒生命,成為死亡的象

徵,原先攻無不克、無所折損的梁山好漢,卻在進攻方臘水寨的戰役中,死傷泰半。

明媚的山水風光與慘烈的打殺形成強烈的對比,死亡與創生一體兩面,當魯智深夜半

34 同註 4,頁 65。 35 加斯東•巴什拉(Bachelard, Gaston)著,顧嘉琛譯,《水與夢:論物質的想像》(L'eau et le reves:

essai sur l'imagination de la matiere)(長沙市:岳麓書社,2005),頁 130。

Page 171:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

164

聽到錢塘潮聲隆隆雷響,以為戰事再起,持起禪仗奔出房門正要打殺,卻只見窗外潮

信,別無所有,頓時心頭大悟,圓寂坐化。

臻乎此境,引導梁山好漢進入死亡的女性,已經不同潘金蓮之流。瑪莉-路易斯•

弗蘭茲(M.-L. von Franz)指出,安尼瑪─男人內在女性陰影-發展的四個階段:

第一階段最好以夏娃(Eve)為象徵,她呈現了純粹本能與生物上的關係。第

二階段可以從《浮士德》的「海倫」(Helen)身上看到,她使浪漫美感的層次

得以人格化,然而其根本特徵仍是性方面的。第三階段可以聖母瑪莉亞為例─

─他是一個把愛欲提高到精神奉獻高度的形象。第四階段以莎皮恩夏

(Sapientia)為象徵,她的智慧無與倫比,其聖潔超越了神的境界。36

作為內心恐懼的負面陰影,潘金蓮等只是表現出 低層的生物本能,梁山好漢曾就這

個層次極力否定內在的女性陰影,不斷以男性特質相互砥礪,造成人格與人格陰影劇

烈的衝突,內在處於緊繃的狀態,面對女性時,不由自主產生緊張感,形同陰影的浮

現。因此會採取強力隔絕的方式,努力將梁山泊打造成男性集團,以男性化的眼光、

方式對待顧大嫂等人,在團體內同化,全面防堵內心的陰影。但是內在的和諧是擺脫

緊張的唯一方式,女性陰影形象所代表的死亡、毀滅意涵既然無法消除,唯有面對,

以完整的人格,接納另外一面的聲音,使女性陰影成為「內在世界的嚮導和居中協調

者」37。李師師兼具妓女、國母的形象,已然由 低的生物層次,過渡到美的表現,

乃至於近乎值得尊崇奉獻的國母,九天玄女則是 高的智慧神聖母神。

透過神聖母神的引導,不僅從內在擺脫生命的緊繃,接納內心的另一面,就外在

行為來說,自給自足的梁山集團,開始進入社會秩序。原先以個人生存為要、不斷追

求生命欲望滿足的梁山好漢,從旁若無人的態度,轉而以忠君護民為己任,忠君則尊

上,護民則安下,開始背負他者生命的責任,從封閉到開放,在一場場征戰中,不斷

為他人消耗折損,雖然無所獎賞,卻一路秉持替天行道的宗旨,之所以稱天罡地煞為

英雄,正是從為他人犧牲的角度上著眼。

九天玄女以不可聞問、不容置疑的天道作為依歸,首先便將宋江等人納入絕對的

36 同註 11,頁 220。 37 同註 11,頁 221。

Page 172:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

165

高秩序當中,天命的目的、意義、細節無從得知,唯有以道德作為奉行天命的準則,

天命秩序等同於人間秩序。母神將梁山一班好漢,導向 高的天地規則,換句話說,

藉由母親的指導,天罡地煞方得以摸索縹緲難度的天意,奉行玉帝的指令。玉帝(天

意)作為未出場的父親,必須透過母親代言,好漢們方能從母親處接收到使命,至於

使命的內容,則是執行父親委任的職務與期許,在認同父親的同時,也就扮演父親的

角色,達成自我理想,蛻變為英雄,認同、回歸天地秩序38。

在回歸秩序、奉行天道的過程中,宋江未嘗沒有猶疑。李逵多次慫恿宋江自立為

王,雖然屢遭斥喝,但是李逵的聲音,活脫是宋江內心野性的 佳代言人,當宋徽宗

夢遊梁山泊,忽見宋江背後轉過李逵,手持雙斧,厲聲高叫:「皇帝,皇帝!你怎地聽

信四箇賊臣挑撥,屈壞了我們性命?今日既見,正好報仇。」(第一百回)說罷便持斧

奔來,李逵站在宋江背後,正代表另外一面的聲音,點明宋江希望游離在秩序外的企

圖。即使九天玄女已在還道村透露天機,賜下天書,期勉宋江奉行天道,此等奇遇大

事,宋江竟然能拋諸腦後,胡萬川指出,宋江在與高廉對陣以及征遼之時,天書沒發

揮多大用處,甚至恐怕壓根忘了天書這回事,「這真是一件奇怪的事」39。究其所以,

天書既是九天玄女顯聖的證據,也代表難以違抗的旨意,忘了天書,或者降低天書的

功用,意味著暫時拋開既定天命,擺脫恪守天道秩序的壓力。因此征遼之際九天玄女

需要再度顯靈,告知破陣之法、重申天道定律。

九天玄女作為引導者,一開始就道破天罡地煞降生的緣由,是因為魔心未斷,道

行未完,因此玉帝暫罰人間,完成未竟之修練,應劫而生。天地之間自有生生之德與

肅殺之氣,一旦時運所至,昔日未了的瘟疫劫數,今朝成了鬧動朝野的兵災血刃,殺

劫既是天運所在,執行天命成了魔星降生的任務。

但是之所以委由天罡地煞完成,則是因為他們魔心未斷,強烈的求生意志,不惜

毀壞他者,以自身為出發點,拘執於個體。是以人間的遭遇,乃是修行歷劫的試煉,

惟有破除一己貪生的執著,以大我為念,將護民的使命,具象化為護國,從殺生轉為

護生,方得以蛻變昇華,破除我執,從魔星歷劫重生而為星君,在求生中昇華。換言

38 「如果說兒子從父親接收到的是委任(mandat),那麼,從母親處,他接收到的便是使命

(vocation)。」同註 3,頁 66-67。 39 同註 31,頁 140。

Page 173:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

166

之,眾魔星在釋放殺氣的同時,倒頭來也面臨死亡的考驗。一百零八條好漢在討平方

臘之後,十損其八,梁山結義終歸風流雲散,由降生到兵死返天,形成一套歷劫重生

的過程,破除個人生命形體的執著。李豐楙認為:

道教神學強調救劫、化劫的天地劫殺,「代天行殺」是有其宗教上的義理支持

的……修行就要積極地累積功德,「如何累積功德」……以征方蠟之行結束了好

漢性命……結局雖是「寂天寞地」,卻也是人間「修行」的完成。大寂寞正隱喻

殺的真諦:殺人者恆被殺、謫凡以殺終結而可謂兵解,而被殺也表明其功果完

滿40

天罡地煞在執行殺劫的任務中,也釋放殺氣,洗滌魔心,在替天行道的旗幟下,回歸

秩序,不再是法外獨立的封閉個體,重新與世界取得聯繫。

天罡地煞身為陽性的殺劫血氣, 終是在母性力量的引導下執行天命,了卻劫數。

從反抗死亡到面對死亡,九天玄女與李師師所代表的死亡-再生,正好推動天罡地煞

生命的昇華,天罡地煞終於從草莽強徒,蛻變為替天行道、護國護民的英雄,立廟祭

饗。

五、結語

《水滸傳》描述一群英雄從求生到犧牲的故事,全書充滿了對比,在塵世中為天

理與人欲的掙扎、在朝廷上為忠臣與奸臣的傾軋,在行為上則是義與利的抉擇。全書

點明亂自高俅當權而生,水滸英雄並不是生來就立志忠君安民的熱血義士,而是一群

充滿求生本能的平民百姓,終而在曲折的環境中,聚嘯而起。

然而這群法外強徒終究被收編到秩序當中,從聚義到忠義,梁山好漢的身份不停

地流動。在政權敗壞的前提之下,抵抗官軍的反賊搖身一變成為護國的鐵盾,轉換身

份的過程,油然流露出矛盾的張力。從護生落實為護國,再從護國約化為忠君,此間

千絲萬縷的糾葛,成為梁山集團內部唯一卻也是致命的衝突。為了在矛盾的壓力中安

撫眾人,宋江不斷對兄弟們編織美好的未來,設定衣錦還鄉、封妻蔭子的安樂人生,

對自己,則需要堅信一百零八位兄弟是星宿轉生,在經歷重重劫數考驗後,必然能回

40 同註 1,頁 69-71。

Page 174:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

167

返天庭。

這些衝突張力,又與書中的女性角色相互牽連,以考驗英雄的女色、協助事業的

伙伴、引導命運的母神三種形象,左右天罡地煞的命運。從一開始視女色為英雄的考

驗,挺身維護受欺壓弱女子,進而被迫亡命天涯,女色照鑑了當權貴者的蠻橫。或者

是面臨女子的仗恃凌人,女色與權貴結合,成為強勢權力的展露,都是藉由女色,穿

針引線地,帶出世道的混亂,眾好漢是以面臨死亡的危機。至於貌美的淫婦則被視為

死亡的代名詞,不僅性慾本身會消耗生命力,還會導致兄弟失和、無法齊心抵抗外界

的威脅。

梁山好漢每有憂生之嗟,為了對抗外界、權貴者的壓迫,奮力爭取生存空間,是

以集結聚義,組成一個高度凝聚、自給自足、足堪畫地為王的求生集團。在集團同化

的過程中,削弱女性特色、將之男性化,成為集團中的伙伴,兄弟之義才是通行梁山

的準則。

這一封閉、以自身求生為念的團體,經由命運母神的引導,終於朝外部開放,在

護國中守護蒼生之生,即便 後落得風流雲散的下場,但是在死亡中,生命得到再生,

從魔星升格為星君,九天玄女與李師師成為命運的指引者,如師如母,牽引英雄們一

步步面對恐懼的死亡,躍升生命的層次

三種女性的角色功能,依循著情節發展的脈絡推展,起先是以女色考驗者的功能,

配合好漢們求生的行動準則。接著則是將女性視為集團伙伴,配合大聚義的發展。

後則是透過大母神式的命運引導,將梁山好漢從草莽引介入朝廷、從魔星蛻變為星君。

大致而言,分為觸媒、同化兩種類型,考驗英雄的女色、引導命運的母神,兩種女性

角色觸發了梁山好漢從求生到再生的關鍵動能。至於協助事業的伙伴則呈現了集團內

部的同化現象,表現出梁山泊做為一以旺盛生命力求生之集團的封閉性格。

梁山好漢強大的生命欲力,與女性角色所扮演的功能相始終,從殺生轉為護國,

因此,本文藉由女性角色所扮演的功能,穿針引線,探討水滸英雄們的生命轉折,在

求生的歷練中, 後因生命的消解而獲致昇華。

Page 175:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

168

參考書目

傳統文獻

莊子,郭象註《莊子》(臺北:藝文印書館,2007)

司馬遷,《史記》(臺北:藝文印書館,清乾隆武英殿刊本)

施耐庵、羅貫中著,凌賡、恆鶴、刁寧校點,《容與堂本水滸傳》(據北京圖書館藏杭

州容與堂《李卓吾先生批評忠義水滸傳》為底本)(上海:上海古籍,1988)

施耐庵、羅貫中著,李泉、張永鑫校注,《水滸傳全傳校注》(據北京大學圖書館藏楊

定見序袁無涯刊一百二十回《忠義水滸全傳》為底本)(臺北:里仁,2001)

近代論著

余嘉錫等,《水滸人物與水滸傳•水滸傳三十六人考實》(臺北:臺灣書局,1971)

里仁書局,《水滸資料彙編》(臺北:里仁,1981)

林明德策劃:《中國文學新境界》(臺北:立緒,2005)

胡萬川,《真假虛實──小說的藝術與現實》(臺北:大安,2005)

夏志清,《夏志清文學評論經典:愛情•社會•小說》(臺北:麥田,2007)

夏志清著,胡益民、石曉林、單坤琴譯,《中國古典小說史論》(南昌:江西人民,2001)

孫述宇,《水滸傳的來歷、心態與藝術》(臺北:時報,1981)

薩孟武,《水滸傳與中國社會》(北京:北京,2005)

加斯東•巴什拉(Bachelard, Gaston)著,顧嘉琛譯,《水與夢:論物質的想像》(L'eau et

le reves: essai sur l'imagination de la matiere)(長沙市:岳麓書社,2005)

坎伯(Campbell, Joseph)著,朱侃如譯,《千面英雄》(The hero with a thousand faces)

(臺北:立緒,1997)

卡爾•容格(Carl G. Jung)主編,龔卓軍譯,《人及其象徵:榮格思想精華的總結》(Man

and his symbols)(臺北:立緒,1999)

David. Gilmore 著,何雯琪譯,《厭女現象: 跨文化的男性病態》(Misogyny)(臺北:

書林,2005)

埃力希•諾伊曼(Erich Neumann)著,李以洪譯,《大母神:原型分析》(The great mother)

(北京:東方,1998)

Page 176:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《水滸傳》英雄的求生與再生──以女性為切入點

169

尚•拉普朗虛(Jean Laplanche)、尚-柏騰•彭大歷斯(J.-B. Pontalis)著,沈志中、王文

基譯,《精神分析辭彙》(Vocabulaire de la psychanalyse)(臺北,行人,2000)

尼采(Nietzsche, Friedrich)著,周紅譯,《論道德的起源》(Zur Genealogie der Moral)

(香港:勤+緣,1992)

保羅-羅宏•亞舜(Paul-Laurent Assoun)著,楊明敏譯,《佛洛伊德與女性》(Freud et

la femme)(臺北:遠流,2002)

弗 拉 基 米 爾 . 雅 可 夫 列 維 奇 . 普 羅 普 ( Пропп, Владимир Яковлевич )

(Propp,V.K.(Vladimir kovlevich))著,賈放譯,《故事型態學》(北京:中華,2006)

弗 拉 基 米 爾 . 雅 可 夫 列 維 奇 . 普 羅 普 ( Пропп, Владимир Яковлевич )

(Propp,V.K.(Vladimir kovlevich))著,賈放譯,《神奇故事的歷史根源》(北京:

中華,2006)

勒內•吉拉爾(Rene Girard)著,馮壽農譯,《替罪羊》(Le bouc emissaire)(臺北:城

邦,2004)

佛洛依德(Sigund Freud)著,林克明譯,《性學三論•愛情心理學》(Three essays on the

theory of sexuality)(臺北:志文,1993)

泰瑞斯•瑞爾(Terrence Real)著,黃漢耀譯,《男人其實很憂鬱》(I don’t want to talk about

it:overcoming the secret legacy of male depression)(臺北:張老師,2003)

期刊論文

吳心怡:〈血染空白的一頁 從文學/藝術作品中「血」的意象談女性創造力〉《中外

文學》,第 27 卷,第 10 期,1999 年 3 月

李豐楙:〈傳承與對應:六朝道經中「末世」說的提出與衍變〉《中國文哲研究集刊》

(臺北:中央研究院中國文哲研究所),第九期,1996 年 6 月

網路資料

孫勇進,〈紅顔禍水—《水滸傳》中的女性問題〉

(http://intermargins.net/intermargins/TCulturalWorkshop/sex&gender/female%20sexuality/

%AC%F5%C3C%BA%D7%A4%F4%BD%CD%A4%F4%E2q%B6%C7.htm), 2013

年 3 月 1 日檢索。

Page 177:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

徐培晃 興大人文學報第五十期

170

The Trials of Heroes: the Female Figures in

the Novel Water Margin

Pei-huang Hsu*

Abstract

This study divides the female roles in the novel Water Margin (also known as

Outlaws of the Marsh) into three character types: (1) the feminine temptation and

trials for heroes, (2) a female partner as coworker and (3) a ‘great mother’ in guiding

destiny. Accordingly, the women figures are the models to demonstrate the

development and extermination of heroes from the Marsh. Most male characters in

the novel Water Margin regard women as a threat of death. Thus, the outlaws of the

Marsh prefer to adopt a brotherhood rather than a relationship with a woman in

order to weaken the feminine influence. However, the outlaws still need guidance

from a ‘great mother’ to fight against the threat of death, as well as to pursue the

value of life with others, instead of a self-contained struggle for individual survival.

Keywords: Water Margin, Heroes, Women

*Adjunct Instructor, the General Education Center, Chaoyang University of Technology

Page 178:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 171-196 二○一三年三月

171

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

李名媛*

摘 要

本文以橫跨清領、日治及民國三時期的醫師文人──林玉書(1881~1964)為例,

透過《臥雲吟草》與《臥雲吟草續集》二書所收的五十一闋詞作進行分析。其內容,

可分為酬酢遣懷、景物書寫與閨思愁緒等三類。在林玉書酬酢詠懷類的詞作中,有懷

念朋友及記錄詩社聚會情形,有祝賀新婚、新居落成、壽誕等的應用之詞,也不乏抒

發自己感懷及諷刺的作品;在描繪情景及歌詠物品方面,林玉書也發揮自己畫家的長

才,在刻畫場景時,常兼雜白描與誇飾;在閨思愁緒類別的作品,林玉書則「以男子

作閨音」,揣摩女性身分發言,寫女子在送別良人、閨中思夫的愁緒。透過本文的論

述,當可看出林玉書傳世詞作之內容及其豐富的情感蘊含。

關鍵詞:林玉書、林臥雲、詞學、《臥雲吟草》、臺灣詞

* 國立彰化師範大學臺灣文學研究所碩士班研究生。

(收稿日期:101.10.01;通過刊登日期:102.03.06)

Page 179:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

172

一、前言

對於臺灣傳統文學的研究,由於日治時期到終戰以後,民間詩社的蓬勃發展,因

此,目前論述多聚焦在古典詩或擊缽吟之上。然而,臺灣傳統詩人──特別是擔任詩社

「詞宗」者,在賦詩聯句之外,是否也有倚聲填詞的舉措?也是值得關注的議題。

在此議題中,林玉書(1881~1964)1便是一個極具代表性的例證。林氏生平橫跨

清領、日治、國民政府三個時期,且曾擔任淡交吟社、嘉社、鷗社與麗澤吟社的詞宗2,

在創作漢詩之外,亦有五十一闋詞作傳世。然而,就筆者目前所見資料,由於林玉書

踴躍加入各個傳統詩社,並擔任各詩社的顧問與擊缽吟的詞宗,是以方志及歷來前行

研究皆聚焦在林氏的詩人身分3,而鮮論及林氏之詞作。對於其詞作所進行的探討,截

至目前,僅有張良澤及許俊雅兩位教授發表相關論述。張良澤〈記諸羅詩人林玉書先

生之遺著〉係對林玉書之手稿及林哲三出版的《臥雲吟草初集》及《臥雲吟草續集》

二書作評介,具有文獻學上的貢獻,但在林氏詞作方面,僅提及「詞,收 23 首」4,

並未就其詞作內容進行深探。許俊雅教授於 2001~2002 年執行的國科會計畫「櫟社詩

1 江寶釵在《臺灣全志》卷十二《文化志.文學篇》中提到「林玉書(1882~1965)」,見國史館

臺灣文獻館編,《臺灣全志.文化志.文學篇》(南投:臺灣文獻館,2009 年),頁 102「林玉書」

條;賴彰能在《嘉義市志》卷七《人物志》則云林玉書生卒年為 1881~1964,見嘉義市政府主

編,《嘉義市志.人物志》(嘉義市:嘉義市政府,2004 年),頁 149;張良澤〈記諸羅詩人林玉

書先生之遺著〉則載林玉書「1881 年 1 月 15 日(農曆)出生」、「1964 年 3 月 26 日(新曆)逝

世。」見張良澤,〈記諸羅詩人林玉書先生之遺著〉《臺灣文學評論》6 卷 2 期(2006 年 4 月),

頁 158。然而,因林玉書出生於清領時期,當時戶政保甲制度尚未妥善建置,是否有晚報戶口

的的情形,難以查考,故此處採三案併陳的方式,補充說明。 2 嘉義市政府主編,《嘉義市志.語言文學志》(嘉義市:嘉義市政府,2005 年),頁 246-249;江

寶釵,《嘉義地區古典文學發展史》(嘉義市:嘉義市立文化中心,1998 年),頁 381-382。 3 就筆者目前所見,對於林臥雲之紀錄,洪東發在 1986 年 4 月 13 日所編之〈嘉義第一公學校第

二十五回同學會慶祝六十周年紀念特刊〉已簡略提及「林玉書:詩人,業西醫,書法家。」收

錄於臺灣省文獻委員會採集組編,《嘉義市鄉土史料》(南投:臺灣省文獻委員會,1997 年),

頁 221。其後,《嘉義地區古典文學發展史》則進一步提及林氏詩作的風格,見《嘉義地區古典

文學發展史》,頁 306-307;另見《嘉義市志.語言文學志》,頁 266。 4 張良澤,〈記諸羅詩人林玉書先生之遺著〉,頁 173。

Page 180:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

173

人的詞作蒐編、註解與研究(I)」5,則以龍文出版社《臺灣先賢詩文集彙刊》所收之

《臥雲吟草》作為文本。

基於前述原因,筆者則關注到林玉書在擔任詩社詞宗之外所產生的詞作,試圖採

取文獻研究法,以林氏所撰之《臥雲吟草》6與《臥雲吟草續集》7二書所收詞作為文

本,分析並釐清林氏詞作的創作面向與其時代關係,進而探討林玉書在傳統詩之外的

詞作內容及其風格特色,期能為臺灣詞人研究加以補白。

二、醫師文人林玉書及其詞作存佚現況

林玉書,字臥雲,號香亭、六一山人,嘉義水上人。8自幼好學,勤讀漢學古籍9,

並入嘉義國語傳習所學習日語,明治 30(1897)年畢業後,進入臺灣總督府嘉義病院

擔任翻譯。因有志於醫學,得到該院藍澤院長推薦,於明治 33(1900)年進入臺灣總

督府醫學校就讀。畢業後,返回該院任職,後自行開設慎德醫院,充分發揮醫者仁心,

為嘉義市第一位臺籍西醫,專攻內科與小兒科。10

林玉書除行醫之外,尤擅文學藝術,曾與賴雨若(1877~1941)、張秀星、沈瑞辰、

蘇朗晨(1887~1943)等人組茗香吟社11;又與白玉簪、林維朝(1868~1934)、王殿

沅(1892~1972)、賴惠川(1887~1962)等人創立羅山吟社,後羅山吟社、鷗社、樸

5 許俊雅,「櫟社詩人的詞作蒐編、註解與研究(I)」(國科會計畫:NSC91-2411-H003-013,臺北:

行政院國家科學委員會,2002 年)資料來源:「政府研究查詢系統」

(網址:http://grbsearch.stpi.narl.org.tw/GRB/,最後查詢日期:2012 年 3 月 24 日)。 6 林玉書,《臥雲吟草》(臺北:龍文出版社,1992 年,《臺灣先賢詩文集彙刊》本,第二輯) 7 林玉書,《臥雲吟草續集》(臺北縣:龍文出版社,2009 年,《臺灣先賢詩文集彙刊》本,第六輯) 8 「智慧型全臺詩知識庫」記錄林玉書在嘉義縣水上鄉三界埔出生,而《嘉義市志.人物志》亦

有其傳,筆者以為,林玉書應是在嘉義水上出生,後於嘉義市定居,晚年則遷往高雄市。見《嘉

義市志》卷七《人物志》,頁 149。 9 《嘉義市志》卷七《人物志》載「林玉書……自幼好學,並勤讀四書五經等漢學古籍,造詣至

深。」,見該書頁 149。筆者認為,林氏幼年仍為清領階段,四書則是當時的童蒙基礎教材,在

進入日治時期的十餘年當中,是否能如《嘉義市志》所言的「造詣極深」,仍有待商榷。 10 《嘉義市志》卷七《人物志》,頁 149。 11 江寶釵在《嘉義市志》卷八《語言文學志》云林玉書等五人因為以前所學不合時用,故創「茗

香吟社」,互為酬唱。見嘉義市政府主編,《嘉義市志.語言文學志》,頁 241,另見江寶釵撰,

《嘉義地區古典文學發展史》,頁 243。

Page 181:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

174

雅吟社等十詩社合併為嘉社12,林氏亦曾被推舉為「專務」。13並曾擔任鷗社、麗澤吟

社顧問14及淡交吟社、嘉社、鷗社與麗澤吟社的詞宗,可見林玉書在古典文學方面的

努力。

林玉書精於古典文學,在其生前便自行整理詩詞作品,共有二十六冊手稿,林氏

健在時,先由其哲嗣林啟三(1906~?)出資發行《臥雲吟草初集》15,顯見仍有出

版其餘作品的用意。1972 年,林啟三又將其父遺稿編為《臥雲吟草續集》一冊發行。

16龍文出版社則於 1992 年及 2009 年先後出版《臥雲吟草》及《臥雲吟草續集》二書。

目前可見之林氏詞作,即載於《臥雲吟草》(28 闋)、《臥雲吟草續集》(23 闋),共 51

闋。至於林氏的手稿,係由其後人林貴美女士捐贈、保存在真理大學麻豆校區的臺灣

文學資料館。17

三、聳肩拍案且高歌:林玉書的酬酢詞與自我療癒

無論是臺灣或是中國,傳統文人經常在婚喪慶弔、祖餞送別的場合中,以詩詞相

酬唱,其中有些屬於「變體」的作品,則是作者用以自抒其懷。在林玉書的詞作當中,

同樣存在這一類的作品,筆者所見,用以聯絡彼此情誼的共有十一闋;用來抒懷的也

有十一闋,茲分述如下。

12 《嘉義市志‧語言文學志》載「蘇孝德、賴雨若、林玉書等循鷗社創立五周年紀念聯吟大會決

議,柬邀嘉義市羅山吟社……共十詩社社友 159 名,設嘉社。」見《嘉義市志.語言文學志》,

頁 243,另見《嘉義地區古典文學發展史》,頁 249。 13 《嘉義市志‧語言文學志》「嘉社」一條載「歷屆專務為蘇孝德、林玉書、賴雨若三氏」,見《嘉

義市志》卷八《語言文學志》,頁 244,另見日‧鷹取田一郎,《臺灣列紳傳》(桃園:華夏書坊,

2009 年),頁 232;李毓嵐,《世變與時變--日治時期臺灣傳統文人的肆應》(臺北:國立臺灣

師範大學歷史研究所博士論文,2007 年),頁 41。 14 《嘉義市志‧語言文學志》「麗澤吟社」一條云「羅山吟社蔡漁笙、鷗社黃南勳因感嘉義市內諸

先輩社一時鉢聲沉寂,莘莘學子苦無機會研勵,提倡於鷗社外另組一社,研究韻學……敦聘蘇

孝德、林玉書為顧問,……相對於鷗社賴惠川為首的『大人社』,號稱『囝子社』」,見《嘉義

市志.語言文學志》,頁 245,另見《嘉義地區古典文學發展史》,255-256。 15 《嘉義市志.語言文學志》載「臥雲名玉書……著有《臥雲吟草初集》(1957)」,且所附《臥

雲吟草》書影有「初集」二字,見《嘉義市志.語言文學志》,頁 266-267。 16 張良澤,〈記諸羅詩人林玉書先生之遺著〉,頁 158、172。 17 張良澤,〈記諸羅詩人林玉書先生之遺著〉,頁 157。

Page 182:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

175

(一)聯絡彼此情誼

林玉書在聯絡彼此情誼這類的詞作中,以懷念、回憶朋友及記錄詩社聚會情形的

作品為多,以下用〈眼兒媚.中秋憶友〉為例:

等閑秋色又平分,往事總銷魂。月兒一樣,故人難覓,佳節空存。 香飄丹

桂依稀在,吟侶悵離群。素娥獨對,好詩未就,美酒強吞。18

在上半闋中,作者說明這是一個中秋的夜晚,難忘的往事陪伴他度過。月圓依舊,但

友人卻難尋,遂空度佳節;下半闋則描述這一個中秋佳節,桂樹仍然飄香,但作者因

為朋友不在,無法腦力激盪作出好詩,只能空對月亮喝酒,來排遣惆悵離群的寂寞。

其次,再以〈行香子.春會〉看作者記錄詩友聚會的情形:

春滿蕭齋,月皎瑤臺。好聯翩大啟騷懷,且欣令節,裙屐齊來,正皷連天。花

四面,酒盈杯。 吟都有趣,樂轉無涯,況吾人緣訂苓苔。更邀三友,放浪

詼諧。是大夫松、君子竹、美人梅。19

蕭齋原為唐人李約(?~806)為亭閣所命之名20,後人則多稱寺廟、書齋為「蕭齋」。

此處為後者之意。上片先寫出正月十五的夜晚,一輪明月高掛,令作者詩興大發。此

時,男女詩友紛紛前來赴會,伴隨著四周的鮮花與滿盈的佳釀,並敲打著行令所用的

鼓;下片則寫作者與詩友吟詩的樂趣,此樂除了詩友相聚之外,更因作者能夠將「歲

寒三友」引為知己,故靜態的植物在詩人筆下,便成為能與之論交的「大夫松」、「君

子竹」、「美人梅」,一同把盞談詩,放浪詼諧。屬於此類的作品,尚有〈千秋歲.西園

訪菊即事〉(堆黃疊白)21、〈水龍吟.花朝雅集〉(春濃香國題襟)22,都用來記錄作

者的活動。

18 同註 6,頁 184。以下凡對於詞作斷句或詞牌歸納,皆依照龍榆生,《唐宋詞定律》(臺北:華正

書局,1988 年)進行判斷,不另贅注。 19 同註 6,頁 188。 20 見唐‧張懷瓘,《書斷》。筆者所用版本為南宋‧左圭編,《左氏百川學海》所收《書斷列傳》(武

進陶氏覆宋咸淳中刊本),第 25 冊,辛集中,頁 7。 21 同註 7,頁 155。 22 同註 7,頁 158。

Page 183:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

176

接著,再看〈行香子.話舊〉所述林玉書與舊友重逢時的情景:

萬里分襟,七載無音,想丰姿萬里追尋,偶然重聚,如獲甘霖。好共開顏、旋

促膝、快談心。 客正低吟,月已斜沉,訴哀情忘卻宵深,頻懷舊誼,各表

丹忱。對一炷香、一壺酒、一張琴。23

上半闋中,作者說明與此位友人已分離七年,不曾見面亦無音訊,偶然重逢,就像久

旱逢甘霖一般,開懷地促膝談心。下半闋則描述由於闊別七年的關係,作者與友人正

在互訴離別後的想念,一時忘記已至深夜,而伴隨著這兩名知交的,不需外在的豪華

擺設,只需要一爐香、一壺酒與一張素琴,其中自有意趣。

除此之外,林玉書亦有用以祝賀的詞作,〈畫堂春.六旬內祝〉即是一例:

年周華甲祝筵張,舉家喜氣洋洋。介眉春酒泛高粱,特地濃香。 海角籌添

海屋,兒孫繞膝安祥。仰看南極拱高堂,益壽而康。24

題目中即註明是祝賀自己六十歲的作品。在上半闋中,說明自己六十歲的壽誕,讓家

中充滿喜氣洋洋的氣氛,運用《詩經.豳風.七月》的典故「為此春酒,以介眉壽」25,

表示祝壽之意;下半闋化用「海屋籌添」26來賀壽,並以兒孫滿堂,自己身體健康而

喜悅。與此相關的作品,尚有〈行香子.祝新居〉(大廈迎年)27、〈行香子.祝新婚〉

(一個靈醫)28、〈行香子.內祝〉(偶值金婚)29、〈人月圓.賀新婚〉(洞房華燭搖紅

影)30及〈一剪梅.有寄〉(握手桃城記客秋)31,這些作品包含祝賀新婚、新居落成、

23 同註 6,頁 190。 24 同註 7,頁 154。 25 唐‧孔穎達疏,《毛詩正義》,收入清‧阮元校刻,《十三經注疏》(北京:中華書局,1980 年),

上冊,頁 391 中。 26 《東坡志林.三老語》載「嘗有三老人相遇,或問之年。……一人曰:『海水變桑田時,吾輒

下一籌,爾來吾籌已滿十閒屋。』」見北宋‧蘇軾撰,王松齡點校,《東坡志林》(北京:中華書

局,1981 年),頁 47-48。 27 同註 6,頁 190。 28 同註 6,頁 190。 29 同註 6,頁 190。 30 同註 7,頁 154。 31 同註 7,頁 157。

Page 184:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

177

壽誕與贈別等用途,將詞的應用層面發揮的相當妥貼。

(二)抒發自我感懷

在自我感懷的抒發方面,林玉書與此相關的詞作,有自身之感觸與對社會的譏刺。

首先以〈虞美人.新秋〉為例:

西風嫋嫋涼清夢,蚓笛連宵弄。漸看桐葉點瑤階,報道燕兒歸去雁兒來。 登

樓翹首闌干倚,白髮知添幾。鏡中雙鬢感飄蕭,忍聽小庭疎雨數芭蕉。32

作者在詞題與首句,點出填詞時序甫進入新秋,聽到嗚咽的笛聲連夜吹奏,階前桐葉

逐漸落下,燕兒北返、鴻雁南飛,不禁增添作者心中孤寂的愁思。為了抒解愁緒,林

氏因而登樓憑欄,翹首遠望,奈何年歲漸長,不僅添了白髮,雙鬢也逐日稀疏。正因

感歎年華老去,昔日庭院雨打芭蕉的閑趣,到了今日,已因愁思而不忍再聽。

其次,再以〈壽樓春.有感〉來看作者感歎詩友逐漸變少的情形:

良朋苦無多,似晨星寥落,難問云何?碩果漸臻凋謝,虛卻諸羅,憑汝作、倩

誰和。傲骨稜稜枉摩挱,看來卻潮流。狂翻逆卷,擾攘幾時過。 心已碎、

鬢遠皤,綜丹求九轉、莫起沉痾,無奈是,任他淘汰,只管吟哦,驅酒魅、戰

詩魔,一息猶存、肯止戈,到水盡山窮,聳肩拍案且高歌。33

林玉書在這闋詞的上片提到,近來詩友日漸凋零,嘉義地區已少有可以彼此唱和的詩

友;下片則敘述自己傷心、鬢髮斑白,縱然求得歷經九次提煉的丹藥,仍然無法替友

人的疾病求得紓解之道。只好在一息尚存、山窮水盡之前,盡情把酒吟詠,聊以遣懷。

從這裡,吾人可以看出,以拯救生命為天職的醫師文人林玉書,在面對命限的終極問

題時,呈現一種樂觀的態度。

接著,試觀〈鷓鴣天.自笑〉詞中林玉書對自己老年景況所作的描述:

老我年來百不宜,畏寒怯暑總難支。起居眠食都非昔,視覺朦朧步覺遲。 問

32 同註 6,頁 186。 33 同註 7,頁 153。

Page 185:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

178

遣興、小凝思,會逢佳節可無詩,便呵動筆斜斜草,肥瘦精麤祇自知。34

作者在上半闋中,提到自己因為年老,天氣變化時,總會感到相當不適,起居作息也

跟往昔不同,也經常感覺視力模糊、腳步乏力;下半闋則提及佳節時,沒有詩作無法

盡興而自己書寫,詩的精良或粗劣,只有自己能夠明瞭。屬於此類的作品,尚有〈眼

兒媚.中秋〉(平分秋色十分幽)35、〈卜算子.初秋書懷〉(急雨打層樓)36、〈菩薩蠻.

對鏡〉(看來似我原非我)37、〈釵頭鳳.重九書懷〉(登高友)38、〈上西樓.重九〉(白

頭簪菊持螯)39、〈行香子.登高〉(準擬消災)40與〈虞美人.新秋〉(井梧一葉隨風

墜)41,這些作品中,或抒發自己思念朋友而無法見面,或描寫自己的感懷,或描繪

自己年老後的景況。

此外,也有作者對社會的諷刺。以下,以〈釵頭鳳.嘲吝者〉為例,看作者對於

自私人群的譏刺:

圖私己、渾忘恥,一毛難拔由人鄙。懸河口、翻雲手,惜財如命、貪杯賒酒,

醜!醜!醜! 言多哆、行猶詭,出門偏會裝窮鬼。雪中韮、風前柳,身將

就木、尚慳株守,臭!臭!臭!42

作者在這闋詞中,對自私之人的行為舉止作了相當深刻的刻畫。上片提出自私的人只

圖己利、一毛不拔、口若懸河又惜財如命;下片敘述自私的人出門時會假裝沒有錢,

就算人已臨近死亡之期,卻還是拘泥於此,不想改善,這些自私之人的行為真是醜惡

的代表。

綜上所述,在這類的作品中,林玉書有懷念朋友及記錄詩社聚會情形;有祝賀新

婚、新居落成、壽誕等之詞作,也不乏抒發自己感懷及諷刺的作品。這些作品中,有

34 同註 7,頁 154。 35 同註 6,頁 184。 36 同註 6,頁 185。 37 同註 6,頁 185。 38 同註 6,頁 185-186。 39 同註 6,頁 188。 40 同註 7,頁 155。 41 同註 7,頁 158。 42 同註 7,頁 156。

Page 186:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

179

以白描手法來描繪所要敘寫的對象,有將典故融入作品中,使詞作閱讀起來更加深刻,

也可看出林氏對於典故的運用相當嫻熟。

四、孤山幾樹玉瓏玲:林玉書詞的景物書寫

《文心雕龍‧物色》曾說「物色之動,心亦搖焉。」又說「情以物遷,辭以情發。」

43為景物對文學作品的影響,下了 好的註腳。林玉書本身雖以西醫為業,然而精於繪

畫的他,也常以傳統的詩詞,對外在景物加以描摹。筆者所見的這類詞作,共十六闋,

以下,茲將林氏詞作中的此類作品,區分為寫景、詠物二類,並舉例說明於次。

(一)寫景

筆者所見,林氏關於寫景的詞作,共有十三闋。首先,以〈虞美人.新秋〉為例:

井梧葉乍隨風舞,漸覺收殘暑。蟬琴餘韻鬧斜暉,惆悵渚荷零落脫紅衣。 夜

闌枕簞涼初透,絕好親燈候。小窓讀易和蟲聲,捲上半簾花影月三更。44

直到梧桐葉乍然隨風飄落,作者才驚覺酷暑已經過去,秋天隨之到來。夕陽西下之時,

只剩下寥寥幾聲蟬鳴,而沙洲的蓮花孤寂地掉下花瓣,更顯惆悵。夜深人靜之時,微

涼的秋意透過竹蓆與枕頭,向作者再次印證秋日真的到來。就在三更天的此刻,捲起

窗簾,伴著月光照映的花影,和著蟲鳴而翻閱《易經》,更顯得有一番怡然自得的韻致。

其次,再以〈西江月.春痕〉看林玉書對風景的描繪:

道是千紅萬紫,何如兩岸垂青,孤山幾樹玉瓏玲,景似萍蹤不定。 得意那

知乏趣,無言翻覺多情,吳頭楚尾忒分明,屐印蒼苔人靜。45

作者在上半闋中提及,雖然道路兩旁有相當豔麗的花朵,但是卻不如河流兩岸的綠柳

垂楊。山上幾棵樹木,在陽光的照射下,影子就像浮萍一般蹤跡不定;下半闋則寫出,

作者前往中國江南遊歷時,因為能夠理解箇中意趣,即使一路上只有木屐的痕跡與石

43 黃霖編著,《文心雕龍彙評》(上海:上海古籍出版社,2005 年),頁 149、150。 44 同註 6,頁 186。案:排印本原作「夜闌枕簟涼初逗」,於理未安,今據審查意見逕改為「涼初

透」。 45 同註 6,頁 189。

Page 187:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

180

上的青苔,但也能得到樂趣所在。

接著,再以〈行香子.嬉春〉為例:

萬縷情搖,一刻魂銷,儘風流韻逐香飄。停車嘯傲,聯袂逍遙,有雅人詩、騷

人笛、美人簫。 小憩茶寮,悄過虹橋,看芳時鬬艷爭嬌。春光易逝,勝景

難描。是白荼醾、紅芍藥、綠芭蕉。46

林玉書在上片中提及在春日時,自己與女性詩友一同出遊、聯句的情形,一邊吟詩、

一邊還有音樂伴奏,倍感逍遙;下片則寫路過虹橋之後,在一旁的茶寮稍作休息,看

到白色的山茶花、紅色的芍藥花、綠色的芭蕉葉,頓覺春光容易消逝,景色難以用筆

墨刻畫描摹。

再以〈更漏子.暴風雨〉為例:

秋風高、秋雨暴,萬象摧殘前導。花亂舞、葉爭飛,樑間燕不歸。 南山空、

北沼張,老屋丁東齊唱。土角厝、竹籬笆,欹斜狀似麻。47

作者以這闋詞形容暴風雨來臨時所見的景象。上半闋先以誇飾手法點出風雨的強烈,

導致花瓣與葉片都隨著暴雨而胡亂飛舞,就連屋樑上的燕子也因此而未歸巢;下半闋

則以山地地基被淘空、池水高漲,屋齡較老的房屋牆壁也隨著暴雨來襲叮咚作響。因

為暴雨的強烈,導致土角厝、竹籬笆也隨之傾斜。同樣描繪風景的詞作,尚有〈鷓鴣

天.寫意〉(桔緣橙黃得意天)48、〈蘇幕遮.鬬草〉(杏花天)49、〈搗練子.春興〉(風

剪剪)50、〈卜算子.寒夜〉(梧葉弄秋聲)51、〈西江月.春寒〉(似逐霏霏細雨)52、〈長

相思.閑適〉(朝吟詩)53與〈眼兒媚.中秋〉(香飄金粟倍嬋娟)54,上述皆為作者描

46 同註 6,頁 189。案:排印本原作「美人蕭」,恐為手民之誤,今據審查意見逕改為「美人簫」。 47 同註 7,頁 156。 48 同註 6,頁 187。 49 同註 6,頁 187。 50 同註 6,頁 188。 51 同註 6,頁 188-189。 52 同註 6,頁 189。 53 同註 7,頁 156。 54 同註 7,頁 157。

Page 188:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

181

繪自然風景的詞作,而〈西江月.新娘家〉(親迓花輿早到)55則是描寫一位新娘出嫁

的景象。

(二)詠物

除了描繪風景的詞作外,林玉書尚有詠物的作品。試觀〈攤破浣溪沙.梅花〉一

詞:

潔處孤山絕點塵,年年玉蕊放春新。慣向水邊弄疎影,更精神。 雲裡耐寒

明素志,風前消瘦守清貧。不逐李桃爭媚世,保天真。56

作者在上半闋中,提示了梅花耐寒、初春開花的特性,同時化用林逋(967~1028)〈山

園小梅〉一詩的「疏影橫斜水清淺」57,使梅花的特質一一湧現;下半闋則歌詠梅花

不與李花、桃花爭妍鬥麗,自守清貧的特質。在這之中也寄寓了作者不想與世人爭鬥,

只想保全本真的想法。

其次,再以林玉書同樣用來描繪梅花姿態的〈春光好.紅梅〉為例:

嬌作態、艷凝粧、放幽香,映水橫斜憐醉臉。雪初融。 料應急煞逋郎,孤

山外、未許輕狂,遙(遙)向灞橋招鶴子,共扶將。58

作者在題目即點出所歌詠的是紅梅,上片將梅花的姿態、淡淡幽香刻畫描繪,並以「雪

初融」指出當時的季節;下片則用林逋「梅妻鶴子」的典故,將林逋愛梅、詠梅及養

鶴的事蹟融入這闋詞中。無論是梅花的神態、幽香,乃至於初春雪融的景象,皆能妥

善刻畫,可以看出精通繪畫的林玉書,將其藝術造詣與文學創作相綰合的特色所在。

此外,再以〈天仙子.圍棋〉為例:

55 同註 7,頁 157。 56 同註 7,頁 154。 57 北宋‧林逋,〈山園小梅〉,見氏撰,沈幼徵校注,《林和靖詩集》(杭州:浙江古籍出版社,1986

年),頁 89;另見北京大學古文獻研究所編,《全宋詩》(北京:北京大學出版社,1995 年),第

2 冊,頁 1217-1218。 58 同註 7,頁 158。龍文出版社排印本《臥雲吟草續集》在這闋詞下片倒數第二句作「遙遙向灞橋

招鶴子」,筆者以龍榆生《唐宋詞定律》覆覈其句式後,判斷第二個遙字應為重出,但因缺乏林

氏稿本,難以判斷是否排印本出錯,抑或原始文獻即已誤植。

Page 189:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

182

為鬬楸枰時秉燭,藉此銷閑通款曲。手談爭勝重心攻,輸一局、贏一局,得隴

何堪還望蜀。 鏖戰幾忘宵短促,捲土重來籌雪辱。白也續、黑也續,箇裡

藏機殊不俗。59

楸枰為棋盤。上半闋中,林玉書指出自己常以圍棋作為休閒活動,也提出手談主要的

致勝關鍵,在於下棋者之心理策略,輸贏須得知足,此處係化用「得隴望蜀」60的典

故;下半闋則說圍棋時有激戰,因此忘了夜晚短促,即使輸棋之後也想重新再來、試

圖雪恥。雖然只是黑、白二色的棋子,箇中卻別有滋味。

綜合以上所述,可以看出林玉書在描繪情景及歌詠物品時,也發揮自己作為一位

畫家的身分。在刻畫場景時,常兼雜白描與誇飾,敘事時,也常有用典之作呈現。

五、欲別無言淚暗流:林玉書詞呈現的閨思愁緒

詞體在形成之初,係交由歌伎配樂演唱,而晚唐五代至北宋的男性文人所填之部

分詞作,有以女性身分發揮者,被稱為「以男子作閨音」,此類詞作多具有抒發閨思

愁緒的特色,如溫庭筠(812~870)〈菩薩蠻〉(小山重疊金明滅)61、柳永(987?

~1053?)〈定風波〉(自春來、慘綠愁紅)62,皆可視為詞體在代言方面的明顯例

證。林玉書也繼承了這個傳統,在其詞作中,亦有涉及閨思的代言作品。就筆者所見,

計有十三闋,茲臚列於次。

首先,先以〈惜分釵.本意〉為例:

離亭酒,河橋柳,一樣牽情空搔首。車遙遙,馬蕭蕭,淚珠欲滴,血海騰潮。

寥寥。 人已散,情難斷,無精打采方寸亂。手慵擡,眼慵開,芳心未死,

尚佇重來。猜猜。63

59 同註 6,頁 189。 60 《後漢書》卷十七〈岑彭列傳〉載「既平隴,復望蜀。」見南朝宋‧范曄撰,唐‧李賢等注:

《後漢書》(北京:中華書局,1965 年),第 3 冊,頁 660。 61 唐‧溫庭筠,〈菩薩蠻〉,見曾昭岷等編,《全唐五代詞》(北京:中華書局,1999 年),上冊,

頁 99。 62 北宋‧柳永,〈定風波〉,見唐圭璋編,《全宋詞》(北京:中華書局,1965 年),第 1 冊,頁 29-30。 63 同註 6,頁 184。

Page 190:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

183

在上片中,作者描述送別時,送行者與遠行者兩人雖然捨不得離開彼此,但是卻只能

默默無語地注視對方,卻只能焦躁地搔著頭髮,此時,車馬將行,眼淚也快要流下來,

心中的氣血不自主的翻動起來;下片則描繪即使良人已離去,心中的情思卻難以割捨,

不僅無精打采,心中的思緒也十分紊亂,手懶得抬起、眼睛也懶得睜開,仍持續等待

著良人歸來的那一日。

其次,再以〈百尺樓.憶遠人〉為例:

儂是斷腸花,郎是相思種,一別何堪又隔秋,病害今番恐。 知道早難歸,

悔不遲遲寵,腦煞孤衾淚怎收?眼比紅桃腫。64

作者在上片中以「斷腸花」與「相思種」作比喻,敘述離別後的相思之情,難以忍受,

生怕因此得了相思病;下片則刻畫了明知道良人難以早歸,又後悔當初未加以挽留,

因此落得如今這番田地,只能在夜晚暗自懊惱流淚,使雙眼哭得比核桃更腫,其愁緒

實躍然於紙上,極為生動。

接著,再以〈望遠行.送征夫〉看林玉書描摹婦女送征夫遠行的景象:

欲別無言淚暗流,愁緒上眉鈎。一鞭遙指戍邊樓,纖月冷深秋。 心已碎,

意難休,且期他日封侯。願君安好上徐州,何日得遂大刀頭。去旆渺難見,鵠

立只凝眸。65

此闋為描寫婦女送別即將遠行參戰的夫婿。在已有涼意的深秋月夜,女子默默無語,

只能暗自流淚,而離別的愁思已經悄悄地爬上她的眉毛,使雙眉糾結在一起。此時,

男子安慰她,以馬鞭遙指即將要前往的邊疆,就在聽到丈夫話語的同時,女子的心已

碎成片片,但盼望夫婿出人頭地的心意卻難以停止,只能期待他早日建功立業,安好

返回故鄉。 後,更點出軍隊遠行的旗幟已看不清,在後方鵠立的女子僅能目不轉睛

地持續在遠處眺望,愈顯悲悽之感。

再者,以〈一剪梅.閨思〉來看林玉書同樣藉著女性角色立言,描繪婦女期盼夫

婿早歸的情景:

64 同註 6,頁 185。 65 同註 7,頁 155。

Page 191:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

184

綉罷停針獨倚樓,偶爾凝眸,忽爾低頭,芳春話別到深秋。風也牽愁,雨也擔

憂。 屈指歸期數不休,道滯蘇州,翻滯杭州。未知何日買扁舟,只企回鄉,

敢企封侯。66

上半闋寫出女子在刺繡時,忽然停下手邊的工作,轉而倚靠著小閣樓,並定睛若有所

思看著遠方,忽然又低下頭,想起昔日夫婿從春天離家之後,便杳無音信,直至深秋,

連樓外的風雨也顯得為其良人牽腸掛肚一般;下半闋則描述女子扳著手指,細數丈夫

的歸期,一下子停留在蘇州、一下子停留在杭州,不知何時才能搭著船返回故里,因

此,女子已經失去期盼丈夫封侯的願望,只希望他能夠早日歸來。作者此處也化用唐

人王昌齡(698~756)〈閨怨〉詩中的「悔教夫婿覓封侯」67一典。而〈卜算子.閨

思〉(倦綉屢停針)68、〈虞美人.新秋〉(商颷打落梧桐葉)69、〈西江月.促裝〉

(是妾匆匆草就)70、〈長相思.秋閨〉(冷清清)71、〈長相思.秋閨〉(恨迢迢)

72、〈浪淘沙.秋閨〉(簾外怯衣單)73〈解佩令.春思〉(胡床半據)74、〈西江月.

閨思〉(寂寂孤燈掩映)75與〈春光好.愁倚闌令〉(天如水)76等作品,亦皆屬於此

範疇。

綜上所述,可以看出林玉書這些作品,皆以女性角度加以描摹,寫女子在面對良

人遠行時,對其夫婿的思念之情。言詞之中,將女性的愁緒描繪的淋漓盡致,同時也

在詞作中融入典故,使其讀來更為深刻。

66 同註 6,頁 186-187。 67 同註 6,〈閨怨〉,收入[清]彭定求等編:《全唐詩》(北京:中華書局,1960 年),第 4 冊,頁

1446。 68 同註 6,頁 184-185。 69 同註 6,頁 186。 70 同註 6,頁 187。 71 同註 7,頁 153。 72 同註 7,頁 153。 73 同註 7,頁 155。 74 同註 7,頁 157。 75 同註 7,頁 156。 76 同註 7,頁 158。

Page 192:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

185

六、林玉書詞作之特色

透過本文的研究,筆者認為林玉書在填詞時具備以下幾點特色,茲臚列論述於次。

(一)詞牌運用頗廣

林玉書現存的詞作,共計五十一闋,而其詞作使用的詞牌有二十七種,依其使用

之詞牌加以分類,計有〈惜分釵〉77、〈菩薩蠻〉、〈蘇幕遮〉、〈水龍吟〉、〈上西樓〉、〈搗

練子〉、〈天仙子〉、〈壽樓春〉、〈攤破浣溪沙〉、〈人月圓〉、〈畫堂春〉、〈望遠行〉、〈浪

淘沙〉、〈千秋歲〉、〈更漏子〉、〈解佩令〉各一闋,〈一剪梅〉、〈鷓鴣天〉、〈春光好〉、〈釵

頭鳳〉各二闋,〈眼兒媚〉、〈長相思〉各三闋,〈虞美人〉、〈卜算子〉78各四闋,〈西江

月〉五闋,〈行香子〉八闋,可以看出林氏對詞牌的廣泛運用。詳見下表〈林玉書詞詞

牌使用情形〉。

表一:〈林玉書詞詞牌使用情形〉

使用次數 詞牌 備註 小計

八闋 〈行香子〉 8 闋

五闋 〈西江月〉 5 闋

四闋 〈虞美人〉、〈卜算子〉

其中有一闋〈百尺

樓〉,又名〈卜算

子〉,因林氏撰寫

時,體制與〈卜算

子〉相同,故筆者

將其合併計算。

8 闋

三闋 〈眼兒媚〉、〈長相思〉 6 闋

二闋 〈一剪梅〉、〈鷓鴣天〉、〈春

光好〉、〈釵頭鳳〉 8 闋

77 〈惜分釵〉又名〈擷芳詞〉及〈釵頭鳳〉,但林氏此闋詞與其填之〈釵頭鳳〉體制不同,因此筆

者將其分開計算。 78 其中有一闋〈百尺樓〉,又名〈卜算子〉,筆者核對後,發現林氏撰寫時,其體制相同,故將其

合併計算。

Page 193:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

186

一闋

〈惜分釵〉、〈菩薩蠻〉、〈蘇

幕遮〉、〈水龍吟〉、〈上西

樓〉、〈搗練子〉、〈天仙子〉、

〈壽樓春〉、〈攤破浣溪沙〉、

〈人月圓〉、〈畫堂春〉、〈望

遠行〉、〈浪淘沙〉、〈千秋

歲〉、〈更漏子〉、〈解佩令〉

〈惜分釵〉又名〈擷

芳詞〉及〈釵頭

鳳〉,但林氏此闋

詞與其填之〈釵頭

鳳〉體制不同,因

此筆者將其分開計

算。

許俊雅將〈搗練子〉

題為〈卜算子〉。

16 闋

合計 51 闋

資料來源:筆者根據《臥雲吟草》頁 184-190、《臥雲吟草續集》頁 153-158 之詞作,

自行統計整理。

從以上資料可以得知,林玉書的詞作,使用的詞牌以〈行香子〉佔八闋為 多,

其中五闋屬於酬酢之詞,二闋用來描繪景物並寓情於景,另外一闋則抒發己懷;其次

為〈西江月〉(五闋),其中三闋為風景之作,另二闋則以閨思為主題,即便使用相同

詞牌,內容也有不同變化,能夠看出林氏對詞牌的掌握。

(二)多用小令填詞

林玉書雖僅有五十一闋詞作傳世,但除了廣泛使用詞牌之外,另一個特色是填詞

多採小令形式。在林玉書使用的二十七種詞牌中,超過八十字,屬於長調的詞牌79,

僅〈行香子〉(八闋)、〈壽樓春〉(一闋)、〈水龍吟〉(一闋),佔林氏詞牌使用量的九

79 小令、長調之分並非起於唐五代的詞人之手,而是明人顧從敬的強加分類,見明.顧從敬、錢

允治輯,錢允治、陳仁錫箋釋,《類選箋釋草堂詩餘》,收入《續修四庫全書》(上海:上海古籍

出版社,1995 年),集部詞類,第 1728 冊,頁 65 上-175 上。唯此說一出後,歷來爭議頗多,

如清人萬樹《詞律》即提出辯難,見清.萬樹輯,《詞律》(北京:中華書局,1957 年),第一

冊,頁 13-14。近人夏承燾、吳熊和二先生在《讀詞常識》則持論,有關小令至長調的區分,

無須拘泥於前人所訂的字數限制。參氏撰,《讀詞常識》(北京:中華書局,2000 年),頁 31-32。

鄭因百先生也說:「詞調有短有長,短的叫作令、長的叫作慢,通稱則為小令、長調。二者的區

別並沒有固定的字數,大概七八十字以下即是小令,八九十字以上即是長調。」見鄭騫撰,《景

午叢編》(臺北:臺灣中華書局,1972 年),上編,頁 95。筆者在此處係依照鄭因百先生的觀點

進行分類。

Page 194:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

187

分之一、詞作總數的五分之一弱。而低於八十字的小令有四十一闋,佔詞牌數量的五

分之四強、在詞作總數中也佔五分之四。從這些統計資料,可見林玉書喜好以小令書

寫詞作,為其特色之一。

(三)內容擅用典故

在林玉書的詞作中,常有以典故入詞的作品。就筆者所見,林氏詞中運用的典故

遍及四部,如祝賀之作使用了《詩經》的「以介眉壽」、「維熊維羆」之典;描寫手談

之樂時,使用《後漢書》「得隴望蜀」之典;寫祝壽詩時,則運用《東坡志林》的「海

屋籌添」;書寫節令詞時,使用唐人杜審言(648?~708)「淑氣催黃鳥」的語典80;

寫閨怨詞時,則使用王昌齡「悔教夫婿覓封侯」的語典;寫詠物詞時,運用林和靖「梅

妻鶴子」的事典,在化用典故方面相當嫻熟。

(四)摹寫技法極佳

林玉書在醫師的正職之餘,也是一位畫家,這個特色也顯現在林氏的詞作中。在

其描繪所見之風景、對物品的描摹敘寫,皆展現其描繪技巧,以視覺、聽覺、觸覺與

嗅覺等進行摹寫的作品也頗為豐富,如〈蘇幕遮.鬪草〉的「杏花天,芳草地。十里

春風,捲出韶光麗」,係使用視覺摹寫;〈卜算子.寒夜〉的「梧葉弄秋聲,吹破黃梁

夢。夢醒丁冬聒耳邊,鐵馬迎風動」,係使用聽覺摹寫;〈虞美人.新秋〉(井梧葉乍隨

風舞)下片「夜闌枕簟涼初透」,係使用觸覺摹寫;〈眼兒媚.中秋〉(平分秋色十分幽)

「桂香薰鼻」則使用嗅覺摹寫,這些摹寫令人讀來更覺生動。

(五)常以季節、時令入題

在林玉書的詞作當中,四季的書寫是其一大特色。從《臥雲吟草》、《臥雲吟草續

集》所收的五十一闋詞中,題目點出季節的就有十九闋,而作品中提及季節的,也有

二十九闋,占了其詞的一半以上。而林氏詞作當中,出現的特殊節令,則有上元節的

〈行香子.春會〉(春滿蕭齋),中秋節的〈眼兒媚.中秋〉(平分秋色十分幽)、〈眼兒

媚.中秋憶友〉(等閑秋色又平分)、〈眼兒媚.中秋〉(香飄金粟倍嬋娟),重陽節的〈釵

80 徐定祥注,《杜審言詩注》(上海:上海古籍出版社,1982 年),頁 13。

Page 195:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

188

頭鳳.重九書懷〉(登高友)、〈上西樓.重九〉(白頭簪菊持螯)。這些節令,都是傳統

漢民族聚會歡宴、親友團聚的重要節日,林氏將這些節令填入詞作之中,更顯出其內

心情感之濃烈與深厚。

透過上述的特色,可以看出林玉書的詞作目前雖然僅存五十一闋,但其作品無論

是在內容的豐富度或是創作手法的靈活度上,都有一定的成就,值得吾人加以肯定。

七、結語

本文以橫跨清領、日治、國民政府等三時期的醫師文人──林玉書為論述對象,

以其所撰之《臥雲吟草》與《臥雲吟草續集》二書所收詞作為文本,試圖分析並釐清

林氏詞作中的創作面向與其時代關係。

在林玉書酬酢詠懷類的詞作中,有懷念朋友及記錄詩社聚會情形;有祝賀新婚、

新居落成、壽誕等之詞作,也不乏抒發自己感懷及諷刺的作品。這些作品中,有以白

描手法來描繪所要敘寫的對象,有將典故融入作品中,使詞作閱讀起來更加深刻,也

可看出林氏對於典故的運用相當嫻熟。

在描繪情景及歌詠物品時,林玉書也發揮自己畫家的身分,在刻畫場景時,常兼

雜白描與誇飾,敘事時,也常有用典之作呈現。

而在其代言閨思類的作品中,林玉書皆以女性角度加以揣摹,寫女子在面對良人

遠行時,對其夫婿的思念之情。言詞之中將女性的愁緒描繪地淋漓盡致,同時也在詞

作中融入典故,使其讀來更為深刻。

林氏一方面以其醫師的身分在詞作中抒發對生命的感嘆與自我療癒。而他的另外

一重身分──畫家,則使得林玉書在填詞時,有著更為深入的藝術觀點。在時代背景

方面,由於林玉書橫跨清領、日治及國民政府時期,在其以男子作閨音所填的詞作中,

也呈現妻子送別良人出征這種大時代下的悲劇,可謂臺灣當時的「詞史」,堪稱林氏詞

作的價值所在。

透過本文的研究,可以看出林玉書傳世的五十一闋詞的內容及其豐富的情感蘊

含。然而,由於研究單一詞家的關係,較無法針對當時代與林氏彼此唱和的文人進行

作品文本比較,仍待日後一併納入討論,並另撰專文進行論述。

Page 196:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

189

參考書目

傳統文獻

南朝宋‧范曄撰,唐‧李賢等注,《後漢書》(北京:中華書局,1965 年)。

北宋‧林逋撰,沈幼徵校注,《林和靖詩集》(杭州:浙江古籍出版社,1986 年)。

北宋‧蘇軾撰,王松齡點校,《東坡志林》(北京:中華書局,1981 年)。

南宋‧左圭編,《左氏百川學海》(武進陶氏覆宋咸淳中刊本),第 25 冊,辛集中。

明.顧從敬、錢允治輯,錢允治、陳仁錫箋釋,《類選箋釋草堂詩餘》,收入《續修四

庫全書》(上海:上海古籍出版社,1995 年),集部詞類,第 1728 冊。

清.萬樹輯,《詞律》(北京:中華書局,1957 年)。

清‧彭定求等編,《全唐詩》(北京:中華書局,1960 年)。

清‧阮元校刻,《十三經注疏》(北京:中華書局,1980 年)。

近代論著

北京大學古文獻研究所編,《全宋詩》(北京:北京大學出版社,1995 年)。

江寶釵,《嘉義地區古典文學發展史》(嘉義市:嘉義市立文化中心,1998 年)。

李毓嵐,《世變與時變──日治時期臺灣傳統文人的肆應》(臺北:國立臺灣師範大學

歷史研究所博士論文,2007 年)。

林玉書,《臥雲吟草》(臺北:龍文出版社,1992 年《臺灣先賢詩文集彙刊》本,第二

輯)。

林玉書,《臥雲吟草續集》(臺北縣:龍文出版社,2009 年《臺灣先賢詩文集彙刊》本,

第六輯)。

唐圭璋編,《全宋詞》(北京:中華書局,1965 年)。

徐定祥注,《杜審言詩注》(上海:上海古籍出版社,1982 年)。

夏承燾、吳熊和撰,《讀詞常識》(北京:中華書局,2000 年)。

國史館臺灣文獻館編,《臺灣全志.文化志.文學篇》(南投:臺灣文獻館,2009 年)。

曾昭岷等編,《全唐五代詞》(北京:中華書局,1999 年)。

黃霖編著,《文心雕龍彙評》(上海:上海古籍出版社,2005 年)。

Page 197:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

190

嘉義市政府主編,《嘉義市志.教育志》(嘉義市:嘉義市政府,2003 年)。

嘉義市政府主編,《嘉義市志.人物志》(嘉義市:嘉義市政府,2004 年)。

嘉義市政府主編,《嘉義市志.語言文學志》(嘉義市:嘉義市政府,2005 年)。

臺灣省文獻委員會採集組主編,《嘉義市鄉土史料》(南投:臺灣省文獻委員會,1997

年)。

鄭騫撰,《景午叢編》(臺北:臺灣中華書局,1972 年)。

龍榆生,《唐宋詞定律》(臺北:華正書局,1988 年)。

日‧鷹取田一郎,《臺灣列紳傳》(桃園:華夏書坊,2009 年)。

期刊論文

張良澤,〈記諸羅詩人林玉書先生之遺著〉《臺灣文學評論》6 卷 2 期(2006 年 4 月),

頁 157-174。

Page 198:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

191

附錄

主題 詞牌 題目 首句 出處

一、酬酢遣懷

(酬酢)

眼兒媚 中秋憶友 等閑秋色又平分 《臥雲吟草》,頁

184。

一、酬酢遣懷

(酬酢)

行香子 春會 春滿蕭齋 《臥雲吟草》,頁

188。

一、酬酢遣懷

(酬酢)

行香子 話舊 萬里分襟 《臥雲吟草》,頁

190。

一、酬酢遣懷

(酬酢)

千秋歲 西園訪菊即

堆黃疊白 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 155。

一、酬酢遣懷

(酬酢)

一剪梅 有寄 握手桃城記客秋 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 157。

一、酬酢遣懷

(酬酢)

水龍吟 花朝雅集 春濃香國題襟 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 158。

一、酬酢遣懷

(祝賀)

行香子 祝新居 大廈迎年 《臥雲吟草》,頁

190。

一、酬酢遣懷

(祝賀)

行香子 祝新婚 一個靈醫 《臥雲吟草》,頁

190。

一、酬酢遣懷

(祝賀)

行香子 內祝 偶值金婚 《臥雲吟草》,頁

190。

一、酬酢遣懷

(祝賀)

人月圓 賀新婚 洞房華燭搖紅影 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 154。

一、酬酢遣懷

(祝賀)

畫堂春 六旬內祝 年周華甲祝筵張 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 154。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

眼兒媚 中秋 平分秋色十分幽 《臥雲吟草》,頁

184。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

卜算子 初秋書懷 急雨打層樓 《臥雲吟草》,頁

185。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

菩薩蠻 對鏡 看來似我原非我 《臥雲吟草》,頁

185。

一、酬酢遣懷 釵頭鳳 重九書懷 登高友 《臥雲吟草》,頁

Page 199:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

192

(詠懷) 185-186。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

虞美人 新秋 西風嫋嫋涼清夢 《臥雲吟草》,頁

186。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

上西樓(相見

歡)

重九 白頭簪菊持螯 《臥雲吟草》,頁

188。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

壽樓春 有感 良朋苦無多 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 153。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

鷓鴣天 自笑 老我年來百不宜 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 154。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

行香子 登高 準擬消災 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 155。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

釵頭鳳 嘲吝者 圖私己 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 156。

一、酬酢遣懷

(詠懷)

虞美人 新秋 井梧一葉隨風墜 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 158。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

虞美人 新秋 井梧葉乍隨風舞 《臥雲吟草》,頁

186。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

鷓鴣天 寫意 桔緣橙黃得意天 《臥雲吟草》,頁

187。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

蘇幕遮 鬬草 杏花天 《臥雲吟草》,頁

187。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

行香子 作畫 默坐蕭齋 《臥雲吟草》,頁

187-188。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

搗練子 春興 風剪剪 《臥雲吟草》,頁

188。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

卜算子 寒夜 梧葉弄秋聲 《臥雲吟草》,頁

188-189。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

西江月 春痕 道是千紅萬紫 《臥雲吟草》,頁

189。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

西江月 春寒 似逐霏霏細雨 《臥雲吟草》,頁

189。

Page 200:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

193

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

行香子 嬉春 萬縷情搖 《臥雲吟草》,頁

189。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

更漏子 暴風雨 秋風高 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 156。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

長相思 閑適 朝吟詩 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 156。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

眼兒媚 中秋 香飄金粟倍嬋娟 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 157。

二、景物書寫

(寫景)

西江月 新娘家 親迓花輿早到 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 157。

二、景物書寫

(詠物)

天仙子 圍棋 為鬬楸枰時秉燭 《臥雲吟草》,頁

189。

二、景物書寫

(詠物)

攤破浣溪沙 梅花 潔處孤山絕點塵 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 154。

二、景物書寫

(詠物)

春光好 紅梅 嬌作態 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 158。

三、閨思愁緒 惜分釵(釵頭

鳳)

本意 離亭酒 《臥雲吟草》,頁

184。

三、閨思愁緒 卜算子 閨思 倦綉屢停針 《臥雲吟草》,頁

184-185。

三、閨思愁緒 百尺樓(卜算

子)

憶遠人 儂是斷腸花 《臥雲吟草》,頁

185。

三、閨思愁緒 虞美人 新秋 商颷打落梧桐葉 《臥雲吟草》,頁

186。

三、閨思愁緒 一剪梅 閨思 綉罷停針獨倚樓 《臥雲吟草》,頁

186-187。

三、閨思愁緒 西江月 促裝 是妾匆匆草就 《臥雲吟草》,頁

187。

三、閨思愁緒 長相思 秋閨 冷清清 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 153。

三、閨思愁緒 長相思 秋閨其二 恨迢迢 《臥雲吟草續集》,

Page 201:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

194

頁 153。

三、閨思愁緒 望遠行 送征夫 欲別無言淚暗流 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 155。

三、閨思愁緒 浪淘沙 秋閨 簾外怯衣單 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 155。

三、閨思愁緒 春光好 愁倚闌令 天如水 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 158。

三、閨思愁緒 西江月 閨思 寂寂孤燈掩映 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 156。

三、閨思愁緒 解佩令 春思 胡床半據 《臥雲吟草續集》,

頁 157。

Page 202:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

臺灣傳統文人林玉書之詞作探析

195

The Research of the Ci Written by Lin Yu-Shu

Ming-yuan Li*

Abstract

Lin Yu-Shu(1881~1964)was a traditional “homme de lettres” whose works have

expansively gone through three historical periods of the Ching Dynasty, the Japanese

prepotency and the Republic of governance in Taiwan. To analyze his 51 ci in his literary

works Wo-Yun-Yin-Cao and the Wo-Yun-Yin-Cao sequel, it is possible to divide the contents

into three thematic troups: the poet’s entertainment and expression of emotions, landscape

writings, and women’s melancholic domestic thoughts. Among Lin’s ci about entertainment

and the poet’s emotional elaborations, he portrays the reminiscences of friends and

documents the gatherings of the Poet’s Society, in which he applys nuptial bliss,

house-warming regards, and birthday greetings. Meanwhile, there are many works that

express himself in recollection and raillery. In his landscape writings, he develops his

painterly penmanship, depicting the scene mimicking traditional line drawing in ink and

brush style and hyperbolic fad. As for the portrayal of women’s melancholic domestic works,

Lin impersonates himself as the “woman in men”. His attempt to articulate female identity

demonstrates his vivid emotional implications in terms of how he depicts the melancholic

woman who bids farewell to her beloved and her boudoir feelings. Through the exposition

of this article, we can see the rich emotional implication in the contents of Lin Yu-Shu ci.

Keywords:Lin Yu-shu, Lin Wo-yun, ci study, wo-yun-yin-cao, Taiwan ci

* Master Student, Graduate Institute of Taiwanese Literature, National Changhua University of Education.

Page 203:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

李名媛 興大人文學報第五十期

196

Page 204:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 197-240 二○一三年三月

197

小說家之外的孟瑤

──從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

羅秀美*

摘 要

孟瑤(本名揚宗珍,1919-2000)以小說知名於世。然而,孟瑤仍有其他值得注目的

文學表現值得討論。尤其是孟瑤的「女性散文」(〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉與《給

女孩子的信》)與「孟瑤三史」(《中國戲曲史》、《中國小說史》與《中國文學史》

等三部史論∕教科書)。這兩類文學表現的預期讀者都是學生與一般讀者,顯示孟瑤的

自我認同是女作家,但顯然更偏向女教師∕學者的形象;較諸其大量小說所建立的「小

說家」身分,似有不同。

是以,本論文擬透過這兩類文本,以理解是否可在其小說成就外,藉此以證成孟

瑤另一面較偏向女教師∕學者的形象,進而建構孟瑤「知識女性」的形象。

首先論及「女性散文」系列,既為自己、也為廣大女性的生命發聲;文本的知性

風格與「教育」讀者的意味頗為明確。其次論及「孟瑤三史」,既確立了孟瑤的學術

自我的向度,但其通俗化的教科書形式,也有啟迪更廣大學子與一般讀者之意。最後

綜論孟瑤由此兩大類文本所呈現的女性∕學術自我的表述∕認同,明顯地較偏向女教

師∕學者。由此並兼論一般現代文學史(論)的孟瑤多為「小說家」,似暗示她的自我

認同較偏向文學∕女作家一面,多數未見提及此兩類文本之偏向「教育」讀者的女教

師∕學者的形象。此外,孟瑤及其作品之被閱讀及研究,時至今日已然沒落的現實,

似與其寫作意識較偏向女教師∕學者的自我形象之認同有關。

總言之,孟瑤在五十至七十年代文壇∕作家與杏壇∕教師(學者)雙棲的系譜中,

是一位形象鮮明的知識女性。

關鍵詞:現代文學、臺灣文學、女性文學、知識女性、孟瑤

* 中興大學中文系副教授

(收稿日期:101.04.30;通過刊登日期:101.10.05)

(原 49 期稿件修改不及移至本期刊登)

Page 205:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

198

一、前言1

眾所周知,孟瑤(1919-2000)以小說知名於世。小說是她文學表現中的代表文類,

小說家也是孟瑤在現當代文學史中的定位,如今文學史對她的接受亦聚焦於此。

如同許多五十、六十年代渡海來台的女作家,身兼女學者的孟瑤也不例外,也具

備文壇與杏壇雙棲的身分。其雙重身分認同的現象,促使本文回觀五十至七十年代初

期的歷史語境,以觀察孟瑤一輩女作家的主體認同如何呈現。是以,本文發現孟瑤於

遷台初期(1950)即嘗試結合女性處境與報刊發表模式為女性∕自我發聲;其後又在講

學於新加坡南洋大學(今新加坡國立大學)與回台任教中興大學之際,撰著學術專著以

確立學術自我的向度。職是,本論文對於孟瑤這兩個階段裡較少為人所關注的文類—

「女性散文」及「孟瑤三史」特別感到興味。前者是孟瑤遷台初期的發聲之作—〈弱

者,妳的名字是女人?〉(1950)與《給女孩子的信》(1953)2這一系列「女性散文」;

後者則是「孟瑤三史」—《中國戲曲史》(1964)、《中國小說史》(1965)與《中國文學

史》(1973)等三部史論/教科書。本論文意欲藉此以掘發孟瑤之「知識女性」的形象

之建構,是否可由此兩大類文本的表述中,得到更多證明?意即欲證明此兩大類文本

較諸其眾多知名的小說創作,是否亦有證成孟瑤之做為「知識女性」形象的可能性。

但識者必然發現,在上述兩大類文本寫作(與出版)的二十餘年間,同時期的孟瑤

亦大量產出長篇小說,自 1953 年 5 月出版第一部長篇小說《美虹》後,同年 9 月出版

了散文集《給女孩子的信》3,其後一直到了 1973 年《中國文學史》出版的同年 1 月,

孟瑤也推出了長篇小說《弄潮與逆浪的人》,扣除三部短篇小說集,二十年間總計出

1 本論文原名〈女人在書寫中詩意的安居—試論孟瑤的知性散文兼及現當代文學史對孟瑤的接

受〉,發表於 2010 年 10 月 29 日「紀念揚宗珍(孟瑤)教授全國學術研討會」(中興大學中國文學

系主辦)。案:感謝諸位論文審察委員的細心指正,特此誌謝。 2 孟瑤《給女孩子的信》版本眾多,詳後第二節所述。 3 孟瑤的著作目錄,目前以吉廣輿,〈孟瑤研究資料目錄〉,(《全國新書資訊月刊》,2001 年 3 月

號,頁 34-42)最完備。然而,吉廣輿認為《給女孩子的信》初版於 1954 年 2 月。台北市政府文

化局∕閱讀華文台北∕華文文學資訊平台[孟瑤—作品目錄]

http://www.tpocl.com/content/writerWorks.aspx?n=C0227 (2013 年 3 月 1 日確認),亦以 1954 年 2

月為準。然筆者訪得更早之版本,為臺中中興文學出版社出版 1953 年 9 月初版,職是以此為準。

Page 206:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

199

版了 44 部長篇小說4,意即一年約兩部左右的高產量。易言之,自 1953 年開始推出作

品,除散文集《給女孩子的信》外,孟瑤幾乎皆以長篇小說為創作主力;甚至於 1964

至 1973 年接連出版「孟瑤三史」等三部大部頭史論/「教科書」的十年內,亦同時推

出了 18 部長篇小說。簡言之,孟瑤遷台後由青年至中年最精華的二十餘年間,即已締

造如此驚人的成績,甚至其後一生皆如此;直至暮年的 1994 年,已年逾七十的孟瑤仍

推出了她人生的最後一部長篇小說《風雲傳》,其人之堅毅實不可小覷。細述孟瑤的創

作歷程,顯示其小說創作上驚人的創作量,也是一般現代文學史(論)大多止及於其「小

說」成就,並以此為孟瑤的文學史地位定調的主因。

是以,就目前所見的文學史(論)而言,大多著眼於其小說成就上5。以 1996 年古繼

堂的《臺灣小說發展史》為例,該書對孟瑤的描述如下:「孟瑤,多產作家,在大陸時

期就開始創作,目前已有中、長、短篇小說集數十部。……這批女作家中,以寫小說

為主的有……孟瑤……等。」6、「五十年代臺灣女作家的小說,雖然有影響的作品不

少,例如長篇小說中的林海音的《曉雲》、郭良蕙《心鎖》、孟瑤《心園》……等等;」

7、「一九四九年國民黨遷臺時,大陸上一批女作家隨國民黨去臺。比如……孟瑤……

4 尚未包含 1957 年的傳記《鑑湖女俠秋瑾》與 1970 年《杜甫傳》,以及《荊軻》等 4 部兒童文學。 5 大部分文學史∕論多將孟瑤定位為「小說家」。文學史部分,如古繼堂《臺灣小說發展史》(台

北:文史哲出版社,1996 年 10 月)、古繼堂主編;古繼堂、彭燕彬、樊洛平、王敏合著《簡明

台灣文學史》(臺北:人間雜誌出版社,2003 年 7 月)、劉登翰;莊明萱等《臺灣文學史》(福州:

現代教育出版社,2007 年 9 月) 、樊洛平《當代台灣女性小說史論》(臺北:臺灣商務印書館,

2006 年 4 月)等文學史著作。較特別的是,劉津津、謬星象編著《說不盡的俠骨柔情—台灣武

俠與言情文學》(福州:福建教育出版社,2009 年 9 月)則將孟瑤列為臺灣「言情文學」作家。

論著部分,如齊邦媛〈江河匯集成海的六 O 年代小說〉,《霧漸漸散的時候—臺灣文學五十年》

(臺北:九歌出版社,1999 年 10 月)等、邱貴芬〈從戰後初期女作家的創作談台灣文學史的

敘述〉(《中外文學》第 29 卷第 2 期,2000 年 7 月)、范銘如〈臺灣新故鄉—五十年代女性小說〉,

《眾裡尋她—台灣女性小說縱論》(臺北:麥田出版社,2002 年 3 月)、梅家玲〈五十年代台灣

小說中的性別與家國—以《文藝創作》與文獎會得獎小說為例〉,《性別,還是家國?—五O 與

八、九O 年代台灣小說論》(臺北:麥田出版社,2004 年 9 月)等。學位論文部分,如吉廣輿《孟

瑤評傳》(香港新亞研究所碩士論文,1997 年);黃瑞真《五○年代的孟瑤》(政治大學國文教學

碩士班 95 學年度碩士論文);何宜蓁《孟瑤移民小說研究》(中正大學台文究所 99 學年度碩士

論文)等都是。 6 古繼堂,〈第五編 第三章 臺灣女性作家群的形成〉,《臺灣小說發展史》,(臺北:文史哲出版社,

1996 年 10 月),頁 174。 7 同註 6,頁 176。

Page 207:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

200

等等。她們到臺灣生活稍加安定之後,便又投入創作,寫出了一些愛情作品。」8此外,

2003 年古繼堂主編的《簡明台灣文學史》將孟瑤列入「第十二章 臺灣女性文學的勃

興」的「第二節 臺灣的女性小說」。綜合以上敘述,孟瑤的文學史定位,無疑地是以

「(言情)小說家孟瑤」為主流論調。其餘大量可見的現當代文學史(論)亦大多同唱此調。

相較之下,孟瑤的「女性散文」(1950、1953)以及「孟瑤三史」(1964-1973)幾乎

隱形於一般文學史(論)中,未見評述。是以,若一般文學史(論)也將孟瑤寫作小說以外

的文類一併討論,是否有可能「建構」或「拼湊」出不同的孟瑤形象:不(只)是「(言

情)小說家」,還有其他的形象,如女教師∕學者?是以,本論文擇取孟瑤較少為人所

討論的「女性散文」及「孟瑤三史」其來有自。

然而,孟瑤之「女性散文」及「孟瑤三史」如何能夠建構她做為一名知識女性的

意義與價值,本文試圖以「知識女性」(female intellectual)與「博學婦女」(learned womon)

以定義孟瑤的主體身分。首先,「知識女性」(female intellectual)的概念,部分借用艾

德華˙薩依德(Edward Said)《知識份子論》(Representations of the Intellectual)論及現代

「知識份子」(Intellectual)9的主要身分即為「學者」與「作家」的概念。而齊邦媛也曾

以「知識份子」評說過孟瑤:「她是以知識份子積極肯定的態度寫作」10。是以,本

文結合上述概念,定義孟瑤為身兼「作家」與「學者」雙重身分的「知識女性」(female

intellectual)。其次,「博學婦女」(learned womon)則借用曼素恩(Susan Mann)《蘭

閨寶錄:晚明至盛清時的中國婦女》(Precious Records:Women in China’s Long

Eighteenth Century)11的概念。曼素恩(Susan Mann)指出盛清時代(男性眼中)的博學

婦女有兩類,一是以班昭為典範代表的女教師∕學者形象。班昭具備多樣書寫才華,

除參與《漢書》的書寫,也有專題論文《女誡》,更有詩詞、碑銘、奏摺等其他不同

文類的書寫;「對於同時代的人來說,她代表了一個受教育的婦女所應成為的一切;

她是個非常具有影響力的道德教師。她繼承並展現了自己的家學。」12另一類則是以

8 同註 6,〈第七編 第一章 臺灣愛情婚姻小說潮的背景和傳承〉,頁 364。 9 艾德華˙薩依德(Edward Said) ,單德興譯,《知識份子論》(臺北:麥田出版社,2000 年 2 月)。 10 齊邦媛,〈第十章 臺灣、文學、我們〉7「文學的我們」,《巨流河》(臺北:天下遠見文化公司,

2009 年 8 月),頁 506-507。 11 曼素恩(Susan Mann),楊雅婷譯,《蘭閨寶錄:晚明至盛清時的中國婦女》(臺北:左岸文化

公司,2005 年 11 月),頁 182-191。 12 同註 11,頁 188。

Page 208:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

201

謝道蘊為典範代表的「柳絮才」,她們是聰穎過人的天才,也是令男性感到有威脅性(以

羞辱男性為樂)的女子。而這兩類女子形象是競爭而衝突的。《蘭閨寶錄:晚明至盛清

時的中國婦女》的中心人物「惲珠」(1771-1833)便是前述女教師∕學者的形象,是一

位既擅詩作,又能編輯(研究)女性詩歌全集的博學婦女。就此言之,孟瑤多元的文學

類型表現,與班昭或惲珠的典型近似,堪稱博學婦女的現代典範。是以,本論文借用

上述兩個異名同構的概念,以定義孟瑤做為現代「知識女性」∕「博學婦女」的典範。

然而,為行文方便,以及彰顯孟瑤之於現代文學史(而有別於班昭或惲珠)之意義,本

文以「知識女性」統稱此一形象。

此外,由於女性往往較不被期待成為活動於公共空間中的「知識女性」,因此「對

一向被剝奪公共空間權的女性而言,解決辦法有兩個,一是訴諸私領域的工作,一是

訴諸教育。」13是以,對於「知識女性」而言,其寫作能力與知識創造力,都是她「通

往未來與自由的路」14。據此,「知識女性」進入寬廣的學識世界,往往以作家和學

者為主要身分認同。再者,知識份子的重任之一是「努力破除限制人類思想和溝通的

刻板印象(stereotypes)和化約式的類別(reductive categories)」15,而「知識女性」經由「文

學創作」與「學術創造」這兩重寫作能力,同樣地也是在破除傳統加諸女性身上的限

制與刻板分類(女性歸屬賢妻良母)。是以,本論文擬針對「知識女性」在「文學創作」

與「學術創造」上的表現,試圖為孟瑤找出一個(或許)有別於一般文學史(論)的「(言

情)小說家」之外的「標籤」:偏向女教師∕學者的「知識女性」形象。

職是,本論文的旨趣便在於考察如孟瑤一輩兼具文壇∕作家與杏壇∕教師(學者)

雙棲身分的五十年代女作家,她們在生命空間劇變後的大時代裡,如何安頓自我。因

此,本論文擬回觀五十至七十年代初期的歷史語境,以觀察孟瑤一輩女作家的自我主

體之表述∕認同如何呈現,以掘發她們在何種身分認同中找到安身立命的所在。是以,

除了考察孟瑤大量的知名小說外,其他文類的表現有沒有可能幫助我們「拼貼」出「不

一樣的孟瑤」或「更完整的孟瑤」?進而言之,本文擬通過探賾她的「女性散文」與

「孟瑤三史」,以理解這些作品所透顯的孟瑤特質,與小說所呈現的,有何(異)同?

13 羅莎琳˙邁爾斯(Rosalind Miles) ,刁筱華譯,〈一些學識〉,《女人的世界史》(臺北:麥田出版

社,2006 年 5 月),頁 182。 14 同註 13,頁 182。 15 同註 9,頁 29。

Page 209:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

202

此其一。

其次,本論文對於孟瑤「女性散文」及「孟瑤三史」這兩類作品的定義取用是廣

義的「文學」概念(包含「學術作品」在內)。是以,除「女性散文」系列外,「孟瑤

三史」也在其列。同時,「孟瑤三史」在本論文的概念裡,既是史論,也是較通俗化

的教科書,其寫作初衷與前述「女性散文」系列,同樣以學生與一般讀者為對象。是

以,孟瑤這兩類作品,文類雖有別,然其寫作初衷所秉持的知性態度與教育讀者的理

念,實有相通之處。進而言之,孟瑤在撰述此兩類作品時的自我認同,既是女作家,

但顯然更偏向女教師∕學者「教育」讀者的取向上。因此,本論文擬透過此二大類「通

俗」文本:「女性散文」及「孟瑤三史」,一窺孟瑤藉此所呈露的自我表述∕認同,

是否較為偏向女教師∕學者一面的學術女性形象上?此其二。

再者,承前所述,其預期讀者皆為學生與一般讀者,似以「教育」更多讀者為職

志。更何況《給女孩子的信》曾是當代文壇之暢∕長銷書的事實,以及曾兩度出沒於

教科書中,皆可想見其「女性啟蒙導師」的形象。而「孟瑤三史」若置於民初以來的

文學史寫作脈絡中觀察,無可否認地,確有專屬於她自己的史識與慧見。但本論文認

為更有意義的是,「孟瑤三史」以學生與一般讀者為預設對象的通俗化寫作意圖,此

由於她意欲以三史「教育」學生與一般讀者的女教師身分認同使然?或者只是她一向

謙和低調的個性所致?由此又引出一個令人好奇的問題,「孟瑤三史」通俗化的特色,

是否正足以解釋「孟瑤三史」於今日學界已然沒落的原因?此其三。

由此,本論文認為一般現當代文學史(論)對孟瑤的定位多為「(言情)小說家」(少

數及於反共文學),大多僅述及孟瑤的言情小說,似暗示孟瑤的文學史地位僅以「言情」

女作家為標誌,大多未見提及此兩大類偏向「教育」讀者的女教師∕學者之身分認同

下所書寫的文本,尤多忽視廣受歡迎的散文《給女孩子的信》。因此,本論文試圖探

賾孟瑤小說之外的作品,以「補(文學)史之闕」,以便突顯孟瑤多元的文學表現,並

藉此「拼貼」更完整的孟瑤形象—文壇∕作家與杏壇∕教師(學者)雙棲的知識女性。

進而言之,時至 21 世紀的今日,孟瑤及其作品之被閱讀及研究明顯已然沒落的現實,

是否與其寫作意識與態度較偏向女教師∕學者的形象有關?或純然只是她一貫謙和低

調、不問榮利的性格使然?以今日的文學審美觀重讀其言情小說及所有作品,確已較

難引起大部分讀者的閱讀欲望。是以,面對其人其作已然「沒落」的現實,研究此議

題,顯然是極大挑戰。此其四。

Page 210:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

203

是以,本論文首先論及三十歲左右的孟瑤於 1949 年遷台初期的「女性散文」系列

16,其聚焦於女性的天職(家庭)與自己專業(事業)間的折衝與協商,以及女性的學養與

修養等議題,其間所呈露的自我表述/認同為何;其次則論及「孟瑤三史」,這三部

孟瑤於中年階段(1962-1966)遠赴新加坡南洋大學(今新加坡國立大學)因應教學撰寫的

專著:史論/教科書,對於建構其女性/學術自我的表述/認同的意義何在;另一方

面,「孟瑤三史」之通俗化與其為今日學界所遺忘的情形是否有關,亦值得探究。最

後綜合上述,發現孟瑤之為知識女性的女性與學術自我的表述/認同,宜乎較偏向「教

育」讀者的女教師/學者的向度;相較於一般現當代文學史(論)多以「(言情)小說家」

定義孟瑤,顯然更具豐富的意涵。是以,本論文擬補足她的女教師⁄學者的知性形象;

同時也藉此說明孟瑤其人其作之沒落(小說、「三史」),與此身分認同所展現的文學

風格是否相關,這是本論文擬兼而論之的問題。

二、女性的聲音──以「女性散文」啟蒙女性,也自我表述∕認同

「女性散文」意指孟瑤以女性處境為主題的散文。做為一代亂離人17的孟瑤,於風

雨飄搖的 1949 年抵臺,旋即於次年正式展開寫作生涯。其首篇文章為刊登於《中央日

報》的〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉,造成不小的迴響。其後,陸續於《中央日報》

發表《給女孩子的信》計二十篇,日後集結成書,風行一時。是以,其「女性散文」

系列可說是孟瑤早年來台後首先為讀者所接受的代表作品18,其中所觸及的女性的存

在議題,幾乎可說是孟瑤一生創作中的最主要關懷所在。是以,「女性散文」系列的

意義,並不下於孟瑤其他諸多小說創作,值得留意。

(一)自我表述∕認同的開始──以〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉開始發聲

孟瑤(1919-2000)自 1942 年畢業於中央大學歷史系後,即任教重慶私立廣益中學,

16 抵臺後的孟瑤,最早執教於嘉義省立民雄中學,旋即應聘省立臺中師範學校(1945-;臺中師專

1960-;臺中教育大學 2005-)任教(1949-1962),其寫作事業亦由此時展開。 17 借用孟瑤長篇小說《亂離人》(明華書局,1959 年)的書名。 18 《給女孩子的信》的出版時間 1953 年 9 月,雖稍晚於 1953 年 5 月出版的第一部長篇小說《美

虹》,但由於這二十封信早已先後登載於《中央日報》上,是以,或可據此推估孟瑤的女性散文

確實較小說更早為讀者所認識。

Page 211:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

204

這時也與大學同學張君締婚。1944 年舉家遷成都,長子張無難出生;並任教於四川省

簡陽女子中學。1945 年抗戰勝利,辭去簡陽女中教職,抱著大兒子乘木船溯長江三峽

返鄉。1948 年,次子張欣戊在上海出生。1949 年 2 月遷台,初期任教於嘉義民雄中學,

旋即應聘於省立台中師範學校,並開始創作,在《中央日報》投稿第一篇〈弱者,你

的名字是女人?〉,即用父親所取的別號「孟瑤」為筆名,自此立足於文壇。其後又

在《中央日報》陸續發表〈給女孩子的信〉共二十篇19。由此簡歷可知,孟瑤開始在

台灣文壇發出女性的聲音之際,已然身兼妻子、母親、教師等多重角色,以及新增的

作家身分。是以,孟瑤在家庭與職場中所顯現的生命關懷,已然十分可觀。

孟瑤正式展開寫作生涯的首篇文章〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉,刊登於 1950

年 5 月 7 日《中央日報》「婦女與家庭」版(武月卿主編)第五十九期。20〈弱者,

妳的名字是女人?〉並非長文,簡潔有力的呈露了女性為兼顧家庭與事業的心聲。文

章開篇即發出極為尖銳的呼聲,以表達所有知識女性的共同貼身難題:

每當自己不能振拔的時候,我總想起了這句話—弱者,你的名字是女人!

這句話像根針,總是把我的心刺得血淋淋地。是的,「母親」使女人屈了膝,

19 其後的人生歷程續補如下:1955 年轉任臺灣師範大學國文系講師,1959 年升任副教授。1962

年 1 月赴新加坡南洋大學任教。1963 年,次子欣戊赴美攻讀大學。1966 年 8 月回國任教臺灣師

範大學國文系。長子張無難赴美攻讀微生物碩士。1968 年開始任教於中興大學中文系。1971

年,長子張無難在美國結婚成家。1975 年初次赴美國加州探望兒孫;同年 7 月升任中興大學中

文系主任。1979 年 8 月積勞成疾,自中興大學中文系退休,告別長達 37 年的教學生涯。1985

年 1 月,赴美國加州探望兒孫。1988 年 3 月,次子欣戊結婚成家。1991 年 3 月,隱居佛光山「佛

光精舍」。1993 年 3 月,應兒孫之請下佛光山,遷回臺中。1996 年 3 月,遷居臺北次子家頤養。

2000 年 10 月 6 日病逝臺北三軍總醫院。可見孟瑤一生對於家庭與職場的關懷始終如一。 20 這篇正式在臺發表的處女作,孟瑤自己卻未留底稿。孟瑤〈孟瑤自傳〉:「最早我開始向中央日

報的〈婦女週刊〉投稿,第一篇名〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉,我就開始用父親為我起的號孟

瑤為筆名,這些雜稿都沒有保存,所以無法記錄;但是我連續所寫的十幾封〈給女孩子的信〉,

都有單行本行世。」,《孟瑤讀本》(臺北:幼獅文化公司,1994 年 7 月),頁 6-7。案:孟瑤記

憶中的發表園地「婦女週刊」,經查證實為「婦女與家庭」。可知,孟瑤對於自己的作品並無保

存的習慣,以致於書寫自傳的同時,自己也很難加以引證討論。僅憑記憶確有其不可靠性,也

令往後欲研究孟瑤文學發生困擾。如:陳器文〈用情至深奈何人世悲涼--懷孟瑤師〉(《臺灣

日報˙副刊》,2000 年 10 月 27 日)、陳璦婷〈論孟瑤五十年代(1950-1959)的愛情小說〉(《弘

光學報》36 期,2000 年 10 月)、應平書〈附錄:矢志獻身寫作的孟瑤〉(《一心大廈》,頁 213)

都曾提及孟瑤對自己著作的收集不甚在意。

Page 212:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

205

「妻子」又使女人低了頭。21

孟瑤在文章開篇即如此吶喊,道出女性在家庭與個人理想間發生衝突時,總是選擇倒

向家庭這一邊的無奈。此由於女性天生肩負著無可移易的天職——妻職與母職之故,

因此女性往往在家庭與個人的折衝當中,選擇成為「弱者」。然而,「弱者」後面的

「?」,其實也顯示了儘管孟瑤如此控訴妻職與母職對女人生涯自主的傷害,但也並

非表示她對婚姻即全然地充滿抱怨或後悔,至少她說道:「家給了我一切,但,使我

不願意的是:它同時也摘走了我的希望和夢。」22婚姻於孟瑤而言,既溫馨甜蜜又堅

實可靠,只是也意味著必得同時犧牲自己的希望和夢,尤其是「有了孩子的女人,就

像是一個最豪放的賭徒。」23是以,她在幸福的婚姻中,仍然感受到內心蠢動的希望

和夢,不時竄出並攪動心湖:「而這種波瀾,又總是與家庭幸福成反比的;那就是說,

當你知道自己有點作為的時候,也總是家庭瀰漫著層雲密霧的時候。」24職是,當女

人的個人理想與家庭利益相衝突時,孟瑤又理性地選擇把自己再拉回家庭這邊。

同時,孟瑤自承曾經「有點近乎病態似地崇拜武則天」25,以及《居禮夫人傳》

對她的巨大影響。以武則天為例:

她多麼蔑視『母親』與『妻子』這光華燦爛、近乎神聖的誘惑啊。而這可怕的

兩個陷人坑, 誰要邁過了它,震灼古今的勳業,便也隨著完成了。只是女人,

所有的女人都慷慨地,自動地跪了下去。26

就 1950 年代的時代語境與今日相較,顯然女性所受到的束縛與壓抑更加明顯,孟瑤這

段話中即呈露了當時諸多知識女性的共同心聲。顯然當時的孟瑤十分震懾於武則天因

蔑視「母親」與「妻子」的角色而得以完成勳業的事蹟。但她也指出,絕大多數的女

性並非武則天,大多數女性直接在「母親」與「妻子」的角色裡自動地跪了下去。而

21 孟瑤,〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉,《中央日報》第七版:〈婦女與家庭〉第五十九期,1950 年

5 月 7 日。 22 同前註。 23 同註 21。 24 同註 21。 25 同註 21。 26 同註 21。

Page 213:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

206

觀賞《居禮夫人傳》影片時,也使孟瑤受到極大的震蕩。這些在個人理想與事業上有

獨立表現的女性典範,幾乎使孟瑤曾想要衝出「家」這個牢籠。

但文末,孟瑤自言「再定眼一看,孩子嬌癡如花,丈夫柔情似水,我無言地,讓

夢想倒了下來,那時我想到的,就是這句話:弱者,你的名字是女人!」27是以,孟瑤

由一開篇為「弱者」加上「?」,至文末,卻明確地改以「!」確認女人是「弱者!」

這一現實,只因再有理想、再想成為「強者」,女人一旦面對家庭,便自覺地、自動

地成為了「弱者」。是以,年方三十初試啼聲的孟瑤,以少婦之姿所發出的女人心聲,

正是她自身的寫照,也是大多數身兼家庭與事業的女人之共同處境;當時,她對此衝

突的思考,是以犧牲一邊以挽救另一邊的想法為主,考量的重點仍以家庭為主,亦符

合她當時的生命處境與關懷。然而,後來的孟瑤,在女人兼顧家庭與個人理想這個議

題上,是否有所改變,會是下一小節討論《給女孩子的信》時將持續追蹤的議題。

其實,《中央日報》「婦女與家庭」版早於 1949 年即問世,其中所刊登的婦女問

題或性別議題,與晚近的相去不遠,甚至經常出現嚴肅的討論。依據林海音《剪影話

文壇》回溯,此刊文藝性重於實用性,刊登較多的是關於婦女問題與生活散文小品類

的文章,且作者多為 1949 年後渡海來台的第一代外省女作家,除孟瑤外,張秀亞、徐

鍾珮、琦君、鐘梅音、郭良蕙等五十年代的重量級女作家皆是。28這群女作家,或許因

深受五四後新式教育的啟蒙,性別意識較為明顯;難怪來台之初,即已展顯她們對性

別議題的高度關注,甚至較諸今日亦顯前進,孟瑤這篇〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉

顯然即為箇中翹楚。

而孟瑤所拋出的問題,更是近現代以來所有知識女性恆常面對的普遍命題。該專

欄編者武月卿也在此文前頭寫下一段編者的話:

案:本文所提出的問題,實為現社會中,成千成萬稍有抱負和理想的,已婚和

未婚的女性苦思焦慮,費盡心機,始終未獲得適當解決的懸案。作者思想明敏,

細膩深刻,你們文學造詣甚深,以委婉的文筆娓娓道出,更覺動人。讀者諸君,

27 同註 21。 28 參考范銘如,〈臺灣新故鄉—五O 年代女性小說〉,《眾裡尋她—臺灣女性小說縱論》(臺北:麥

田出版社。2002 年 3 月),頁 19。

Page 214:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

207

你們有什麼善策去解決這個問題,希望提出討論。29

武月卿指出折衝於理想與現實之間的女性難題,正是一樁「始終未獲得適當解決的懸

案」,可謂妙語。她也藉由刊出孟瑤的散文,道出了所有女性的共同心聲。而這篇文

章在當年也的確引發極大騷動,激發讀者對婦女處境與性別議題的熱烈討論。除武月

卿主持的《中央日報》「婦女與家庭」版,同時《中華婦女》雜誌30也有對婦女處境的

討論,亦引發不少迴響。可見此一議題誠為當時諸多知識女性所熱衷探討的切身議題。

簡言之,孟瑤在報刊的首度發聲,是以同樣身為女性的立場,面向「婦女與家庭」

週刊的女性讀者,道出她自己、也是眾多女性的共同難題。因此,孟瑤以〈弱者,妳

的名字是女人?〉標誌了她在台灣文壇最初發聲的定位∕形象──女人絕對不是弱

者,反而可能是強者;並以其後的身體力行,證明了女人的最大可能∕無所不能。這

是孟瑤首度的自我表述。

(二)對女性「讀者」的啟蒙──收編於教科書的暢∕長銷書《給女孩子的信》

自〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉成名後,孟瑤一邊創作小說31,一邊撰寫專欄,「給

女孩子的信」便是其中最知名者。起先連載於《中央日報》,直至 1951 年 7 月完稿;

其後於 1953 年 9 月始出版單行本《給女孩子的信》32。全書由二十封信組成,論題遍

及與女性相關的各個層面,如讀書、健康、器度、交遊、婚姻、家庭與事業、女德、

人生信念、性格修養等多項議題。全書大致可分為三大類,一是女性的身心健康:〈人

生幾何──談惜時〉、〈舉翅千里──談健康〉、〈藝術起源於遊戲──談消閒〉、〈與天

地競爭──談朝氣〉等四篇;二是女性的婚姻與人我關係:〈肝膽相照──談交遊〉、〈情

之所鍾──談婚姻〉、〈魚與熊掌──談家庭與事業〉、〈豐潤自己的生命──談群居與

獨處〉等四篇;三是女性的自信與器度:〈智慧的累積──談讀書〉、〈以天地為家──

29 同註 21。 30 《中華婦女》雜誌於 1950 年 7 月 15 日由中華婦女反共抗俄聯合會(婦聯會)創辦。 31 期間,1953 年 5 月《美虹》出版,同年 7 月《心園》出版。《心園》更是孟瑤自己十分喜愛的

一部小說,也是孟瑤奠定文壇地位的一部重要作品。由於《心園》的誕生,孟瑤在五十年代臺

灣文壇的地位遂由此確立,此後稿約不斷,成為紅極一時的知名女作家。 32 孟瑤的著作目錄,目前以吉廣輿〈孟瑤研究資料目錄〉,《全國新書資訊月刊》,2001 年 3 月號,

頁 34-42)最完備。然而,吉廣輿認為《給女孩子的信》初版為 1954 年 2 月,然筆者訪得更早之

版本,為 1953 年 9 月臺中中興文學出版社所出版者。

Page 215:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

208

談器度〉、〈駕扁舟以探大海奧秘──談勤儉〉、〈風度與容止──談女德〉、〈擇善而固

執──談人生信念〉、〈愛與美──談性格修養〉、〈機智的抉擇──談鎮定〉、〈行為的

規範──談取與予〉、〈有為者當如是──談好勝與嫉妒〉、〈更上一層樓──談自知與

自信〉、〈小不忍則亂大謀──談感情與理智〉、〈爭強取勝、精益求精──談勇敢與驕

傲〉等十二篇。可見孟瑤對女子教養所稟持的正面態度,務使現代女子成為身心健全、

家庭與事業和諧、自信又有器度的女子,其關懷面向既廣且深。

此專欄緣起於孟瑤任教臺中師範學校的經驗。當時孟瑤與一群未滿二十歲的年輕

女孩談論做人做事的心得,尤其是讀書與婚姻議題。這些話題使她與學生的距離被拉

近了:「為她們講一些做人的心得。更重要的是讀書與婚姻;當然,她們最感興趣的

還是怎樣正確地叩入那婚姻之門,找個良伴,相依終身。」33也因為這樣的經歷,孟

瑤乃將這些對女學生的期許發而為文。第一篇〈智慧的累積〉談讀書的重要性,便如

此誕生了。孟瑤自承寫作動機:「對學生們的訓話,為什麼不能變得有系統一些?對

學生們的訓話,更為什麼不能把它有系統地寫下來?……我要將它捕捉到紙上,我也

這樣做了,頭一篇,我寫下智慧的累積,談到讀書的重要。……。多謝中央日報副刊

給我的鼓勵,她不僅使我有系統地寫完給女孩子的信,且也導引了我走向寫作的路途。」

34可知,孟瑤寫作這二十封信,一方面為的是對學生的訓誨能夠有系統的保存下來,

恰好又有《中央日報》的邀稿,便直接促成了這二十封信的誕生。

以其中談及女性的家庭與事業的〈魚與熊掌──談家庭與事業〉為例,文中提及

兼顧家庭與事業是所有女人最困惑的問題,有一種人採取極端的態度,全然地偏廢任

何一邊,但無論走那一條路都有痛苦,於是一生活在矛盾與痛苦中。另一種人則是屈

服派,完全不去思考這個問題,直接投入家庭,成為賢妻良母,做家庭的奴隸。孟瑤

認為後一種人的問題,是整個教育的問題,無法細談;但前一種人的痛苦卻是值得同

情,並且應當想辦法解決的。35孟瑤此文顯然與前述〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉有

33 孟瑤,〈一份琢磨原璞的深刻用心──我怎樣寫「智慧的累積」〉,《中學課本上的作家》(臺北:

幼師文化公司,1994 年 10 月初版;1998 年 11 月八版),頁 122-123。 34 同註 33,頁 124。 35 孟瑤,〈魚與熊掌—談家庭與事業〉,《給女孩子的信》(臺中:中興文學出版社,1953 年 9 月初

版。本文目前依據 1990 年 5 月臺南信宏出版社《給女孩子的信》版本。案:目前市面上所見之

數種版本皆盜印本),頁 69-70。

Page 216:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

209

所呼應,似乎也為了解開自己的類似痛苦而設文。因此,孟瑤也自承:

過去,我在觀察上所犯的錯誤,就是固執地把家庭與事業看成一個絕對衝突不

能並存的東西,因此在處理上便只想挽救一面,犧牲一面。但事實上,我們若

能制其機先,是可能同時把握兩面的。36

是以,孟瑤一改之前〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉所稟持的確認女人是「弱者!」的

態度,變成一種折衷的態度。接著,她提出兩點看法,以解決女人欲兼顧家庭與事業

的問題,她認為最重要的關鍵在擇偶,若丈夫不但是精神上的愛侶,還是事業上的良

伴,女人便能毫無困難地兼顧家庭與事業,也就能夠消除矛盾與衝突。37另外,孟瑤

也提醒女孩子,未來物質文明的進步,女子消耗於家務的時間也將有所減少。38是以,

孟瑤接著說道:

所以,作一個現代的女孩子,把家庭與事業看成永遠衝突,無法並存的東西,

是錯誤;因此想把其中的任何一個面犧牲掉,更是錯誤。目前我們最重要的工

作,第一是努力於學問與技能訓練,其次是在你叩婚姻之門時,一方面要把握

愛情,另一方面還不要忘記同時取得家庭與事業的協和。39

可知,此時的孟瑤已由之前〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉對女人是弱者的「肯定」有

了轉變。

然而,若回顧〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉歷數女人身兼家庭與事業的無奈,細

究其文脈,仍可發現孟瑤對於女人能身兼家庭主婦與職業婦女兩種角色引以為「榮」

的隱微心思。就此而言,女人於孟瑤,可能不是「弱者」,反而是「強者」。整體言

36 同前註,頁 71。 37 同註 35,頁 71。 38 孟瑤:「物質文明越進步,家庭所能支用主婦的時間也越少(理想的物質設備減低了時間的消

耗),換言之,也就是說家庭與事業的衝突越小。所以一個進步的國度裡,女人在這一方面的痛

苦是極易克服的。目前中國,這一個問題特別能打擾每一個有名識有學問的女孩子,應該只是

過渡時期的暫時現象,不久的將來,它是會被時代進步所遺棄的。將來國家上了軌道,一切社

會的機構(托兒所,小學)會更普遍而理想;一切物質文明(電化、煤氣)會更廉價而實用。那麼,

一個家庭主婦,想把自己的「全付」精力用之於家庭都不可能。而社會上每一個職業部門,卻

都在向你招著歡迎之手了。」,〈魚與熊掌—談家庭與事業〉,《給女孩子的信》,頁 71-72。 39 同註 35,頁 72-73。

Page 217:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

210

之,1950 年代的孟瑤在其「女性散文」系列中所呈現的女性處境,強調並不偏廢母職

的「基∕激進」觀點,顯然領先了七十年代諸多西方女性主義者對「母職」的解構態

度。

進而言之,孟瑤這種對女性處境的折衷辯證態度,終其一生,大致多能在她的文

本中呈現。如 1984 年出版的小說《女人.女人》40,年逾耳順的孟瑤自承這是一部具

有紀念性的小說,她在書中刻畫了近代中國婦女的不同遭遇和責任,被譽為「近代中

國婦女史詩」,也可說是孟瑤的「自傳體小說」。小說中,早年為爭女權而奮鬥的蘭

芝,年近七十的她在台灣卻是為一家老小服務的「母親」與「妻子」:「蘭芝欣喜自

己一直很健康,真像一隻老母雞似的,展開兩翼,保護住這一家,心理快樂得什麼似

的。」41小說中另有一段描述她與先生林岐一起聽戲,為劇中溫順賢孝的「趙五娘」

而多情善感:

林岐……。蘭芝反而勉強笑著安慰他:「我什麼事也沒有;不過心裡頗有

感觸;你看,我從唸書起就忙著爭女權,爭取女人的平等與自由;女權爭到後,

女性的優美形象也失去了!今天,再找不到像趙五娘這樣的好女人,是不是?」

「話不能這樣說,」林岐道:「往日,也找不到像你,像朱品紫這樣的女

人,是不是?」

「我有什麼了不起?」

「在教育園地裡默默耕耘,又是家,又是丈夫兒孫,三頭六臂似的辛辛苦

苦一輩子。」

「你!」受到誇讚,蘭芝倒臉紅了。

「這是由衷之言,」林岐走近她身邊:「我不但感恩,而且覺得愧對你!」

「怎麼客氣起來了?」蘭芝倒笑了。42

小說中的蘭芝早年為女權奮鬥,後來為家庭丈夫兒孫奮鬥,既是「弱者」,也是「強

者」。「弱者」與「強者」,於女人並非截然二分的身分,而是可以自在辯證的女性

身分。是以,〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉與《給女孩子的信》之於孟瑤,其所表述

∕認同的女性身分,亦可由此得到明證。

40 《女人.女人》1983 年完稿,連載於《中華日報》副刊。1984 年由中華日報社出版。 41 孟瑤,〈當代—臺灣〉《女人.女人》第四部(臺南:中華日報社出版部,1984 年 9 月),頁 735。 42 同前註,頁 867-868。

Page 218:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

211

此外,整部《給女孩子的信》所呈現的知性氛圍與正面態度極為明確;亦可見孟

瑤對於知識女性的知性表現較為關注。以第四封信〈以天地為家──談器度〉為例:

古語云:「器小易盈。」往日女人的生活圈子小,與人群的關係簡單,自然胸

襟容量就不會大。這種情形的繼續發展,就造成女人性格上不能容忍的缺點。

只是時至今日,時代變了,女人不但要有廚房,還要有辦公室;不但要有親屬,

還要有朋友;不但要有家庭,還要有國家社會。因為她們的天地遼闊了,所以

與人群的關係也複雜了!假若我們還是拿過去的容量來容納今日的一切,顯然

是不夠的。我們要能對宇宙兼收並蓄,就必須先有一個能容納這一切的「大器」。

所以,要作一個時代的女兒,修身的第一課,莫過於展開自己的胸襟。擴大自

己的容量,多出門,多交朋友,多遊覽名山大川。看看天地之大,可以容我;

看看我胸襟之大,也可以容物。……我要以天地為家,以萬物為友。43

可知孟瑤對女子的「器度」如何看重。她強調一個時代的女兒,其修身的第一課,應

以展開胸襟為要。也應該走出去看看天地之大,以天地為家,以萬物為友。可見在孟

瑤心目中,女性應該要能夠在傳統空間的拘限之外,開發自己的知性幅度。器量,正

是她對女孩子的重要期許。而第十封信〈風度與容止──談女德〉中,孟瑤認為女人

的成長不只倚賴讀書,還需要注意做人問題:

怎樣才是一個現代女孩子應有的風度與容止?……所以如何培養每一個女孩

子良好的風度與容止,實在是件刻不容緩的事。但完成它的一方面靠學問的修

養,一方面靠道德的規範。而所謂道德,它必須把握承襲舊傳統與迎合新潮流

兩大任務。44

由此可知,孟瑤對於女孩子的修身課程,除了注重讀書求知,更強調良好的道德規範,

並能揉合舊傳統與新觀念,以提出適合當今潮流的作法。因此,她仔細推敲班昭《女

誡》的「四德」,並將班昭《女誡》中不合時宜者進行調整45,其中便提及女人的才

華不應只在主持家務上,此外女性應努力充實內涵。

43 同註 35,〈以天地為家—談器度〉,頁 29-30。 44 同註 35,〈風度與容止—談女德〉,頁 79-80。 45 同註 44,頁 80-81。

Page 219:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

212

職是,孟瑤對於現代女孩子的期許大致可見一斑。而孟瑤這些對年輕女孩子的絮

語∕期許,未嘗不是孟瑤的自我陳述∕認同的投射?透過自我對她者的對話,孟瑤藉

由「給女孩子的信」專欄(及結集專書)建構了一個所有女性的「想像的共同體」。在

此由姐妹們所建構的想像空間裡,孟瑤自認為敢發表這二十封信,「都是因為我站在

同性的立場,覺得這態度比較更親切一些。」46孟瑤以其一貫的謙抑,自言與這些較

她年輕的女孩子們對話,其實只是一種親切的家常,並非什麼說教的文字。無論如何,

《給女孩子的信》之風行卻是不爭的事實。此書不僅是當年的暢銷書,也是至今為止

的「長銷書」,孟瑤以其一貫淡定而自謙的態度,面對這二十封信所得到的廣大迴響:

「這不是純文藝的東西,因此裡面沒有詩情畫意,而只是現實生活中的枝枝葉葉,樸

質是它的特點,譾陋是它的過失。」47可見孟瑤對自己的作品,一貫地謙恭以對;而

暢銷以後的毀譽,更一貫抱以寵辱不驚的態度48。

《給女孩子的信》之如此風行,除了可證明它的議題與內容深入人心、說理明晰

足以服人外,盜版之風行亦有推波助瀾之效49。《給女孩子的信》至少有七種版本,

且多為盜印本;但孟瑤對於自己作品被盜印不絕的現象,似乎「無動於衷」50,這也

許和孟瑤對人世行「減法」對待有關。由於這種「可有可無」的淡定,孟瑤不僅連自

46 同註 35,《給女孩子的信˙跋》,頁 171。 47 同前註。 48 同註 35,《給女孩子的信˙跋》裡提及自己對於這二十封信的毀譽,「譽揚些什麼,這裡不提,

指責我的,不外乎討厭這點板臉說教的酸腐氣。知道了這些反應後,我心裡即有所警惕。當然

這些批評都是對的,但事先我並沒有注意及此,事後也就沒法補救了。」,頁 171。 49 據吉廣輿,〈孟瑤研究資料目錄〉,(《全國新書資訊月刊》,2001 年 3 月號,頁 34-42)所示,《給

女孩子的信》的版本,含盜版在內計四種版本。依筆者實際訪查所得,至少應有以下七種版本(以

初版為準):(1)臺中:中興文學出版社,1953 年 9 月初版 (吉廣輿:1954 年 2 月);(2)臺北:國

華出版社,1955 年?月(吉廣輿:無);(3)高雄:大業書店,1973 年 3 月(吉廣輿:「5 月」,筆誤?);

(4)臺南:標準出版社,1975 年?月(吉廣輿:無);(5)臺南:立文出版社,1977 年?月(吉廣輿:

1980 年 1 月);(6)臺中:晨星出版社,1982 年 9 月初版 (吉廣輿:1986 年 5 月初版);(7)臺南:

信宏出版社,1990 年 5 月(吉廣輿:無)。這是目前搜訪的結果,但仍無法斷定這七種版本即為

《給女孩子的信》的所有版本。 50 陳器文,〈用情至深奈何人世悲涼-懷孟瑤師〉,《臺灣日報》副刊,2000 年 10 月 27 日曾經提

及此點:「孟瑤師買書看書,看完送人;……那怕是自己寫的書也不疼惜也不留;……然而去者

不留,孟瑤師甚至對稱得上是嘔心瀝血的洋洋著作自嘲說:聊供「覆瓿」而已。事實上,當今

四五十歲的人都看過孟瑤小說孟瑤電影,《給女孩子的信》不僅風行而且被盜印出版不絕。……

但對孟瑤師來說,看得很淡,寵辱不驚。」《臺灣日報˙副刊》2000 年 10 月 27 日。

Page 220:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

213

己的作品都不易搜齊,更遑論關注盜版之橫行。總之,自出版以來,歷經三、四十年

歲月,《給女孩子的信》始終不曾絕跡於書市,可見其大受讀者歡迎之程度。

其後,成為暢銷書的《給女孩子的信》,也堂堂進入官方版教科書中。被選入教

科書的有兩封信,即第一信〈智慧的累積──談讀書〉51與第十七信〈更上一層樓─

─談自知與自信〉52。這兩封信也隸屬於前述內容分類裡第三大類「女性的自信與器

度」,尤其能夠彰顯孟瑤《給女孩子的信》對女子教養的知性層面與正面態度。

首先,以〈智慧的累積──談讀書〉被收錄的時間較長,影響較大。孟瑤認為女

子培養讀書習慣特別重要:「習慣培養興趣,興趣支持習慣,你才能發現,在我們日

常柴米油鹽,你爭我鬥的現實世界以外,還有一個多麼廣闊、沉寂、奧秘、或者是穆

肅的天地,足夠我們流連忘返。」53是以,孟瑤認為讀書主要是提供女孩們在俗務勞

形之際,得以沉潛的美好天地。尤其人會變老,但讀書卻使人們老得有智慧:「也有

一個人,在他鬢髮衰歇的後面,卻隱藏著一種特別渾圓、通達、靈慧的氣質,無疑地,

他們該都是曾經真正享受過讀書之樂的人。」54由此可知,孟瑤認為讀書能夠使人智

慧圓熟,尤其是女孩子更應養成讀書的習慣,否則便容易在生兒育女、相夫教子的生

活中,忘記充實自己:「你要想延長你生命的價值,便不能不在俗務以外,去攫取一

些學問智慧;在現實生活以外,去開展一個精神世界。否則,十年以後,你將變成一

個為眾人所厭棄的老蠢物!那麼,請記住,讀書吧!欣賞讀書之樂。」55是以,讀書

於女子更有意義。

其次,第十七信〈更上一層樓──談自知與自信〉,孟瑤提及人生不僅是個大舞臺,

也是個大機器,個人的角色是大是小,完全靠自知與自信。孟瑤尤其強調自知的重要

性:「天下沒有做一件自己感覺興趣的事更容易獲得的成功,天下也沒有勉強一件自己

最厭惡的事更容易招致的失敗,其中取捨之道,在於『自知』。所以自知的意義是明辨

出自己的長處與短處,以便加以利用或避免,脆弱的一環,設法加強;堅大的部分,

51 收入「國立編譯編」之《國中國文》第五冊第十一課;後也收入「部編本」《國中國文》第六冊

第二課(2001 年),目前訪查的版本是臺北育成書局 2005 年 1 月出版者。 52 收入「部編本」《國中國文》(選修)第三冊;後也被收入「九年一貫」《國中國文》第六冊(三

下)第八課。目前訪查的版本是臺北康軒文教公司 2005 年 2 月出版者。 53 同註 35,〈智慧的累積—談讀書〉,頁 8。 54 同前註,頁 9。 55 同註 53,頁 9-10

Page 221:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

214

勤加使用。」56是以,「有了自知的正確合適的土壤,自信的花朵當然欣欣向榮。」57因

此,孟瑤認為女孩子們應該學會自知與自信:「人生是一座舞臺,你必須學會怎樣把你

自己當作一個演員,同時又作這一個演員的觀眾,當你在臺上有把握(自信)發揮自己

的精彩演技時,同時不要忘了坐在臺下寫出一份最客觀最嚴正的批評(自知),指出一

切瑕疵與優異,然後,以自知作靈魂,以自信作衣冠,使這個出色的演員來演出這幕

出色的戲。」58是以,孟瑤對女子的自知與自信有更高的期待。

簡言之,藉由向女學生絮語,也將自身的體會藉由文字傳達給更多的預設讀者——

同性別的女孩子們,因此孟瑤在自我與她者的相互表述中,建構了想像的共同體,其

啟蒙女孩子的意義甚為明確。

值得一提的是,與孟瑤同時代的女作家,亦曾以書簡/日記體式散文,給年輕人

以「寄小讀者」59式的關懷,如謝冰瑩《綠窗寄語》、張秀亞《凡妮的手冊》與《少

女的書》、艾雯《生活小品》、葉曼《葉曼隨筆》等,都是當時知名的同類型散文。

究其實,在五十至六十年代反共文藝政策高舉的同時,符應家國大敘述的反共懷鄉之

作,無疑是主流。然而,一群渡海來台的女作家卻在國家機器所主導的意識型態之縫

隙中,遂行其私我的小敘述,親切的絮語式的書簡/日記體散文乃應運而生。其中所

絮語的內容多為女性的處境問題,與孟瑤《給女孩子的信》所提出之議題類似;或許

亦與諸位女作家同時大多身兼教職有關,是以對「小讀者」有一種特別的關愛之情。

然而,或許由於孟瑤《給女孩子的信》明晰的「說理」特質與「大器」取向,較諸其

他同期同型作品較偏向抒情小我的絮語模式,較明顯地符應了五十年代國家文藝政策

對健康寫實的要求;而兩度收錄於教科書以及長/暢銷四十餘年的事實,似乎更使得

《給女孩子的信》具有較高的能見度。簡言之,孟瑤於《給女孩子的信》所呈現的「女

性啟蒙導師」之形象似乎更顯著一些。

此外,除了以《給女孩子的信》成為五十年代的暢銷女作家外,孟瑤還有其他以

女性成長∕生命史為主題的小說,包括一部分與歷史小說重疊的女性傳記,如女詩人

也是女英雄的秋瑾傳記《鑑湖女俠秋瑾》(1956 年 7 月完稿,1957 年 10 月初版),

56 同註 35,〈更上一層樓─談自知與自信〉,頁 143。 57 同前註,頁 144。 58 同註 56,頁 145。 59 借用冰心《寄小讀者》書名。

Page 222:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

215

這部應中央婦女工作會之邀所撰寫的女性傳記,或許也能反映孟瑤的心象世界於萬

一,即舞文兼弄劍的知識女性形象。此外,如前所述之小說《女人.女人》(1983 年

完稿,1984 年出版)不只刻畫近代中國婦女的遭遇,其悲憫情懷更使它堪稱一部近代

中國的婦女史詩,當然也可視為孟瑤的「自傳體小說」。時至 1994 年,年已七十餘的

孟瑤,更展現極驚人的毅力,出版了人生最後一部長篇小說《風雲傳—兩宋的英雄兒

女》,其中描寫女詞人李清照的部分,不免令人聯想孟瑤對女詞人的流離人生,該有

相當知己之感。

簡言之,孟瑤由〈弱者,你的名字是女人?〉初試啼聲,直到以《給女孩子的信》

引起文壇(及教科書)注目,其一系列女性散文所拋出的女性出處與存在議題,可說是

五十年代極具份量的作品。而孟瑤也藉由對女性她者的知性對話,呈露了她對身為知

識女性的自我表述∕認同,較為偏向女教師∕學者的形象。

三、面向學生讀者發聲的史論∕教科書─以「孟瑤三史」安頓學術

自我

孟瑤除了五十年代初期以「女性散文」自我表述∕認同外,也於六十至七十年代

以「孟瑤三史」(《中國戲曲史》、《中國小說史》與《中國文學史》60)三部史論/教

科書,安頓其學術自我。在龐沛的小說創作能量外,尚能交出如此驚人的學術成果,

其人之勤勉不能不令人側目。值得注意的是,「孟瑤三史」不僅是學術論著,也是較

通俗化的大學教學用書,更與孟瑤出身歷史系而任教中文系、同時熱愛戲曲等多元而

豐富的背景有關。是以,「孟瑤三史」雖為孟瑤成年後的教學∕學術心得之總結,但

此三史與其她自小即熱愛或萌發興趣的戲曲、小說與文學(教職)等重大事件亦有明確

關聯。

60 孟瑤,《中國戲曲史》(臺北:文星書店,1965 年 4 月初版),本論文據傳記文學出版社,1969

年 12 月版。

孟瑤,《中國小說史》(臺北:文星書店,1966 年 3 月初版),本論文據傳記文學出版社,2002

年 12 月版。

孟瑤,《中國文學史》(臺北:大中國圖書公司,1974 年 8 月初版),本論文據 1997 年 10 月五

版。

案:前兩部於講學南洋期間即已完成,後一部則遲至回國任教中興大學時期(1968-1979)方才

完成。廣義言之,三史皆可謂孟瑤中年階段的南洋講學之作。

Page 223:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

216

如前節所述,孟瑤在「女性散文」系列藉由對女性她者的知性對話,呈露了她對

身為知識女性的自我表述∕認同,較偏向女教師∕學者的形象。「孟瑤三史」與「女

性散文」系列一樣,多半以學生與一般讀者為預設對象,其通俗化的寫作意圖,看似

有意借三史以「教育」學生與一般讀者,是女教師∕學者的身分認同使然?或只是她

一向謙和低調、不欲張揚為學術論著的個性所致?進而言之,通俗化的特色,是否也

正是「孟瑤三史」於今日學界沒落的原因?令人好奇。無論如何,至少在這兩大類文

本中,孟瑤所呈現的「知識女性」的自我表述∕認同,較偏向女教師∕學者一面的形

象,殆無疑義。

(一)「孟瑤三史」的正向價值—突顯戲曲、小說「邊緣」與「通俗」的價值

由於「孟瑤三史」為孟瑤平生最重要的三部史論∕教科書,且主題分別以她最重

視的三件大事——戲曲、小說與文學(教職)為主。一方面透顯其歷史系出身而任教中

文系的跨界背景,另一方面,戲曲與小說這兩項她的平生最愛,剛好也是長久被傳統

∕一般文學史邊緣化的「通俗」文類。然而,這兩項長久被邊緣化的通俗文類,卻被

一向也為文學史所邊緣化的女作家∕學者所重視,並且大書特書,如此便十足顯出孟

瑤書寫三史的正向意義了。由此言之,孟瑤書寫三史的典範意義值得留意,意即孟瑤

藉此欲呈露的自我表述∕認同,是以「邊緣」(女作家、學者)論「邊緣」(戲曲、

小說)的正向意涵,可見她身為知識女性的獨到眼光。

孟瑤書寫三史與她的「跨界」身分有明顯關係。孟瑤畢業於抗戰時期的中央大學

歷史系,並旁聽於國文系名家,如胡小石「楚辭」與「中國文學史」、盧冀野「曲選」

和唐圭璋「詞選」等課程。渡海來台後,先是任教臺中師範學校(1949-1962),前述「女

性散文」系列即撰著於此時。之後赴新加坡南洋大學任教(1962-1966),講授「新文藝」、

「中國小說史」與「中國戲劇史」三門課程,奠下往後寫作三史的契機。1963 年孟瑤

開始撰寫「孟瑤三史」。1964 年,《中國戲曲史》首先完稿,為「孟瑤三史」的第一

部,也是孟瑤自己期望最高的一部。隔年 1965 年,《中國小說史》完稿。短短兩年左

右,孟瑤極有效率的推出兩部學術論著,可見其人一貫的驚人毅力。回國後短暫任教

於臺灣師範大學(1966-1968);其後至中興大學中文系教授「中國文學史」、「史記」

與「新文藝」等課程,直至退休止(1968-1979)。其間,孟瑤於 1973 年完成《中國文學

史》,「孟瑤三史」至此確立。其出身歷史系而講學於中文系的「跨界」表現,在孟

Page 224:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

217

瑤身上的巧妙融合,即「孟瑤三史」的誕生。

孟瑤於 1978 年寫就的〈孟瑤自傳〉曾提及這段撰寫三史的過往:「五十一年以後

幾年,我去了南洋,因為課業繁重,又適應新環境,創作較少,但由於教『小說』、

『戲劇』,也趁空將所蒐集的資料,編著了《中國小說史》與《中國戲曲史》,其目

的也不過為了教學方便,將講義擴編成書而已,說不上有什麼其他貢獻。」61展現一

貫的謙抑態度。其弟子吉廣輿也曾提及孟瑤這段南洋講學的歷史:「作者因在南洋大

學任教的因素,結集出版了《中國戲曲史》、《中國小說史》,這兩套史學著作和十

年後在中興大學結集的《中國文學史》都代表了作者的某種自我交代和心願了了—在

紙耕紙耘的歷程中,作者依舊戀戀不忘自小浸淫喜愛的戲曲和大學時用心用功的史

學,一念在茲,便發而為這一類中國文學歷史的學術著作。」62由此可知,孟瑤之學

歷史復又寫文學、戲曲等史學論著,於她正是「某種自我交代和心願了了」的意義。

尤其是她認真面對生命之最愛與極有效率的任事態度,使她經常鞭策自己,才有如此

成績。

首先,孟瑤最為偏愛的一部是《中國戲曲史》。孟瑤本著一腔熱情,將她對戲曲

的熱愛,表現在票戲、登台串演與編寫劇本以及撰寫學術史(論)上63。而戲曲一直是她

教學與創作外最熱愛的另一生命:「由於兒時經常隨家人到戲院消磨時光,我是傳統

戲劇的熱烈愛好者。」64孟瑤也謙稱:「當然是因為戲迷家庭的傳統喜愛,……希望

能引起同好者的注意,共同商議一個挽救的良方。」65可知,寫《中國戲曲史》正與

她自小對戲曲的熱愛有極大關係。而從小愛看戲的她,也曾立下將來研究戲劇的「志

願」:「總有一天,我要好好地學唱,然後施朱敷粉,袍笏登場……而且不止此也,

我還要做學問,從書本裡鑽研出一套道理來。」66是以,對登台的喜愛與做學問的職

61 孟瑤,〈孟瑤自傳〉,《孟瑤讀本》,(臺北:幼獅文化公司,1994 年 7 月) ,頁 7。筆者案:書寫

此自傳時的孟瑤,不知何以未提及 1973 年即已出版的第三史《中國文學史》,個中原由猶待考

察。 62 同前註,吉廣輿,〈味吾味處尋吾樂—淺析孟瑤的心象世界〉,頁 17。 63 中興大學任教期間,孟瑤在公務繁忙之餘,不僅參與戲曲公演,更與戲友組成「友聯票社」、為

郭小莊「雅音小集」改編傳統戲曲。可見其熱愛戲曲是全方面的投入。 64 同註 61,頁 8-9。 65 鐘麗慧,〈愛戲的教授小說家孟瑤〉,《織錦的手—女作家素描》(臺北:九歌出版社,1987 年 2

月),頁 68。 66 孟瑤,〈戲與我〉,《文星》第 90 期,1965 年 4 月。

Page 225:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

218

業,再加上她對傳統戲曲式微所引發的使命感,遂催促她寫作戲曲史:「皮黃若想不

步崑曲的後塵退踞於地氈、書架、藝術之宮;則怎樣永遠活躍於舞臺,正是我想寫一

本戲曲史的最大衝動。」67由此可見她存心想要保存並發揚京劇,使其得免於崑曲般

走入歷史結局的用心,值得重視。

其次,以小說創作知名的孟瑤,也藉由《中國小說史》的寫作,傳達她對中國小

說被傳統文學史邊緣化命運的看法:

小說屬於文學的一部門,它的價值應與詩歌、散文相並列。而且,假若我們相

信文學不外反映人生,則小說比任何一種文體反映得更直接、更親切,也更熱

烈,我們原沒有理由對這種文體予以歧視。但自班固《漢書˙藝文志》不許小

說入流以後,從此它便被打入冷宮,正統派文人常不屑對它掃去一眼。這種現

象不僅使許多文學作品長期蒙塵,而且也因此延遲了小說應有的繁榮。68

孟瑤以其身兼文壇∕作家與杏壇∕教師(學者)的雙重身分,對中國小說備受冷落的命

運予以正視,乃成就小說史。同時,孟瑤認為小說的主流是說書,亦即宋代的「說話」。

這些「說話人」所流傳的「話本」就是白話小說的始祖。但孟瑤也認為「話本」為小

說史的發展,造成兩種特殊現象,一是其流傳的話本夠文學水準的極少;二是說話人

取媚聽眾對藝術的嚴肅性所造成的破壞。69是以,孟瑤認為由於這兩種現象,亦使得

當今許多創作者更輕視舊小說:

這兩種現象,使今日的許多小說創作者,常對舊小說產生一種歧視心理。他們

寧可徘徊、留戀於「擬翻譯」的境界,而不肯對舊小說一顧。另一批缺乏藝術

良心的筆耕者,又緊緊追隨於「說話人」的足跡之後,故弄玄虛,以騙取讀者

的趣味。這兩種態度,似乎都不是頂合理的。它使我們感到,在無理由的歧視

與輕率的摹倣之外,我們有將舊小說予以再認識的必要。70

可知,孟瑤亦藉此提出她對於當代「小說創作者」歧視舊小說的現象,以及另一批輕

67 同註 65,頁 68。 68 孟瑤,《中國小說史˙序》(臺北:傳記文學出版社,2002 年 12 月),頁 1。 69 同前註,頁 2。 70 同註 68,頁 2。

Page 226:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

219

率摹倣舊小說的筆耕者的看法,是以必需重新再正視舊小說,這也是《中國小說史》

的寫作背景之一。是以,孟瑤擬將中國小說之「邊緣」與「通俗」的價值予以正視,

遂有此書。而此小說史的特色在於孟瑤所論及的通俗文類:「變文」與「講唱文學」,

且加以大篇幅論述,如「隋唐五代」章的「丙」節即專論「變文」;而「宋元」章的

「乙」節則兼「變文」、「講唱文學」與「說話」等。此外,孟瑤也在「宋元」章的

「乙」節與「明」章的「甲」節標舉「文言小說」與「白話小說」的類目,使古典小

說的面目更加清楚而完整。可見,孟瑤小說史致力於正視小說這一向被邊緣化的通俗

文類的用心。

最後,孟瑤在《中國文學史》的〈前言〉裡指出,「史」的寫作要有史學、史識

和史才三者,而「史學有如散落的明珠,史識是那貫串散落明珠的彩線;至於史才,

卻是如何使這一串明珠組合成一美麗的花序。」71三者缺一不可。其中,「史識」部

分,孟瑤認為一般文學史著作不外乎兩類態度:

一是保守的,傳統的,以為中國文學的內容,除詩與散文而外,他無足論。這

種滯礙的態度,為我們所不敢取。……另一類是躁進的,偏激的,以為一切文

學皆來自民間。只有民間文學才有其真生命、真內容。這種大膽的假設,也為

我們所不敢取。72

是以,孟瑤認為現有的文學史恐大多有上述兩項偏重,一是以詩與散文為文學史的重

心,忽視小說與戲曲的價值;一是以民間文學為一切文學來源的大膽假設,只有民間

文學才有真性情、真內容。但這兩種取向的文學史,都是孟瑤認為較不可取的。73是

以,孟瑤自認《中國文學史》最大的特色即是平等論及「平民的」與「文人的」文類,

未偏廢任何一方。文學應該是內容與形式的相輔相成、平民的與文人的聲音相依為命:

文學,是由內容(內在的生命)與形式(表現的技巧)相輔完成。……文也好,

71 孟瑤,《中國文學史˙前言》(臺北:大中國圖書公司,1997 年 10 月),頁 1。 72 同前註,頁 2。 73 如:鄭振鐸,《插圖本中國文學史》(臺北:莊嚴出版社,1991 年 1 月)便將歷來不為文人雅士

所重視的彈詞、寶卷、小說、戲曲等所謂「俗文學」,以將近三分之一的巨大篇幅寫進了文學史

裡,並為「俗文學」正名,堪稱前無古人之壯舉。然而,此論著較偏重俗文學,與一般文學史

顧全整體的取向不甚相同。

Page 227:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

220

質也好,形式與內容交相輝映,便是這一種文體的巔峰、極致。……,一整部

文學史的發展,就是在這種內容與形式的相互消長中誕生其新生命,輾轉遞嬗,

綿延不絕。平民的聲音,沒有文人的潤飾不會精美;文人的靈魂,沒有平民的

滋補不會康強。他們相依為命,而且也只有在相依相遇的時候才會爆出火花,

我們忽視任何一方面,都能造成無可挽救的殘缺。這部文學史,就希望能做到

兩者兼顧。74

由此可知,孟瑤認為文學史的書寫應力圖兼顧「平民的」(小說、戲曲)與「文人的」(詩、

散文)文類,也就是「民間∕通俗文學」與「菁英文學」兩者之平衡,如此寫就的文學

史才是具有史識的文學史。因此,她試圖在這部文學史中達到這種雅俗共賞的目標。

是以,「孟瑤三史」的寫作方向,既出於她對戲曲、小說的熱愛以及復興∕正視

它們的使命感,藉此完成她自己對於學術自我的安頓。但更值得留意的是,孟瑤以《中

國戲曲史》與《中國小說史》的寫作,說明了她對戲曲、小說這類被傳統文學史視為

「邊緣」的通俗文類的重視;而他在《中國文學史》中平等重視詩、散文、小說、戲

曲等四種文類的態度,更清楚的宣告她對中國整個文學史的完整概念──不偏廢任一

文類,意即拉高了戲曲、小說的地位。

綜言之,孟瑤三史的寫作,彰顯了她個人跨界的學術生命之面貌。藉由寫史,她

得以將生命中最重要的三件大事──戲曲、小說以及文學(教職),化為具有意義的史論

∕教科書,並以之安頓她自己的學術自我。

(二)樹立平易的風格或「學術性不足」? ──「孟瑤三史」通俗化走向的相

關問題

然而,「孟瑤三史」儘管有其安頓自我的意義,但卻朝向平易簡潔的通俗化方向

撰就。整體言之,它們與當代諸多文學史相較,其學術性確實不大顯著,反而較接近

課程講義的系統化整理;因此,確實可收一目瞭然之效。而這種「平易近人」的風格,

可能也是她刻意預設面向一般讀者的寫作心態使然。再者,孟瑤一貫的謙和低調,或

也是她不願高調張揚三史為學術論著的另一可能因素。無論如何,「孟瑤三史」的評

價於六十至七十年代甫刊行之際即曾出現「雜音」,時至今日更幾乎匿跡於書市與大

74 同註 71,頁 2-3。

Page 228:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

221

學課堂,卻是不爭的事實。其通俗化的平易風格,難道會是主因?

首先,《中國戲曲史》這部論著是三史中她所最自豪的,即使如此,孟瑤仍自承

她寫作此書只有一個謙卑的目的:

由於一部理想戲劇史之不易竣工,所以本書的標準訂得很低,它只希望為愛好

中國戲劇而且對這一門學問開始發生興趣的人士,做一點初步的領導入門的工

作,所以在內容上只想做到脉絡分明,敘述條暢的地步。……但在取捨上凡較

精深較專門的材料,都無法不割棄,原因是本書只想為中國戲劇勾劃出一個最

簡單的輪廓,若讀者因看過這一本書而引起了更深入研究的興趣……。75

可知,一向謙抑的孟瑤寫作這部戲曲史的預設讀者為一般對此門學問有興趣的人士,

並無刻意標榜精深博大之意。反而是以簡單明瞭適合一般讀者為撰著標的,若讀者能

夠因此而引發更大興趣且願意深入研究則更佳。是以,本書若以史論∕教科書的角度

視之,則更能見出其面向一般讀者的平易特色。

是以,《中國戲曲史》的書寫風格確屬平易近人,以「皮黃」這一章為例,計分

「演出部分」、「演員部分」與「前途展望」三部分,呈現孟瑤論著一貫綱舉目張的

特色。前二部分內容偏向教學講義式的陳述,盡顯其教科書的面貌,較難引文。但,

除教科書∕講義式的正文外,其前言部分的散文敘述,確有可觀之處。如「皮黃」章

的前言(「演出部分」之前):

從乾隆四十四年魏長生入京,首先帶來崑曲王座不穩的消息以後,接著乾隆五

十五年的高宗八旬萬壽,四大徽班隨著花部其他戲班相繼而至,劇壇上一場熱

鬧的殺伐便已開始,這一場戰爭,雖然穿插很多,卻終於被四大徽班的嫡子——

皮黃取得皇冠。……但是根據自然之理,萬物盛極必衰,民國以後,皮黃的威

勢已遠不如前,各地方劇卻又趁機崛起!這第二場征伐戰是不是會來?皮黃是

不是還有可能繼續維持它的威勢?這正是我們所欲知道的。76

這段文字不僅十分明白曉暢,且略有說書人欲引人好奇的態勢。簡言之,不似(現今)

學術論著趨向謹嚴的行文風格,反而較似一般小說或散文的行文語氣。第三部分「前

75 同註 71,頁 6。 76 同註 60 前「皮黃」,頁 453-454。

Page 229:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

222

途展望」亦然:

我們對皮黃勾畫了一個最簡單的輪廓後,從中我們發現一個事實,皮黃發展到

今天,屬於它藝術的光輝,似已發揮盡致,它己活到了生命的頂點麼?以後的

歲月,只有日漸衰退僵化麼?這是一種悲涼的預感,以一個愛好者的心情說,

誰都怕這預感會成事實,卻誰也直覺到早晚有一天它會成為事實。興亡盛衰之

理原是自然的鐵則,沒有誰能掙脫它。百餘年前,它從崑曲手中取得權杖,讓

一個最精美的藝術做了那一場征伐戰中的悲劇主角。不想時換勢移,那不可一

世的戰勝者,今日也面對著一個相同的命運。……。77

這一段慨嘆皮黃已然步上崑曲沒落之後塵的文字,其明白曉暢的通俗化∕口語化特

色,顯然與〈前言〉所述之預期讀者為一般對中國戲劇有興趣的愛好者有關。是以,

孟瑤此書之通俗,確實有可能達到引發一般讀者的興趣之效。然而,若以後設之見,

如此通俗之敘述文字,似非學術文章,反而更近似一般散文。因此,俞大綱認為孟瑤

此作較同類型的王國維《宋元戲曲史》之文字更加活潑:「她運用極為活潑的口語來

駕馭一堆瑣碎而複雜的史料,讀來似較王先生過分嚴謹的考據文字生動些,更適合於

一般讀者的接受。」78可知,孟瑤《中國戲曲史》在語言表達上的活潑,確實使它更

平易近人。而其他二史亦有類似特質。

然而,這種平易的風格,是否也與孟瑤對前行者類似之作所產生的「影響的焦慮」

79有關,雖未便遽下定論,但仍引人好奇。如俞大綱即曾以她的《中國戲曲史》與王

國維《宋元戲曲史》(1913)、青木正兒的《中國近世戲曲史》(1930)相提並論:

孟瑤這部著作是承繼王靜安先生的《宋元戲曲史》,和日本學者青木正兒的《中

77 同前註,頁 593。 78 俞大綱,〈俞大綱先生序〉,同註 60 前,頁 2。 79 文學創作者而對於前代作家作品往往有著微妙的「焦慮情結」,此焦慮反映在新人敢於向傳統決

裂的氣慨,並有意迴避∕消解傳統(先驅作家作品)對其作品的影響。因此,如何才能讓自己的

作品顯得並未受到前人的影響,從而使自己也能躋身於強者作家之列,由此乃形成了布魯姆所

謂的「影響的焦慮」。布魯姆認為,我們對前驅作品的理解是人云亦云,千百代「誤讀」下來的

結果,因此「誤讀」先驅者的作品也就是樹立自己風格的途徑。以上敘述,參考徐博文,〈一本

薄薄的書震動了所有人的神經(代譯序)〉,美‧哈羅德‧布魯姆;徐文博譯:《影響的焦慮︰一

種詩歌理論》,(南京:江蘇教育出版社,2006 年 2 月),頁 2-3。

Page 230:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

223

國近世戲曲史》後,一部最令人滿意的中國戲曲史。王先生的宋元戲曲史,是

劃時代的著作。……他的影響所及,使近數十年來的中西學者研究範圍,跳不

出他的如來掌心,最多不過是憑藉新發現的片斷史料,作補充或局部的修正。

孟瑤此作,宋元部分,網羅這些修正和補充的意見,盡了一番搜集和抉擇的工

夫,這對王書而言,是有不可磨滅的功績的。80

俞大綱指出孟瑤此作正是在王國維《宋元戲曲史》和青木正兒《中國近世戲曲史》(近

世即明清)的基礎上所進行的集大成之作。雖然《宋元戲曲史》已具經典地位,但孟瑤

仍在宋元部分進行修正與補充。是以,就續補而言,孟瑤之作對王國維《宋元戲曲史》

已做出相當貢獻81。因此,孟瑤之作的貢獻在補足戲曲通史的完整度上。此外,孟瑤

於近代(明清)戲曲的嫻熟,也「超越」了青木正兒。82

無論如何,孟瑤《中國戲曲史》較諸前行二作,雖是較完整的戲曲「通史」。但

若就其整合戲曲史集大成而言,不禁令人好奇:孟瑤是否在前二作的巨大影響下,自

知頗難超越,乃轉而建立自己的風格,並以「通俗化」取勝?

其次,《中國文學史》儘管具備嚴正的立場要為中國小說發聲,以及正視它的價

值。但孟瑤仍以其一貫的謙虛面對這部小說史的寫作:

提到對我國舊小說的爬梳整理,自以周樹人氏為第一人,他的《中國小說

史略》,是一部不朽的開山之作,但由於成書過早,所以無法容納許多新資料,

80 同註 78。 81 其實青木正兒之作也是王國維的「續編」。由於王國維對宋元戲曲較偏愛,對於明清戲曲的評

價偏低,認為明清以後的不足為觀。因此,王國維的《宋元戲曲史》只能是斷代戲曲史。而曾

經向王國維請教的青木正兒,乃於 1930 年完成明清戲曲史專著《中國近世戲曲史》,算是《宋

元戲曲史》的續編,如此乃形成一套較完整的戲曲通史。詳參滕咸惠,〈王國維中國戲劇史研究

的成就與貢獻〉,《王國維戲曲論文集─《宋元戲曲考》及其他》(臺北:里仁書局,1993 年 9

月),頁 24-30。 82 俞大綱即指出這是因為他們的國籍與舞臺經驗之差異使然:「近代戲曲,是孟瑤此作最精彩的一

部份。且看她對青木正兒的《中國近世戲曲史》所下的批評:『以一個外國人研究中國這種高深

的舞臺藝術,在品味與鑑賞方面,何嘗不是隔了一層。』可以推知她對近代戲劇研究,頗為「自

負」。……孟瑤本人,對近代戲曲音樂,有頗為精湛的了解,舞臺體驗也具備,在品味和鑑賞方

面,達到一塵不隔的境界,並非難事。因此,這一部份顯得很精采,也盡了藝術批評的職責。」

(俞大綱,〈余大綱先生序〉,孟瑤《中國戲曲史》,頁 2),可知孟瑤於近代戲曲論述方面的精彩,

主要來自於她的「自負」——學問根底外,復有實際的舞臺經驗。是以,孟瑤之作遠較青木正

兒更多了一份對近代戲曲的理解,是可以想像的。

Page 231:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

224

尤其是最重要的講唱文學部分。這就是為什麼,雖然珠玉在前,作者還敢再整

理出一部《中國小說史》的理由。當然,本書的寫作,自還是以《中國小說史

略》(以後簡稱周氏《史略》)為依據,再加入所能採擷的新資料,企盼能予

我國舊小說以正確的評價。

作者只做了一點蒐集、補充的工作,將一盤散落的明珠,以自己思想的線

另串成一組花序;用別人的金線,以自己的心裁另織成一襲新衣;假若它還能

發出一些光彩,這光彩是由明珠的閃耀與金線的奪目來完成的。作者只分享了

在貫串時與組織過程中的快樂。83

因此,可見她自認是做蒐集與補充的工作,並且只是分享一點組織新舊資料時的快樂,

於此可見她的自抑。

而孟瑤自承《中國小說史》的寫作,是以魯迅(周樹人)《中國小說史略》84 (1923)

為依據,再加入一些所能採擷的新資料而成的。但孟瑤自陳敢於在魯迅《中國小說史

略》後再著一部《中國小說史》,主要由於魯迅《中國小說史略》成書較早,對於新

資料,尤其講唱文學部分不夠完備,而孟瑤自認能夠補充此一新資料,理應有較諸前

作更能提升舊小說地位的價值。孟瑤正視變文與講唱文學,已如前述,此不贅言。需

要指出的是,魯迅《中國小說史略》論及晚清小說僅及於三種類型:「狹邪小說」、

「俠義小說及公案」與「譴責小說」,未對晚清風行的「科學(幻)小說」加以著墨85。

同樣地,孟瑤亦未曾及於「科學(幻)小說」。然而,孟瑤僅討論「譴責類」與「狹邪

類」,較諸魯迅尚少「俠義公案類」。孟瑤既自認有所承,卻又「擅改」三類為二類,

不知何故。然孟瑤此舉,是否足以彰顯其「學術性不足」,仍未可遽斷。

回到前述孟瑤對己作之力求通俗之謙抑,其真正的通俗化表現,不只在於前述所

83 同註 60 中,《中國小說史˙序》,頁 3。 84 郭沫若,〈魯迅與王國維〉:「王先生的《宋元戲曲史》和魯迅先生的《中國小說史略》,毫無疑

問,是中國文藝史研究上的雙璧,不僅是拓荒的工作,前無古人,而且是權威的成就,一直領

導百萬的後學。」,《宋元戲曲史》附錄(上海古籍出版社,1998 年),頁 160。 85 1903 年,魯迅在日本即翻譯過法國科幻小說家儒勒˙凡爾納(Jules Verne)《月界旅行》,其《月

界旅行》之〈辨言〉即曾力陳:「我國說部,若言情談故刺時志怪者,架棟汗牛,而獨於科學小

說,乃如麟角。智識荒隘,此實一端。故苟欲彌今日譯界之缺點,導中國人羣以進行,必自科

學小說始。」(〈月界旅行˙辨言〉,《鲁迅全集(10)》,北京:人民文學出版社,1981 年 12 月)。

然而,20 年後的 1923 年,魯迅《中國小說史略》中卻未有隻字片語提及晚清的「科學(幻)小說」,

令人不解。

Page 232:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

225

提及的納入「變文」與「講唱文學」,還在於它活潑的行文風格。如鄭明娳〈評孟撰

「中國小說史」〉即曾論及孟瑤《中國小說史》的特色:一、匯聚眾長;二、脈絡分明;

三、取材豐美;四、評述精當:(1)從廣泛角度來看作品,(2)分析入微,(3)多

做比較;五、文字鮮活。86鄭明娳所指出的文字鮮活,確是此書的文字特色。如「宋元」

章「甲、舊傳統的承襲──傳奇與雜俎」節之前所介紹的背景:

於是一些新興的行業也應運而生,其中有一項是與小說史有關,值得我們特別

提出的,那就是從寺院被驅逐出來,而跑到三瓦兩舍,又說又唱的「變文」,

「變文」流入市井,由於配合環境的需要,更加強了那屬於現實人生的悲歡離

合的故事性;於是它們變成了許多民間娛樂中最受歡迎的一種,那就是「說話」。87

由此行文風格,可略知孟瑤《中國小說史》的風格確實較諸一般文學史更加活潑,且

極具通俗性、可讀性。

然而,鄭明娳〈評孟撰「中國小說史」〉又指出孟瑤《中國小說史》的闕失:一、

序或緒論應再充實;二、尚欠踏實:引用資料未見踏實或完備 ;三、體例有不一致處;

四、引述原文:有些不重要的也附引原文。但儘管有以上闕失,鄭明娳仍給予肯定的

評價:「已具體而微」,「直到孟氏此書,乃站在前人的成就上,它的起點正是前人

的終點,且有超邁前人的充分信心,因此,它目前最具成效。」88其實,當時論者確

曾出現不同的聲音,如此文末所附鄭明娳的〈後記〉即指出:「此稿寫成後,忽聞孟書

多採前人著作而未加註明之傳言,據說新加坡李星可君曾在該地報刊撰文,對孟書加

以抨擊。惜此地文獻不足;不能徵考其詳。本擬將此稿凍結,但思及『就書論書』的

立場,此書仍值得評介,本文僅純係『就書論書』,至於傳聞,尚待異日,再作進一步

之求證。」89可見孟瑤此小說史在當年確曾出現「多採前人著作而未加註明而被質疑」

的雜音。然而,究諸當年之學術標準,以及資訊流通度之不若今日發達,鄭明娳乃存

86 鄭明娳,〈評孟撰「中國小說史」〉,《書評書目》第一卷,1972 年 11 月。 87 同註 60 中,頁 124。案:由於《中國小說史》正文多為提綱挈領的講義式行文,間以原典的抄

錄,是以較難引用正文。特此誌之。 88 同註 86。 89 同註 86。

Page 233:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

226

而不論,是可以理解的。無論如何,至少可以肯定的是它在當年(至少是 1966 年推出

第一版至 1972 年鄭明娳撰就此文之際)是一部較完整的具備可讀性的小說史。

最後,《中國文學史》的完成,孟瑤自言只是她「十年教讀所得」90而已。她在

《中國文學史》的〈前言〉裡提及「史」的寫作中的「史學」,乃是踵繼前人而來的

工夫:「『史學』是有關中國文學資料的蒐集,則前人已做多種努力,後繼者至多也

只能做一點增補工作而已。」91由此,孟瑤自謙只是在前人早已蒐集好的基礎上,再

做增補工作而已。一方面希望專攻文學的人,「能找到一種是你所喜愛的,由是而作

更深入更專門的研究」以及「或者會暗示一些你的文學創作將要走的道路」92。對於

一般讀者,孟瑤則希望「它是一本易讀的書,是一本有系統有理路的書」93,「不僅

使讀者對某種文體,甚至某些作家認識得更具體,同時也得到讀書欣賞之樂」94。就

此而言,孟瑤對《中國文學史》的寫作,一樣預設了它面向一般讀者的雅俗共賞的願

景。

是以,孟瑤《中國文學史》的行文亦以活潑的口語為主,如第八章「清」的前言:

有清一代,屢興文字獄,文人的思想被凍結了,只好朝研究考據的路上發展。

於是樸學大盛。在文學上也無力朝新的方向試探。這樣很自然的使傳統文學增

加了光彩,清代幾乎為舊文學作了一次光榮的落幕。這二百多年的文壇,整個

的面貌就是復古。95

可見,孟瑤行文風格確能達到她所自稱的易讀、得讀書之樂,也頗有能使一般讀者樂

於多接近文學之效。然而,孟瑤自言「有系統有理路」,確仍有其體例上的可議之處。

其體制上雖已較前二部之偏向講義式的體裁略有變化,但仍然不脫講義式的架構。而

其中若干體例上之混亂,尤其值得一提。以最末章論「清」代文學為例,其第四部分

「戲劇」之「花部──亂彈」,自該小節之第三頁起,即自言「寫到這裡,本書就要告

90 同註 60 後,頁 3。 91 同前註,頁 1-2。 92 同註 90,頁 3。 93 同註 90,頁 3。 94 同註 90,頁 3。 95 同註 90,第八章「清」,頁 664。

Page 234:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

227

一結束,卻還有幾句贅語:」96然而此後所出現之「幾句贅語」卻將近九頁之多,此

為其體例上之問題。雖然如此,其行文與體例上之務求簡潔有條理,以及通俗化、口

語化的目標,確實有助於更多讀者的閱讀。

簡言之,「孟瑤三史」是身兼文壇∕作家與杏壇∕教師(學者)雙重認同的知識女

性孟瑤,對學術自我的安頓。「孟瑤三史」之正視傳統文學史中被邊緣化的通俗文類,

值得肯定。更有意義的是,以女性的「邊緣」位置論文學史中的「邊緣」文類的雙重

意涵。此外,「孟瑤三史」以學生與一般讀者為預設對象,其通俗化的寫作意圖,頗

有借三史以「教育」學生與一般讀者之意。簡言之,「孟瑤三史」的寫作意識上仍有

某種程度地呈現「知識女性」對自我的表述∕認同——女教師∕學者。再者,「孟瑤

三史」以活潑的行文風格,企圖與讀者拉近距離,也賦予文學史(論)以一個明朗的新

風貌。然而,由於孟瑤的自謙以及她所欲求的預期讀者乃是學生或一般讀者,這三部

接近於課程講義的史論∕教科書,確實明顯地偏向通俗化,與今日對學術著作的要求

差異甚大,甚至當年即曾出現「學術性不足」的質疑。綜合以上因素,是否也正是「孟

瑤三史」於今日已然為學界所遺忘的因素?值得深思。

四、孟瑤的接受史:做為「(女性)啟蒙導師」的孟瑤與其文本風格、

接受情形的問題

如前所述,孟瑤的「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」,其預期讀者既多為學生與一般

讀者,則可據此推測孟瑤以「寄小讀者」式的通俗寫作方向,為的是「教育」更多讀

者。而《給女孩子的信》曾是當代文壇之暢∕長銷書以及兩度被收錄於教科書中的事

實,更加強了孟瑤其人其作之「(女性)啟蒙導師」的形象;而「孟瑤三史」也確有她

自己的史識與慧見,如加強論述傳統文學史所邊緣化的通俗文類。但更重要的意義是,

孟瑤所欲求的預期讀者是學生與一般讀者,這便影響了三史之偏向通俗化的風格∕走

向。這是否也正是「孟瑤三史」於今日已然為學界所遺忘的因素,令人好奇。無論如

何,其女性∕學術自我的表述∕認同上,明顯較偏向女教師∕學者的形象,庶幾可稱

之為「(女性)啟蒙導師」。

職是,本節欲兼而論之的是,一般現代文學史(論)對孟瑤的定位多為「(言情)小說

96 同註 90,第八章「清」(四)戲劇乙、花部─亂彈,頁 755。

Page 235:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

228

家」(少數論及其反共文學),且大多僅論及孟瑤的(言情)小說創作;或者暗示她的女性

自我之認同較偏向「軟性」的文學女作家一面,多數未見提及此兩大類偏向「教育」

讀者取向的文學∕文本。尤其更加忽視其散文文本《給女孩子的信》之曾為當代著名

之暢∕長銷書、且曾兩度收入教科書的事實。

再者,孟瑤其人其作之被閱讀及研究,時至 21 世紀的今日顯然已然沒落的現實不

容忽視,箇中緣由自是複雜萬端。但其人其作之被遺忘,是否有可能與其寫作意識∕

態度較偏向女教師∕學者的自我形象之認同有關?易言之,孟瑤所有的文學∕文本,

包括本論文所討論的兩大文類,以及所有小說創作所呈現之知性與平淡風格,似乎皆

與其女教師∕學者的自我形象之認同取向有關。質言之,以今日的文學審美觀重讀其

(言情)小說及所有作品,幾乎多呈現齊邦媛所說的「靜靜的剛強」的特色。易言之,

其作品似已難引起今日大部分讀者的閱讀興趣∕欲望。因此,在其人其作之被閱讀與

研究的沒落已然成為事實的今日,「重讀」孟瑤其人其作及「正視」她的「沒落」現

況,顯然是極大的挑戰。

無論如何,根據前述對孟瑤的「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」的論述,可知孟瑤藉

此呈露了偏向女教師∕學者向讀者進行「教育」的形象。這點瞭解對於本節的討論,

具有一定意義。

(一)做為「(女性)啟蒙導師」的孟瑤與其文本風格的頡頏

1. 現代文學史(論)中的孟瑤:「(言情)小說家」

在一般現代文學史(論)裡,孟瑤幾乎皆以「(言情)小說家」被定義,較少提及她早

年的「女性散文」,最多僅提及在台初試啼聲的〈弱者,你的名字是女人?〉,往往多

未及於《給女孩子的信》。而「孟瑤三史」往往只是略提。進而言之,其「(言情)小

說家」身分之建立,多來自於愛情∕言情小說的書寫,而她曾陸續寫過的幾部符應政

治正確的「反共文學」則較少被提及。是以,一般現代文學史(論)裡,孟瑤多為「(言

情)小說家」的身分。

就古繼堂《臺灣小說發展史》與《簡明台灣文學史》、劉登翰與莊明萱等著《臺

灣文學史》、皮述民等著《二十世紀中國新文學史》、樊洛平《當代台灣女性小說史

論》,或劉津津、謬星象編著的《說不盡的俠骨柔情—台灣武俠與言情文學》等文學

Page 236:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

229

史(論)而言,孟瑤皆為「(言情)小說家」。然而,上述諸作中,對孟瑤之論述篇幅較大、

且較集中以「言情小說家」為之定位的,又以古繼堂、劉津津與謬星象、樊洛平諸家

所述較為突出,乃特別擇取討論之。

以古繼堂於 1996 年的《臺灣小說發展史》為例,其述及孟瑤的篇幅雖不多,但至

少曾提及多次,且分布於五十年代臺灣女性作家群的形成與臺灣愛情小說潮的流變等

章節中97。可見孟瑤被接受的身分是書寫愛情主題的女性小說家,唯一被提及的小說

是《心園》98。至 2003 年《簡明台灣文學史》則有專段論及孟瑤的文學表現99;除孟

瑤基本生平外,所提及的著作多以側重婚戀的小說為主,特別討論《心園》與《卻情

記》兩部愛情小說。而孟瑤之成為書寫愛情小說的女作家,依該書文脈言之,似與孟

瑤初來台所發表的第一篇散文〈弱者,你的名字是女人?〉有關,其文所引發的讀者

對性別議題的熱烈討論,似乎「暗示」或「預示」了孟瑤日後書寫愛情主題小說的契

機。100因此,該書以孟瑤的愛情小說為主要視角,認定她的小說成就在此建立:「孟瑤

的小說既寫實,又具有浪漫主義氣息,反映社會生活面較廣,介於嚴肅文學和言情小

說之間。在五十至六十年代的臺灣文壇,是較有代表性的女作家。」101這個視角也是

一般文學史(論)所表述的孟瑤的刻板形象。然而,此論述雖曾提及孟瑤三史的兩部,

也曾提及〈弱者,你的名字是女人?〉及其所引發的性別議題的討論,卻獨漏她最為

暢/長銷的散文《給女孩子的信》。更重要的是,她陸續寫過的幾部「反共文學」,如

《亂離人》或《黎明前》等未被提及。簡言之,該書對孟瑤的表述情形不盡全面。

由此反觀孟瑤的言情小說家身分,確乎較突出。如劉津津、謬星象編著的《說不

盡的俠骨柔情—台灣武俠與言情文學》是一部少數以專章介紹孟瑤的文學史(雖然它

97 古繼堂,《臺灣小說發展史》(臺北:文史哲出版社,1996 年 10 月)第五編「五十年代動盪中

的臺灣小說」之第三章「臺灣女作家群的形成」之第一節「臺灣女性作家群形成的背景與意義」

頁 174 提及孟瑤三次、頁 176 提到一次。第七編「臺灣愛情婚姻小說潮的湧起和發展」之第一

章「臺灣愛情婚姻小說潮的背景和傳承」之第三節「臺灣愛情小說潮的流變」頁 364 提到一次。 98 同前註,頁 176。 99 古繼堂主編;古繼堂、彭燕彬、樊洛平、王敏合著,《簡明台灣文學史》(臺北:人間雜誌出版

社,2003 年 7 月)第十二章「臺灣女性文學的勃興」之第一節「臺灣女性文學勃興的概況」頁

254 提及孟瑤三次,內容與《臺灣小說發展史》所述相去不遠。而第二節「臺灣的女性小說」

頁 256 亦提及孟瑤《心園》;此節自頁 258 至 259,以一頁餘的篇幅論及孟瑤的小說成就。 100 同前註,頁 258。 101 同註 99,頁 259。

Page 237:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

230

是一部簡易讀本),將近六頁篇幅,是前述一般文學史(論)所未見的規模。書中將孟

瑤與瓊瑤並列為臺灣的二大「言情文學」作家,且將孟瑤明列為當代臺灣言情女作家

系譜之首,次章才是瓊瑤。究其實,孟瑤的「言情」底蘊與瓊瑤的不完全相同,這是

此書論點較引人側目之處(若細究之,宜另文討論)。雖如此,該書是較全面述及孟瑤

文學表現與成就的一部專著,除小說外,其「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」皆已論及,

且幾乎是各大文學史唯一提及《給女孩子的信》者。整體言之,該書仍以小說表現肯

定孟瑤的文學成就,特別提及《心園》與《屋頂下》兩部小說。綜觀全文,該書編著

者對「(言情)小說家」孟瑤採高度肯定的態度,殆無疑義。

此外,樊洛平《當代台灣女性小說史論》以「女性小說史」為文學史論述的主軸,

孟瑤自然以其五十年代以來創作的眾多言情小說為人所矚目。

綜合上述,一般文學史(論)大致以「小說家」定位孟瑤的文學成就,幾乎可說「(言

情)小說家」就是「孟瑤」唯一被廣泛接受∕認同的身分以及文學史定位。大部分文

學史(論)多未著眼於她的「反共文學」之成就;而其他文類的書寫成果,如散文與論

著未被正視,更是可以想見的。少數偶提散文者,亦僅借此說明孟瑤渡海來台後的處

女作為〈弱者,妳的名字是女人?〉;相較之下,《給女孩子的信》更少被提及或討論。

因此,孟瑤在一般文學史的定位仍以「(言情)小說家」為要。這與孟瑤之「女性散

文」與「孟瑤三史」所豁顯的女性∕學術自我的表述∕定位在女教師∕學者,顯然有

相當落差。

2.文學史所遺忘的孟瑤:「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」較少被正視

如前所述,一般文學史(論)較少提及孟瑤的散文,大多僅借此說明孟瑤渡海來台

後的處女作為何;而《給女孩子的信》更少被提及或討論,目僅見前述劉津津、謬星

象編著的《說不盡的俠骨柔情—台灣武俠與言情文學》曾於正文述及;其他的則付之

闕如。

然而,官方教科書曾收錄過《給女孩子的信》二篇散文的事實,幾乎未見一般文

學史(論)提及或討論。相較於一般文學史(論)幾乎皆以「(言情)小說家」視之,其廣

受歡迎的「散文」卻何以大多被漠視?又,這種被忽視的「散文家」身分,與其被一

般文學史所認知的「小說家」身分之間,應如何整合亦值得思考。簡言之,孟瑤的散

文進入教科書這一龐大的閱讀市場中,其實也是一種文學作品「典律化」的過程。透

Page 238:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

231

過廣泛面世的機會,孟瑤的「知識女性」面貌理應可以得到更清晰的勾勒。然而,事

實似乎並非如此。

此外,「孟瑤三史」亦少見一般文學史提及。目前僅見《簡明台灣文學史》提及

三史中二部,但並未加以說明。以較多篇幅討論三史的亦僅見前述劉津津、謬星象編

著的《說不盡的俠骨柔情—台灣武俠與言情文學》。綜觀其他史(論),皆未見深刻而

正面地論述「孟瑤三史」,殊為可惜。

簡言之,孟瑤的「女性散文」或「孟瑤三史」多未見一般文學史(論)正面論述,

值得留意。

(二)靜靜的剛強:知性∕平淡的書寫風格是「沒落」現況的主因?

1.如何解讀?—重寫其文學接受史

如何解讀上述孟瑤在文學史中被表述的狀況,綜言之,大約以下數端:一是由於

其散文創作量遠較小說來得稀少,且小說之大量產出恐亦使其散文相對地被忽略;二

是孟瑤本人對於自己的散文創作成品未做完整保存;最後則可能是忙於教學、創作與

票戲而較少與文壇互動之故。綜合三點,孟瑤小說以外的文學表現,如散文與論著,

大多被文學史所忽視。

首先,孟瑤的散文創作,雖質佳但量少,以致於能見度為其龐大的小說成就所掩

蓋。但此說似乎仍然不能完整說明上述被表述的現象之無法整合的真正原因。只能暫

時點出其可能成因,聊供進一步探賾之參考。

其次,孟瑤本人對於自己的散文,並未完整保存。前述提及孟瑤對於《給女孩子

的信》的盜版似乎束手無策(或者並不十分在意),甚至她仍有部分未曾正式出版只

有存目的散文,或如散落在各散文選集中而未曾整理成專集散文,這些或許正與她淡

定的性格有關。

筆者在其他散文選本中所發現的若干孟瑤的散文,似乎即未曾收編至孟瑤的散文

集中。目前所見,至少曾有三部散文選集曾收錄過孟瑤的散文,包括 1971 年林海音主

編的《中國豆腐》收錄了孟瑤〈豆腐閒話〉。而孟瑤的散文〈山與水〉,分別於 1994

年被瘂弦主編的《散文的創造》與 2006 年丘秀芷編的《風華 50 年─半世紀女作家精

品》所選錄。無論〈豆腐閒話〉或〈山與水〉都是簡約的散文小品,閒淡中自有韻味,

Page 239:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

232

值得品砸再三。這兩篇與前述「女性散文」不同風格之作,可說是孟瑤真性情的展現,

然而似乎未嘗見諸她的任何散文集中(事實是,孟瑤未曾出版過任何《給女孩子的信》

之外的散文集)。

最後,孟瑤或許因定居台中,較少北上與文友互動之故。據各項史料判斷,孟瑤

之生活版圖大致以教學、文學創作、戲劇演出與編劇等三大區塊為主。此外,孟瑤更

是習於獨處之人,性情雖非孤僻,但確實較一般文人更息交絕遊一些。或許由於孟瑤

與當代文壇的互動較為清淡之故,使得她身後至今,一般文學史(論)的表述似乎逐漸

淡忘她當年曾身為暢∕長銷女作家的丰采,以及她的女教師∕學者之豐富面貌。

綜合以上,現代一般文學史(論)對孟瑤的表述,仍有若干值得填補的空間。

2.怎樣定位?—在書寫中詩意地安居∕靜靜的剛強

是以,如何重讀孟瑤,本文以為若將「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」做為另一個切

入點,或可呈現其小說成就外的另一番面貌,建構出完整的孟瑤形象──「知識女性」,

尤其是女教師∕學者。

進而言之,孟瑤本人與其書寫風格一概呈現的「靜定」特質,具有一定的詩意。

簡言之,孟瑤可說是一位「在書寫中詩意地安居」102的女人。就孟瑤這樣一位在文壇

/作家與杏壇∕學者雙棲的知識女性而言,自 1949 年以後的大遷移中漂流來台,並藉

由文學書寫以「詩意」地「安居」在此地—臺灣,並以其自身多元的文學表現,證成

了知識女性藉文學以安身立命的重要存在命題。因此,本文以「在書寫中詩意地安居」

以定義孟瑤及標誌其以文學∕文本安頓生命的意義所在。

然而,齊邦媛這位孟瑤昔日中興大學的同僚,1984 年曾於〈江河匯集成海的六 O

年代小說〉103提及她對於孟瑤文學史定位的看法。其後,她也在 2009 年出版的自傳體

散文《巨流河》中,提及當年這段對孟瑤文學價值與定位的討論。此文或可做為我們

理解孟瑤其人其作的文學史定位之參考:

孟瑤自以《心園》成名以後,二十年間有四十多本小說問世,書店都以顯著地

102 借用《人,詩意地安居—海德格爾語要》一書的標題。海德格爾(Martin Heidegger);郜元寶譯,

張汝倫校,《人,詩意地安居—海德格爾語要》(桂林:廣西師範大學出版社,2002 年 3 月)。 103 齊邦媛,〈匯集成海的六O 年代小說〉,《霧漸漸散的時候》(臺北:九歌出版社,1998 年 10 月),

頁 53。

Page 240:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

233

位擺著他的新書,如《浮雲白日》、《這一代》、《磨劍》等,相當受讀者歡

迎。一九八四年,我寫了一篇〈江河匯集成海的六 O 年代小說〉分析:「這些

篇小說的題材都來自現實人生,記錄了那個時代的一些生老散聚的人生悲喜

劇。孟瑤擅寫對話,在流暢的對話中,可以看出那個時代一些代表人物對世事

變遷的態度。她小說中的角色塑造以女子見長,多是一種獨立性格的人,在種

種故事的發展中保有靜靜的剛強。」也許是她寫得太多了,大多是講了故事,

無暇深入,心思意念散漫各書,缺少凝聚的力量,難於產生震憾人心之作。多

年來我仍希望,在今日多所台灣文學系所中會有研究生以孟瑤為題,梳理他的

作品,找出一九五 O 至七 O 年間一幅幅台灣社會的人生現象,可能是有價值的。

因為她是以知識份子積極肯定的態度寫作,應有時代的代表性。104

這段齊邦媛的文字雖為針對其小說成就而發的論述,但確實也指出了孟瑤整體文學成

就的特質,其中有三點值得注意。

一是「孟瑤擅寫對話,在流暢的對話中,可以看出那個時代一些代表人物對世事

變遷的態度」,根據觀察,不只表現在小說對話上,孟瑤的「女性散文」或「孟瑤三

史」也有同樣流暢的語言風格,誠非虛言。二是孟瑤小說中的女子多保有一種「靜靜

的剛強」的特質,此說極貼切的指出孟瑤一生∕身的風格與形象,同時也頗適用於她

的「女性散文」或「孟瑤三史」所呈露的知性風格。三是儘管孟瑤寫得多,講了故事

無暇深入,心思散漫而缺少凝聚的力量,難於產生震憾人心之作,但齊邦媛仍肯定孟

瑤「是以知識份子積極肯定的態度寫作,應有時代的代表性」,理應好好被研究一番。

因此齊邦媛提出的觀點,揭示了孟瑤作品的特色與價值,也為往後研究者開闢一條可

努力的路徑。「靜靜的剛強」其實也正好適用於孟瑤在文壇∕作家與杏壇∕學者雙棲

的知識女性形象。

簡言之,孟瑤在五十至六十年代文壇∕作家與杏壇∕學者雙棲的女作家系譜中,

既是一名「在書寫中詩意地安居」的女性作家,也是齊邦媛所謂的「靜靜的剛強」的

知識女性。無論「在書寫中詩意地安居」,或「靜靜的剛強」,盡皆透露安之若素的

淡定特質。證諸孟瑤其人其作,無論「女性散文」或「孟瑤三史」亦皆予人上述兩種

特質。如此鮮明的形象與前述一般文學史(論)對孟瑤的論述對照之下,則會發現這是

104 同註 10,頁 506-507。

Page 241:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

234

大多數文學史(論)所未曾深挖的特質。因此,透過本論文對孟瑤的「女性散文」或「孟

瑤三史」的論述,或許可以建構她在小說成就外未曾出現過的形象之向度──偏向女教

師∕學者的知識女性形象。

五、結語:孟瑤的女教師∕學者身分,建構∕強化其知識女性的形

綜合前述,本文試圖以孟瑤的「女性散文」及「孟瑤三史」新闢一條路徑,以突

顯孟瑤在(言情)小說家之外的多元文學表現,並建構∕強化她身為知識女性的形象,

尤其是偏向女教師∕學者一面的身分認同。並試圖以此重構她的文學史定位及相關問

題。

是以,孟瑤以「女性散文」表述自我,也藉此與她同性的想像群體一同分享身為

女性的共同存在議題;在此,確立了孟瑤的女性自我。此外,「孟瑤三史」是她的學

術代表作,也反映了她的真實人生在戲曲、小說與文學創作等三方面的表現。同時,

它們也是通俗化的教科書,孟瑤希望藉此吸引更多一般讀者的興趣,可見其平易近人

的特點。但或許也是通俗化的風格使然,「孟瑤三史」於今已然沒落的事實,無法忽

視。然而,儘管如此,「孟瑤三史」之安頓女性之學術自我的意義仍有其意義。

再者,孟瑤的「女性散文」及「孟瑤三史」所呈露的女教師∕學者之身分表述∕

認同,與一般文學史(論)對她的論述與定位是不大相同的。意即「女性散文」及「孟

瑤三史」這兩項孟瑤生命史中非常重要的文學表現,在一般文學史(論)中較少被正面

提及,遑論提及她的知識女性形象。是以,本文認為孟瑤藉由這些文本,不止在書寫

中安身立命,完成了她的知識女性形象:女教師∕學者的形象建構。就此言之,本文

定義她為「在書寫中詩意地安居」的女人;同時,也援用齊邦媛「靜靜的剛強」以描

繪孟瑤知識女性的形象。

最後,就現代知識女性於文壇∕作家與杏壇∕學者雙棲的系譜而言,孟瑤跨界而

多元的文學表現,可說是箇中翹楚,其全才∕通才的書寫成就以及龐沛的創作能量,

至今仍傲視群倫。是以,本文試圖另闢一條路徑,觀察她的小說之外的文本,藉此建

構她的知識女性之身分,尤其是女教師∕學者之形象,確有一定向度上的意義。

然而,值得留意的是,本文提供一個新視角以觀看孟瑤小說之外的文學表現,並

Page 242:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

235

非意謂著全然地另闢蹊徑,直接以孟瑤的散文與史論「取代」或「偏廢」其小說創作

成就。實則本論文之論述策略,在於隻眼另看其長久被忽視的散文與史論,以彰顯其

人身為知識女性在多元文學表現上的形象與成就,以「增加」閱讀孟瑤其人其作的另

一新視角。是以,在全面論述孟瑤的文學成就時,其小說成就仍舊不能被忽視(如前述

齊邦媛所期許的);至少必需合而觀之,方得為孟瑤建立一個更公允而完整的形象及評

價。

最後,本論文認為孟瑤在五十至七十年代文壇∕作家與杏壇∕學者雙棲的女作家

群體中,是一位知識女性形象極為清晰的女作家,可以「在書寫中詩意地安居」概括

之。同時,她也建立一幅鮮明的自我形象——「靜靜的剛強」的知識女性圖像。簡言

之,藉由孟瑤「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」,可做為重構其文學史定位的參考途徑,

並能建構/強化其知識女性的形象。

參考書目

一、孟瑤的文本

(一)女性散文

孟瑤,〈弱者,你的名字是女人?〉,《中央日報》,第 7 版「婦女與家庭」,1950 年 5

月 7 日。

孟瑤,《給女孩子的信》(臺南:信宏出版社,1990 年 5 月)。

(二)孟瑤三史

孟瑤,《中國戲曲史》(臺北:傳記文學出版社,1969 年 12 月)。

孟瑤,《中國小說史》(臺北:傳記文學出版社,2002 年 12 月)。

孟瑤,《中國文學史》(臺北:大中國圖書公司,1997 年 10 月)。

(三)其他文本

孟瑤,《女人.女人》(臺南:中華日報社出版部,1984 年 9 月)。

Page 243:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

236

(四)其他選集中的孟瑤散文

孟瑤,〈山與水〉,丘秀芷編,《風華 50 年──半世紀女作家精品》(臺北:九歌出版社,

2006 年 11 月)。

孟瑤,〈山與水〉,瘂弦編,《散文的創造(上)》(臺北:聯經出版公司,1994 年 7 月)。

孟瑤,〈豆腐閒話〉,林海音編著,《中國豆腐》(臺北:大地出版社,2009 年 9 月)。

(五)孟瑤自述

孟瑤,〈一份琢磨原璞的深刻用心—我怎樣寫「智慧的累積」〉,張堂錡主編,《中學課

本上的作家》(臺北:幼師文化公司,1994 年 10 月初版;1998 年 11 月 8 版)。

孟瑤,〈孟瑤自傳〉,《孟瑤讀本》(臺北:幼獅文化公司,1994 年 7 月)。

孟瑤,〈戲與我〉,《文星》第 90 期,1965 年 4 月。

孟瑤,〈我竟如此步伐凌亂〉,高上秦編,《我的第一步》第 2 輯(臺北:時報文化公司,

1979 年 4 月)。

二、近代論著

(一)孟瑤研究

吉廣輿,〈味吾味處尋吾樂—淺析孟瑤的心象世界〉,吉廣輿編選,《孟瑤讀本》(臺北:

幼獅文化公司,1994 年 7 月)。

吉廣輿,《孟瑤評傳》(高雄:高雄市立文化中心,1998 年)。

朱嘉雯,〈亂離娜拉—孟瑤〉,《追尋,漂泊的靈魂—女作家的離散文學》(臺北:秀威

資訊公司,2009 年 2 月)。

夏祖麗,〈孟瑤的三種樂趣〉,《她們的世界》(臺北:純文學出版社,1984 年 7 月)。

羅秀美,〈女學生.女教師.女作家──琦君與孟瑤的學院生涯考察與文學接受情形〉,

《從秋瑾到蔡珠兒──近現代知識女性的文學表現》(臺北:臺灣學生書局,2010

年 1 月)。

鐘麗慧,〈愛戲的教授小說家孟瑤〉,《織錦的手──女作家素描》(臺北:九歌出版社,

1987 年 2 月)。

Page 244:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

237

(二)文學史及其他

古繼堂,《臺灣小說發展史》(臺北:文史哲出版社,1996 年 10 月)。

古繼堂,《簡明台灣文學史》(臺北:人間雜誌出版社,2009 年 5 月)。

皮述民、邱燮友、馬森、楊昌年等著,《二十世紀中國新文學史》(高雄:駱駝出版社,

2008 年 3 月)。

青木正兒著,王吉廬譯,《中國近世戲曲史》(臺北:臺灣商務印書館,1988 年 3 月)。

范銘如,〈臺灣新故鄉—五 O 年代女性小說〉,《眾裡尋她—台灣女性小說縱論》(臺北:

麥田出版社,2002 年 3 月)。

郭沫若,〈魯迅與王國維〉,《宋元戲曲史》附錄(上海:上海古籍出版社,1998 年)。

齊邦媛,《巨流河》(臺北:天下遠見文化公司,2009 年 8 月)。

齊邦媛,《霧漸漸散的時候》(臺北:九歌出版社,1998 年 9 月)。

劉大杰,《(校訂本)中國文學發展史》(臺北:華正書局,1991 年 7 月)。

劉津津、謬星象編著,《說不盡的俠骨柔情──臺灣武俠與言情文學》(福州:福建教

育出版社,2009 年 9 月)。

劉登翰、莊明萱等,《臺灣文學史》(福州:現代教育出版社,2007 年 9 月)。

樊洛平,《當代台灣女性小說史論》(臺北:臺灣商務印書館,2006 年 4 月)。

滕咸惠,〈王國維中國戲劇史研究的成就與貢獻〉,《王國維戲曲論文集──《宋元戲曲

考》及其他》(臺北:里仁書局,1993 年 9 月)。

鄭振鐸,《插圖本中國文學史》(臺北:莊嚴出版社,1991 年 1 月)。

魯迅,《魯迅小說史論文集──《中國小說史略》及其他》(臺北:里仁書局,1992 年

9 月)。

魯迅,《鲁迅全集(10)》(北京:人民文學出版社,1981 年 12 月)。

***

美‧艾德華‧薩依德(Edward Said),單德興譯,《知識份子論》(Representations of the

Intellectual)(臺北:麥田出版社,2000 年 2 月)。

美‧哈羅德‧布魯姆(Harold Bloom),徐文博譯,《影響的焦慮︰一種詩歌理論》(The

Anxiety of Influence:A Theory of Poetry)(南京:江蘇教育出版社,2006 年 2 月)。

美‧曼素恩(Susan Mann),楊雅婷譯,《蘭閨寶錄:晚明至盛清時的中國婦女》(Precious

Page 245:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

238

Roecords:Women in China’s Long Eighteenth Century)(臺北:左岸文化公司,2005

年 11 月)。

英‧羅莎琳‧邁爾斯(Rosalind Miles),刁筱華譯,《女人的世界史》(The Women’s History

of the World)(臺北:麥田出版社,2006 年 5 月)。

德‧海德格爾(Martin Heidegger),郜元寶譯,張汝倫校,《人,詩意地安居—海德格爾

語要》(桂林:廣西師範大學出版社,2002 年 3 月)。

三、期刊論文

吉廣輿,〈孟瑤研究資料目錄〉,《全國新書資訊月刊》,2001 年 3 月號。

齊邦媛,〈閨怨之外-以實力論台灣女作家〉,《聯合文學》第一卷第五期,1985 年 3

月。

鄭明娳,〈評孟撰「中國小說史」〉,《書評書目》第一卷,1972 年 11 月。

四、其他:報刊與網路資料

應 鳳 凰 ,〈 孟 瑤 : 生 平 年 表 〉,「 五 ○ 年 代 文 藝 雜 誌 及 作 家 影 像 庫 」

http://tlm50.twl.ncku.edu.tw/wwmy2.html(2010 年 9 月 5 日確認)

陳器文,〈用情至深奈何人世悲涼─懷孟瑤師〉,《臺灣日報》副刊,2000 年 10 月 27

日。

Page 246:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

小說家之外的孟瑤:從「女性散文」與「孟瑤三史」論其文學史定位

239

Addition to Novelist Identity Outside Meng Yao: from "Feminine Prose" and "Meng Yao's Three Historical Works" on the Positioning of Literary History

Hsiu-mei Lo*

Abstract

Meng Yao (孟瑤, whose real name is Yang Zongzhen 揚宗珍, 1919-2000) is a

well-known novelist. However, there are other literary performances worth discussing.

Especially Meng Yao’s "feminist prose" ("Frailty, your name is woman? "〈弱者,你的名字

是女人?〉and Letters to the girls《給女孩子的信》) and "Meng Yao's three historical works’

(孟瑤三史)(History of Chinese Opera (《中國戲曲史》), History of Chinese Fiction (《中

國小說史》) and History of Chinese Literature (《中國文學史》). The intended readerships

of these two categories are students and general readers, which means Meng Yao’s

self-identity is as a female writer. But her image is more like that of a female teacher or

scholar, and it seems to be different compared to her identity of a productive novelist.

Therefore, this thesis wants to use these two categories, to understand whether the

novels justify Meng Yao’s image of female teacher or/scholar, and then construct Meng

Yao’s knowledgeable image of a "female intellectual".

First, the essay discusses that in Meng Yao’s "feminist prose" series, she not only

voices her own concerns, but also the concerns of numerous women. The intellectual style

and the significance to educate the readers are quite clear in the text. Second, the essay deals

with the meaning of " Meng Yao's three historical works"(孟瑤三史). The works established

Meng Yao’s dimension of an academic self, and it also inspired numerous students and

general readers from the popularized textbooks. Finally, the essay concludes that through

Meng Yao’s female/ academic self-representation / identity in the text of two categories,

clearly she’s more oriented toward female teacher / scholar. In modern literature, Meng

* Associate Professor, Department of Chinese Literature, National Chung-Hsing University

Page 247:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

羅秀美 興大人文學報第五十期

240

Yao’s identity is mostly discussed as a novelist, it seems to imply her self-identity tends

toward the literary / authoress side. Her image of female teacher / scholar in the two

categories has merely been mentioned. In addition, the reality decreasing popularity of

Meng Yao’s works, seems to be associated with the fact that her writing tends to a female

teacher / scholar self-image.

To sum up, Meng Yao was a vivid female intellectual in the 1950’s and 1970’s in the

female writers’ literary and academic circles.

Keywords:modern literary, Taiwan literary, feminine literary,Female intellectual,

Meng Yao(孟瑤)

Page 248:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 241-264 二○一三年三月

241

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

應雄*

摘 要

日本當代導演黑澤清的《分身》不僅僅是一部作為恐怖電影的類型片,它其實同

時是一部具有電影史自覺意識的解構性影片。川崎公平的論文準確地區分了《分身》

一片所呈現的三種分身局面,即「交替」、「並置」、「再度交替」,並指出在最後的局面

中影片已經達到了難以區分 origin/copy 的「無根據的絕對分身」狀態。

然而,同樣出現分身現象的高達電影《新浪潮》則完全呈現出別一種樣態。影片

的前半部和後半部出現同樣的臺詞、場景,但每一次的再度出現都是在偏移的條件下

實現,並且高達完全背離格里菲斯以來的經典電影鏡頭連接原理,也決然不同于愛森

斯坦式的蒙太奇連接,而是在斷裂性剪輯的前提下,讓聲音、影像產生全面的偏移錯

位,鏡頭之間的連接「相距遙遠,但同時又是正確的」。其結果,誠如德勒茲在《電影

2》裡指出的,影片的眾多影像斷片以「和」的方法連接起來, 顯然這已然是根莖

(rhizome)思維。然而不僅如此,本文進一步強調在「和」之上影像間的組合更是形

成了獨特的紋樣和韻律,這是一種找不出平衡對稱的、類似沙漠上無數細沙的堆積所

形成的紋樣,是一種互相之間絕不押韻的波浪之間所形成的韻律,我們可以給它一個

詞:「重複」(repetition)。在這裡,我們可以看到現代電影的進化,如同作為材料科

學研究對象之一的膠化體(gel),高達在這裡實踐的新的電影形態,或許可以稱之為

gel-cinema,電影膠化體。可以說,黑澤清的「無根據的絕對分身」在高達這裡只是一

個當然的起點,《新浪潮》所展開的是以差異(difference)為前提的「重複」主題,

在其複雜而優美的變奏中,分身至多不過是一個表像而已,而影片中「一人雙角」的

迷惑也必須如是被解讀。

關鍵詞:分身、重複、偏移、根莖、紋樣/韻律、電影膠化體(gel-cinema)

* 日本北海道大學文學研究科.文學部,映像表現文化論講座教授。

(收稿日期:101.10.10;通過刊登日期:101.12.25)

Page 249:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

242

1.

黑澤清在海外被認為是日本恐怖電影片種的教父級人物。不過,如果由此以為黑

澤清只是一個比較優秀的類型片導演,會是一個誤解。其實黑澤清是一個非常具有電

影史自覺意識的電影作者。他曾經表示過,跟高達的《電影史》一樣,他自己也許也

能製作一部自己的《電影史》。1譬如 2003 年的作品《分身》(ドッペルゲンガー),2一

般被歸類為恐怖片,但顯然這部作品所指向的要遠遠超出這一片型(genre)的一般範

疇。電影批評家蓮實重彥曾經指出這部影片裡的「無貞操」的「轉調」特徵,即它從

恐怖電影樣式出發,但中途卻有意識地放棄了這一片型特徵,而越來越具有喜劇色彩。

而且,這種意欲跨越片型的實踐全無就此打住的意思。頻繁出現于影片中段的人物與

其分身共存的分割畫面(split screen),讓我們有一種似乎是在看一部實驗電影的恍惚,

而影片後段,役所廣司主演的工程師及其助手們將終於製作完成的機器人運送到新

瀉,這一段落又似乎像是一部公路片(road movie)或者動作片……。「《分身》以喜

劇為基調,從恐怖電影到實驗電影,從犯罪片到公路片,從犯罪動作片到奇幻片,然

後又走向情節劇,總體上作為一部超越片型的不可定義的作品,令觀者迷惑」,「也許,

我們目擊了一場讓所有片型共存于一部電影裡這樣一種前所未聞的實驗」3。

在關於《分身》的評述研究裡,川崎公平的《無根據的分身—黑澤清《分身》中

的斷續諸相》4是一篇令人信服的論文。他首先對恐怖電影的一般特徵作出描述,指出

恐怖片中一個關鍵性的點,在於其二元對立構造。怪物也好,殺人魔也好,來自其他

星球的未知生物也好,其故事框架基本構築在主體/他者、正常/異常的對置上。對恐

怖電影的研究,也常常不能擺脫這種二項對立,我們屢屢可以看到相關的研究去考察

誰可以放到「他者」的位置上,從中被生產出來的恐怖又如何跟意識形態的對立圖式

相結合,等等。川崎論文重點檢討的是,恐怖片的基礎部分裡存在的這種二項對立性

1 黑澤清特別訪談〈電影完全可以如高達那樣豐饒〉,收入蓮實重彥,《高達革命》,筑摩書房,2005

年,頁 223-224。 2 《ドシペルゲソガー》製作委員會,2003 年。

3 蓮實重彥,《電影崩壞前夜》,青土社,2008 年,頁 76-77。 4 川崎公平,日本映像學會,《映像學》第 83 號,2009 年,頁 25-42。

Page 250:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

243

的差異化是如何出現的,以及如何去超越它。換而言之,不是去附和人/怪物、正常/

異常這種單純的排他性的對立,而是去思考是否存在「人」同時當下即是「他者」這

樣一種可能性。

從上述立場出發,川崎論文對黑澤清這部影片裡的「分身」做了分類和細緻解讀。

他歸納出「分身」的三種形態,第一種可以稱作「交替」,即在時間上錯開人物與其分

身在影片裡的出現。這種形態主要表現在女主人公由佳的弟弟的分身上。影片開始不

久,弟弟出現在停車場,隨後,由佳回到家裡,出現的則是弟弟的分身。他們的出現

在時間上是錯開的。由此,弟弟作為「正本」(origin)被

保持,而另一方的分身則被定位為「副本」(copy)。第二

種形態是「並置」,即在空間上人物與分身被放在同一個畫

面裡。這主要被用在男主角早崎的分身上。當早崎夜間回

家時,他的分身也在同一個房間裡出沒,不時跟他有對話

互動。這是在由佳弟弟的分身上從未有過的局面。同時,

在表現早崎及其分身時,黑澤清還使用了分割畫面,銀幕

被分成兩個或者三個畫面,早崎與他的分身各自穿梭在被

分割的畫面裡,或者人物與分身的其中的一位佔據三個畫

面中的兩個。在後者的情況下,人物或分身被三個畫面中

的兩個畫面所分割,而且,在例如咖啡店的場景裡,被上

述方式已然分割了的身體,由於畫面各自使用的焦距的差

異而進一步產生形態上的變異(figure 1)。這樣,我們可

以看到,不同于由佳弟弟的分身表現,這裡出現的,是無需「他者」介入、在一個人

物身上發生的「分身」。

然而,到這裡,無論是「交替」還是「並置」,「分身」歸根結底還是以原來那個

「弟弟」、原來那個「早崎」為依據而被設定。雖然三分割畫面已經相當程度地引起了

混淆和暈眩,但我們可以知道誰是原來的人物,誰是其分身,總體上說並未從根本上

脫離正本/副本(origin/copy)的圖式。

影片還有分身的第三形態,論文把它稱為「再度交替」。它出現在影片的 後部分,

即工程師早崎和他的助手由佳、君島將製作完成的機器人運往新瀉的途中。這裡,登

場人物可以看到人物莫名其妙的「再度生還」與「瞬間移動」。明明是已經被「幹掉」

figure 1 分身、以及被分割畫

面扯裂得支離破碎的人物。

圖 1:取自黑澤清,《分身》

(東京:アミューズソフトエ

ンタテインメント,2004)

Page 251:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

244

的人物毫無理由地再度出現,或者,理應是徒步移動的人物毫無理由地突然比車更快,

已經在車途經的路上等候。換而言之,無論是「再度生還」還是「瞬間移動」,某個鏡

頭裡出現的人物在後面的鏡頭中出現在他本來不可能出現的地方。在這個意義上,這

裡出現的依然是鏡頭間的斷續。但是不同的是,這裡,人物「交替」性的再度出現,

不以某個「正本」為依據,不經由他者的介入。在這個第三局面中,既不是「兩個人」

式的分割,也不是面向「一個人」的統合,而是「某個人物是一個人同時也是兩個人」

這樣一種存在樣態。因此,早崎直接變身為二重體。當鼻子上貼著膏藥的早崎突兀地

駕車駛來的時候,觀者會陷入邏輯的迷惑。早崎此前已經被車碾壓,而早崎的分身也

早已被早崎他們殺死。那麼現在出現的這個早崎究竟是誰?是原來的那個早崎?還是

分身的早崎?或者,是別一個早崎?從情節邏輯上我們已經無法判斷,影片對此也沒

有明確交代。也許,影片根本就沒有想要明示其情節故事上的依據,甚至也不要我們

去判斷清楚。判斷或明示,都需要一個「根據」,而影片要提示出來的,恰恰是「無根

據的分身」、「無根據的存在」這樣一種事態。因此,坐在早崎旁邊的由佳跟鼻子上頂

著十字形膏藥、形狀詭譎的早崎之間會有這樣一段對話: 「早崎,那個……」 「什

麼?」 「那個……,鼻子」 「哦, 介意嗎?」 「……,一點兒也不。」 不以過去

的早崎為依據,也不去尋找旁邊的早崎與「正本」的早崎之間的關係,對眼前的這個

早崎(也許他不是早崎?)就此當下認同。這部作品所指向的,不是二者,也不是一

者,而是具有成為他者可能性的一者,或者說,將「人」就此作為「分身」來認知,

並在這種沒有根據的狀態下接受這種存在。5

這篇論文非常清晰地描述出了影片中「分身」的諸種局面,昭顯了導演在創作時

的意圖與努力,同時,我們要說,它也客觀反映出當具有獨立思考的電影作者試圖解

體主體概念時所面臨的難度。一般說來,人物被認為應該具有人格的統一性

(identity),故事以及鏡頭的接續則應該保持邏輯上的連貫和完整(continuity),這樣

5 以上為本文對構成該論文核心內容的後半部分所作的概述。需要做一個補充說明的是,其中關

於由佳與早崎之間在車內對話的記述,論文作者似乎沒有注意到由佳並不知道早崎已經被車碾

壓(致死?)的事實。因此,由佳對形狀詭異的早崎沒有提出任何疑問這一點,並不表示她對不

知是分身還是原本的那個早崎的坦然接受。不過,儘管如此,這也並不影響論文觀點的說服力,

因為我們觀眾知道由佳所不知道的這個情節(被車碾壓),因此由佳的臺詞直接說出的就是電影

作者的觀點,也是在替觀眾代言或是對觀眾的誘引和詢喚。

Page 252:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

245

才可能建立起一個表述清晰、情節誘人的以影像講述故事的世界。影片的前段和中段,

也就是所謂的分身的「交替」和「並置」的部分,保有了人物和故事的統一和連貫,

就此展開下去,電影完全可以會是另一個結局和樣態,完全有可能拍成一部在情節上

引人入勝、一波三折的影片。但是,如果僅僅是這樣,那麼例如有吳宇森的《變臉》

(Face/off, 1997)就足夠了,這裡雖然發生了張冠李戴式的臉的錯位,但究竟誰是誰

這一點卻始終在故事的整體掌控之中,觀眾也一直清楚現在畫面中的這個人是誰,儘

管他的臉部現在是對方的臉。照著這樣的邏輯,黑澤清也許也可以加上一些人物錯位

的情節,例如安排主人公有一個戀人等,人物與分身都與這個戀人產生關涉,從而引

起情節上的戲劇性和恐怖效果。這樣做,也能使影片同時在電影類型上會保持其作為

恐怖片的完整性。但是,這顯然不是黑澤清想要的東西。他的構思裡,影片的高潮顯

然是在第三部分的「再度交替」,由此他實現了對此前出現的「交替」和「並置」的兩

個部分的解體。彷彿前面的兩個部分的設置,都是為了能走向第三個部分的解體,彷

彿能分清正本/副本的分身,都是為了 後那種難以區分正本/副本狀態下的「無根據

的分身」。

為什麼需要走向這種絕對分身的狀態?我難道不是始終是我嗎?為什麼需要走向

法國詩人韓波(Jean-Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud)所說的「我即一個他者」的狀態?這裡

有一個認識和立場的問題。我確實是我,我有我的名字、我的住址、我的供職部門、

我的戶籍或護照、我的家族和家庭、我的年齡和長相……,我們一生中被無數次要求

填寫這些資訊,有時還被要求提交照片。正是這些東西,構成了我是一個人格統一體

的條件。然而,它們真的是來自一個生命體深遠之處的、發自內在的需要嗎? 渴望

得到這些東西的,其實並不是生命體自己,而是家族譜系、人口管理機關、警察局、

海關等等社會機構。我們之所以成為一個人格統一體,乃是漫長的歷史時期裡被不斷

發明、不斷完善的社會管理技術的某種歷史和文化的結果。所以,電影如果過於拘泥

於統一的人物形象和連貫完整的故事,實際上在某種意義上,就是漠然間接受了從作

為社會管理技術的結果出發的話語。用現在流行的話說,我們本來已然是「被人格」、

「被連貫」、「被完整」了的,如果我們只是從這樣一個「結果」論出發,將它視為天

經地義,那麼無論我們把故事編得多麼曲折生動、把人物塑造得多麼多元豐富,我們

也許在無意之間已然成為讓我們「被人格」、「被連貫」的那個社會管理技術的同謀。

所以,我們需要分裂自己。或者說,我們本來就是在不斷分裂著自己,只是這種

Page 253:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

246

裂變始終被不斷地抹殺和無視了。我們需要我們的分身,不僅如此,我們更要走向連

「我們的」這個界定所屬的詞彙都不需要的分身。這 後一種分身,正是黑澤清這部

影片所達到的「無根據的分身」狀態。如是,他超越了作為類型片的故事層面上的恐

怖,而走向了存在論、本體論層面的恐怖。

2.

然而做到了這一點,就足夠了嗎?在電影裡,有很多作品都表述了分身的題目,

雖然在這篇文章裡沒有可能、也未必一定有必要將它們一一召喚出來跟黑澤清的影片

作比較,不過,有一部作品卻是不得不提,那就是高達的《新浪潮》(Nouvelle vague,

1990)。6因為這部影片不僅直接有分身人物的登場,而且高達將這個題目引向了一個

更為複雜並已經屬於別一個層面的境地。

高達的電影,一般來說,像《斷了氣》(À bout de soufflé, 1959)、《瘋狂的皮埃羅》

(Pierrot le fou, 1965)等前期的 60 年代作品,有著比較高的接受度。此後的作品,且

不說 70 年代的「吉加·維爾多夫集團」時期,即便是 80 年代所謂的複歸商業電影後,

由於其影片的高度複雜性,令人有高處不勝寒之感,常常讓人覺得其過於「獨善」、難

以接近。不過,高達後期的電影如果僅僅被這樣對待,恐怕是對高度的人類精神文化

財產的奢侈浪費。高達並不是在搞什麼電影玄學,他實踐的是一種更新的電影形態,

其嶄新度也許已經超出了電影史可能的想像範圍。

讓我們姑且就著本文的分身的題目,集中來看一看讓阿蘭.德龍一人扮演兩個角

色的這部《新浪潮》。擁有一個豪華壯麗的莊園、還有眾多的名牌轎車以及隨從、僕人

的女富豪艾蘭娜美麗而驕橫,她經營著一個龐大的國際化商業帝國。一天,開著梅賽

德斯-賓士出門的她把阿蘭·德龍飾演的羅傑·萊諾克斯刮傷了。她猶豫之下,將羅傑帶

回家,把他照看起來。不久,兩人成為戀人,她把他帶進自己的商業帝國和社交圈,

然而羅傑卻整日無精打采,無論是數億美元的生意,還是綠樹清波的大自然,都不能

使他有所改變。艾蘭娜開始對他失去耐心。某日,兩人放舟湖上,羅傑落入水中。看

著不會游泳的羅傑在水中掙紮、漸漸被水淹沒,艾蘭娜一臉冷酷迷離,她沒有出手相

救。隨後,她又回到了商業帝國的運轉之中。由此,影片開始進入後半部。一個跟羅

6 《新浪潮》(Nouvelle vague), Sara Films 等製作出品,1990 年。

Page 254:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

247

傑長得極為相似的男子突然造訪艾蘭娜的世界,他叫李歇爾•萊諾克斯,自稱是羅傑

的兄弟。跟羅傑截然不同,李歇爾精力旺盛、野心勃勃,不久就進入了經營核心層。

他們成為戀人,而這次關係倒過來了,他越來越成為商業高手、工作狂,而她卻日漸

慵懶、棄置工作於不顧。這一天,他們泛舟湖上,這一次,落水而且要被淹沒的是艾

蘭娜,而李歇爾則 終對她伸出了援救之手。

如果只是看上面這段文字,我們或許會以為這是一個學生的習作,這樣一個散漫

的構思,在一般意義上怎麼可能拍成一部電影?可是高達從他第一部作品開始就是在

不斷地挑戰被叫做電影的東西的底線,在他那裡,一切都是被允許的。實際上,他在

這裡不僅直接表現了分身的題目,而且更重要的是,他表述了重複(repetition)的主

題,由此他創造了電影可能的新型樣式。

讓我們先來看一看影片的構造。以阿蘭.德龍飾演的人物的出現及死後的複歸將

影片分成前後兩個部分,從這個意義上說,作品關涉分身的問題。然而,同一個東西

的複歸或者叫再度出現,決不僅僅局限於羅傑和李歇爾這個人物。事實上,艾蘭娜身

上也發生了巨大的變化,從前半部的行動派女企業家,變成了後半部的荒廢工作、任

由李歇爾擺佈的角色。從這一點說,後半部的艾蘭娜亦已然是一個分身,儘管她沒有

像阿蘭·德龍扮演的人物那樣有死而復生的情節設定。不僅如此,影片裡高達有意識地

安排了眾多的重複。臺詞、場景、音樂、畫面、情節等,前半部出現過的東西,在後

半部再度出現,凸現出重複的主題。

然而在這裡,後半部再度出現的東西,絕不是前半部裡出現的東西的「副本」。在

發表於《電影手冊》1990 年 5 月號的題名為「新浪潮—創世」的劇本裡,高達這樣表

述其構想:「同樣的話或幾乎同樣的話被說出來,但說這些話的,是第一次說這句話的

人物的旁邊那個人物。或一場戲從比第一次略微靠後(或靠前)的地方開始,在稍微

靠前(或靠後)的地方結束」。7也就是說,在後半部,同樣的某個東西、某個事件、

某個細節、某句臺詞或旁白會再次出現,但是它們以一種稍稍「偏移」過的方式呈現。8

7 《高達全評論·全發言Ⅲ,1984-1998》,筑摩書房,2004 年,頁 297。 原書為 Jean-Luc Godard

par Jean-Luc Godard, VolumeⅡ–1984/1998, Editions de l’Eroile du cinéma, 1998。 8 這裡說的「偏移」應該有別于文學批評理論中的「戲仿(parody)」、「反諷(irony)」概念。所

謂戲仿和反諷的手法針對的是其所戲仿及反諷的那個原來的存在,其所追求的也是以戲仿、反

諷之物本身來取代被戲仿、反諷之物。我們將要看到,高達這裡呈現的是一個事物在偏移之下

Page 255:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

248

例如關於臺詞和旁白。讓我們從 單純的例子出發。艾蘭娜的律師拉吾爾和跟他

親近的女人之間的對話前後各有兩次出現。前半部,當拉吾爾在建築物外的庭院裡走

動時,從畫面外的房子裡,傳來女人的聲音:「我該幹什麼呀?」他似乎沒有聽見似地

繼續漫步。再一次傳來女人的聲音:「我該幹什麼呀?」拉吾爾突然不耐煩地叫道:「看

你的自然吧!」不久,眾人走進建築物,人們紛紛各自散去,留下拉吾爾和女人在室

內的樓梯旁。不知從何處傳來樂曲聲,女人說:「拉吾爾!……這音樂真無聊……我該

幹什麼呀?」拉吾爾的回答是:「看你的建築吧!」而在影片後半部,拉吾爾急匆匆地

從外面回來,初次知道了與溺水死的羅傑長得一模一樣的男人進入了他們的世界。在

一個套間裡,女人懶洋洋地問:「我該幹什麼呀?」拉吾爾回答:「看看洗澡水怎麼樣

了!」不久,已經弄完了洗澡水的女人又探出身來問:「我該幹什麼呀?」拉吾爾扔下

一句:「看你的室內吧!」

這裡,女人和律師拉吾爾之間語言的你來我往,說的幾乎是同一個內容,但是每

一次的重複,既相同又不一樣。在不同的地方和場合,同時旁邊在場的人物也不一樣,

但說的幾乎就是同一句臺詞,只不過「看」的對象從「自然」、「建築」,「偏移」變成

了「洗澡水」、「室內」。

也就是說,前半部出現過的臺詞在後半部再度登場,但這種複歸一定是伴隨著「偏

移」。這一點,在影片中出現的很多引經據典的旁白裡同樣可以確認。

前半部裡,大約在影片開始 20 分鐘的地方,一個男子的聲音作為旁白插入:「這

個社會完了,人們會說,那是個好時代啊,總有一天。」10 分鐘後,同樣的這個聲音

繼續:「會有一天,人們會說,過去有貧富的差別,有試圖出人頭地的目標和被禁止的

欲望的對象,還有偶然。」而到了後半部,同樣的旁白再次響起,可是這一次,在前

半部中被當作兩段話出現的旁白,被完整地一次性敘述出來:「這個社會完了,人們會

說,那是個好時代啊,總有一天。會有一天,人們會說,過去有貧富的差別,有試圖

出人頭地的目標和被禁止的欲望的對象,還有偶然。」

的重複出現,不是去取代原本的事物,而是事物的細胞般的自我繁衍。「戲仿」、「反諷」依然沒

有擺脫二元論的框架,而偏移下的重複,則是以對存在的「多」的直接肯定為前提。一滴水是

對另一滴水的「偏移」,但不會是一滴水「戲仿」或「反諷」另一滴水。或者,蜂窩裡無數隻蜜

蜂中的一隻蜜蜂是對另一隻蜜蜂的「偏移」,但對「蜂王」心懷不滿或試圖取而代之的叛逆「小

蜜蜂」或許會對「蜂王」行使「戲仿」或「反諷」。

Page 256:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

249

這種「偏移」下的重複,不止發生於前半部和後半部之間。在同一個時候,旁白

也有可能當下「偏移」。前半部,艾蘭娜帶著羅傑來到有老房子的莊園,那裡養著馬。

一個男子的旁白響起,而與此並行的,是大約在晚了數秒後出現的同樣的旁白,並且

也同樣來自同一個男子的聲音:「依憑時間的風化,以一雙雖已發黑但淨潔、豁達、虛

渺的眼睛,與其說是將生者從死者那裡保護出來,不如說是保護死者,毋寧是將粉末

狀的空洞的骸骨和毫無防備的塵土從人類的不安那裡保護出來。」於是,這裡我們聽

見的是同一個聲音以同一個語調在「偏移」數秒時間的狀態下兩次敘說同一個旁白,

當第一個聲音說完 後的「……保護出來」時,第二個聲音正好在「……空洞的骸

骨……」,並且繼續以同樣的語速說到 後的「……保護出來」。

還有,例如在後半部的一場裡,李歇爾他們正在發生爭執,此時一個女人的聲音

作為旁白插入:「隸屬、貧富、自由、戰爭等等產生、消失,都與本質無關」,畫面轉

為透過樹枝看到的湖畔,大約在上述旁白出現 20 秒後,同樣的女人以同樣的音量和語

速再次出現,並在 後多加了一句:「隸屬、貧富、自由、戰爭等等產生、消失,都與

本質無關,我們把它們叫做事件。」

上述的這些臺詞和旁白,有前後半部之間的重複,有同一個段落內的重複,同時

它們都伴隨著「偏移」。而且,事情還遠非這麼單純。高達還常常將來自不同人物、不

同聲音臺詞和旁白以一種「此起彼伏」的方式勾連起來,形成了聲音之間的某種「群

舞」交錯的狀態。譬如,前面提到過的例子,拉吾爾和女人之間的臺詞第一次出現的

時候,他沖著右邊畫面外的女人大吼「看你的自然吧!」,話音未落,另一個聲音的旁

白以一種強有力的語調猛然出現:「對方的愛無論是假是真,等你意識到的時候,已經

為時已晚」。恍惚間,我們幾乎要誤以為這是拉吾爾在獨語,或者,當我們弄明白這是

另一個聲音時,彷彿又會以為是另一個人在向拉吾爾講述著什麼。但其實,沒有人在

同一個空間裡跟拉吾爾作這番對話,這是一個在空間上、在故事上跟拉吾爾沒有直接

關係的旁白。然而它被插入的時候,這個聲音對拉吾爾的「看你的自然吧!」的聲音

的關係,彷彿是一隻漲紅了臉的公雞,面對另一隻公雞的挑釁而躍起一般。

還有,後半部園丁說的下麵這段臺詞,本來已經是前半部臺詞的重複,但它同時

又被安插在跟另一個旁白的重疊關係之中。園丁說:「夏天來得異常早,一瞬間都開花

了,丁香花和櫻桃花,一瞬而逝的蘋果花,短時間就枯萎的水菖蒲,滿地茂盛的山楂」。

與此重疊出現的旁白則是:「愛的危險不在時間或倦怠,而毋寧是在一種安心感,愛的

Page 257:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

250

魅力只是一瞬間、只是刹那間享受就好」。後者的聲音跟前者園丁的聲音「偏移」而重

疊,比前者晚 2-3 秒結束。不會有完全對等的同時性,彷彿這個聲音對前者有那麼一

點點的戀戀不捨,或者是戀人的吻別裡其中一方的意猶未盡,一方比另一方多了一點

點或者少了一點點愛意……

我們應該已經感受到了高達的創意。臺詞、旁白你追我趕、此起彼伏,似乎一個

音樂旋律在追逐另一個旋律,總是慢半怕而追趕不上,或者又過快而已經對自己一直

在追趕的旋律失去興味並已經開始另一個旋律。又好似浪花和浪花在調情嬉耍,永遠

不會是像花樣游泳那樣形成重疊一致的節拍。

3.

然而,這種「偏移」連接並不僅僅局限於臺詞和旁白。影像之間也常常發生類似

的關係。關於這一點,我們可以先來聽聽他關於剪輯的若干驚人之語。

1988 年,也就是我們討論的《新浪潮》拍攝完成的兩年前,當時他正著手於錄影

作品《電影史》的製作。在這一年的一次演講中,他如此放言:

「……然而電影的獨自之處,在於如從未露出過地表的植物一般其實還絕未存

在過的東西,這就是剪輯。無聲電影時期的人們非常強烈地感覺到了這一獨特

性,就此談了很多。但是誰也沒有發現到它。即使是格里菲斯,他發明了特寫……

但是用剪輯一詞我要說的是範圍遠為廣大的東西。」

「愛森斯坦,他雖然始終只在談剪輯,但卻不是一個能做好剪輯的人。他是一

個能計算的人,他發現的是機位角度。他的作品當然開啟了剪輯的由緒,人們

說‘這是一部剪輯出色的電影’—跟威爾斯後來做的那樣—,是因為他的作

品裡有非同尋常的攝影角度。但是這還不是剪輯,還是別的東西。怎麼樣?……

怎麼樣?」9

在《電影史》 4B 部分,高達引用了一般被視為是超現實主義的先驅者的法國詩

人 Pierre Reverdy,如此豪言:「某個影像之所以給人印象深刻,不是因為它的粗暴或

9 〈剪輯·孤獨·自由—在 FEMIS 的講演〉,《現代思想》臨時增刊號=「總特集:高達神話」,青土

社,1995 年,頁 268,頁 278。對格里菲斯和愛森斯坦的類似評述,也散見於高達的其他場合

裡的發言,例如 70 年代末在加拿大蒙特利爾所做的電影史系列講座。

Page 258:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

251

者幻想色彩,而是因為諸觀念間的連合,隔得很遙遠,但又是正確的」。

在高達看來,在剪輯、也就是影像和影像的連接這一點上,無論是格里菲斯還是

愛森斯坦,都沒有真正發明或發現其真義。格里菲斯發現的只是特寫,而愛森斯坦做

到的也只不過是攝影角度的奇拔。真正的剪輯,應當是影像之間相距遙遠,但其結合

又是準確妥當的。當然,高達用的詞更為絕對:影像之間沒有特別的相互關係,但它

們必須被放在一起,而且這樣連接必須是「正確」的。

我們知道,高達從來就是一個在剪輯上打破影史常規的人。我們會想起他第一部

長篇作品裡就已出現的跳切(jump cut),其實,僅僅提及這一條已經完全不足以說明

他在鏡頭連接上極為豐富的創造性。60 年代的商業電影裡,其剪輯可以說是不斷令人

驚豔,其後的多有政論性的影片則又是別一番影像連接倫理,而 70 年代末回歸商業電

影的《人人為己》(Sauve qui peut (la vie), 1979)以來,他進一步將他的電影、將

其作品裡的剪輯帶向了幾乎是可以說是一條「不歸」之路,不僅不回歸經典電影或好

萊塢式的文法,而且也絕不回歸自己 60 年代的驚豔筆法。他已經走向了一個荒蕪之

境,以致不僅嚇倒了一般觀眾,也嚇跑了不少業界人士。然而,高達毫不介意,只是

走他的「不歸」路,越走越遠。

在這裡,沒有可能對他的剪輯倫理做一個全面的梳理,我們姑且就《新浪潮》這

部作品所呈現的東西來做一個描述。“……她和他一起漫步的那 早的一步,他們

初交換的視線,他們的努力, 初的失敗。幾乎所有這些都用單鏡頭或者相近的手法

拍攝,但是使用對切來實現前面說到的那種效果的地方除外。/彷彿是管弦樂的快板、

甚快板、行板、廣板追逐著鋼琴、小提琴一般,一個個單鏡頭追逐著自己而連綿出

現。”10

從這段話,以及實際影片中呈現的影像面貌,我們體認這部電影在影像上的第一

個特點,它主要涉及場面單鏡頭(sequence shot),這是高達在該片裡主要使用的鏡頭

類型。各個單鏡頭不是簡單地僅僅以交待一個場面或其中發生的事情為宗旨,而是要

像音樂中各個構成部分之相互追逐,構成一種不以空間和情節的一節一節的陳述為基

準的關係。在影片開始部分,艾蘭娜獨自駕駛梅賽德斯-賓士駛去,但是我們看到,在

這個遠景的單鏡頭裡,賓士車駛向右前方的同時,這個場景裡毫不重要的園丁,也以

10 同註 7,頁 294。

Page 259:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

252

跟轎車的運動方向接近的方向在移動。轎車在畫面的後部向右前方消失,而攝影機則

繼續跟蹤園丁的運動,他在畫面的中部由左向右獨自移動,恍惚間令人想起《四百下》

後的那個追隨少年的長長的移動鏡頭(figure 3)。但其實,這裡本來要交待的理應

是艾蘭娜的出發,可是正因為這應是畫面的表現中心,

所以必須要帶入作為中心的被攝對象之外的另一個無關

緊要的什麼東西,而且要在某種程度上把鏡頭給後者。

這是高達掌控畫面時的一個倫理,我們同樣也可以稱之

為「偏移」。這裡,應該不是高達所說的一個鏡頭追逐另

一個鏡頭,而是讓一個鏡頭內的附屬性存在追逐、分離

主要存在,產生遮擋、搗亂的效果,虛晃一槍。在這個

鏡頭的前一個鏡頭,也完全可以確認到同一個邏輯。從

左向右,艾蘭娜一邊聽著女助手的報告,一邊走向梅賽

德斯-賓士車,將要準備上車時,女助手突然對著左邊畫

面外大叫一聲「朱爾,快一點!」,話音未落,一輛與賓

士車顏色相同的車在靠近攝影機的一方從左向右進發(figure 2)。隨後,便是我們剛

剛提到的賓士車/園丁的鏡頭。因此,我們很容易產生錯覺,以為開始啟動並行進的這

輛車就是下一個鏡頭裡的車,但其實我們在隨後的鏡頭(道路上的事故)裡就會知道,

艾蘭娜開的是賓士車。也就是說,隨著「朱爾,快一點!」

的聲音開始行進的那輛跟賓士相同顏色的車,其實是無

關緊要的事物,在交待情節上沒有任何功能,可是影片

就是這樣不講理地讓這輛本來是可有可無的車的行進,

接合到下一個鏡頭裡的梅賽德斯-賓士的行進。這就叫虛

晃一槍。加上園丁的行走,短短的這一場面其實已經虛

晃了兩槍。

以上所說的還是一個鏡頭內的現象,那麼所謂鏡頭

之間又是怎樣的呢?艾蘭娜和他的助手、隨從,包括羅

傑,一行人走進豪宅內,眾人在樓梯旁客廳紛紛散去。

前面提及的「拉吾兒!……這音樂真無聊……我該幹什

麼呀?」、「看你的建築吧!」的對話後不久,畫面出現

figure 2 無關緊要的車從前面駛

來,幾乎佔據畫面的 1/2。讓人誤

以為下個畫面中飛馳的車就是這

輛。圖 2:取自尚廬.高達,《新

浪潮》(東京:紀伊國屋書店,

2002)

figure 3 無關緊要的園丁是這個

鏡頭的追逐中心,而本該是這裡

真正的中心的梅賽德斯-賓士在

出現片刻後已經消失在遠處的小

路。圖 3:取自尚廬.高達,《新

浪潮》(東京:紀伊國屋書店,

2002)

Page 260:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

253

客廳右邊一牆之隔的屋子,起初是艾蘭娜、拉吾爾、羅傑三人,隨後變成艾蘭娜和羅

傑兩人,在音樂聲中緩緩起舞,艾蘭娜要親吻對方的手。此時,鏡頭向左移動,回到

樓梯旁客廳裡,拉吾爾和他的那位女人正靜聽右邊屋裡的動靜,而另一個女人正從樓

梯上走下來。鏡頭然後向右移動,本該出現右邊屋裡的畫面,可是高達呈現給我們的,

是方才響起的音樂中的一片湖水。然後,在鏡頭持續向右移動中,突然出現或者說過

渡到了右邊屋子,艾蘭娜將腿架在羅傑弓下身子的背上,一個非常不可思議的身體關

係狀態。鏡頭左移,回到了樓梯旁客廳,剛才從樓梯上往下走的女人正好接續剛才進

行中被切斷的下樓梯的動作。鏡頭向右移動,回到右邊屋子,艾蘭娜和羅傑已經不是

剛才那個架腿狀態,而是艾蘭娜半蹲著身子,似乎在和羅傑交換著語言,這同一個向

右移動的鏡頭突然又變成湖水,持續向右移動之後略為向左回返,而回返後出現的,

是樓梯下的那個客廳,此時在這裡的已經不是拉吾爾,也不是老是問「我該幹什麼呀?」

的女人,而是剛才那個從樓梯上走下來的人的半身鏡頭,她面向右邊屋子,在喃喃自

語……

在電影裡,鏡頭和鏡頭的連接應該保證故事、空間、動作的連貫完整,這是經典

好萊塢電影建立起來的規則,也是一般觀眾的一個心理常識。或者,如果鏡頭之間沒

有這樣的連貫性,那麼它們就是遵循著意義上的比喻、引申關係,例如蘇聯蒙太奇裡

常見的影像連接方式。高達在這裡的做法,顯然沒有遵守上述兩種準則,應該被連接

起來的左邊的客廳/右邊的屋子,被突兀地分割。不僅如此,當畫面回到左邊的客廳或

右邊的屋子時,畫面內的人物或動作已經變為另一種狀態,與先前出現時的狀態有相

當大的隔閡,但是有時情況又相反,畫面和動作的連接令人匪夷所思,例如當畫面回

到左邊客廳時,先前出現的女人從樓梯往下走的動作,卻在經歷了幾個鏡頭的跳躍性

連接之後,又回到了這個動作。從空間和動作上說,如果前一次出現的客廳畫面裡有

從樓梯下來的動作,那麼當後一次出現客廳畫面時,至少這個動作已經完成,這樣才

是連貫的。因此,目前這樣一種奇異的動作連貫,反而益發加深了畫面的不連貫。同

時,這個段落的剪輯,也沒有任何隱喻關係在起作用。湖水既不表示男女主人公之間

愛的曖昧,也不暗示所有人物所構成的這個世界的複雜深邃。湖水就是湖水,跟客廳、

屋子之間沒有故事空間、動作上的直接關聯,跟人物世界也沒有隱喻關係,它在這裡

是一個獨立的存在,只呈現它自己的粼粼波光。

但是鏡頭的從左向右或反方向的運動,在方向上卻是持續連貫的。彷彿有一個目

Page 261:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

254

光,一個真正連貫的目光,將「左邊客廳/湖水/右邊屋子」連在一起。這個目光看到

了客廳,也看到了跟客廳在物理空間上連接的右邊屋子,並且還看到了沒有物理空間

關係的湖水,它將三者並置在一起,構成了斷裂後的連接關係。這究竟是一種怎樣的

連接?

其二則是雖然在影片裡用得不多但其用法非常獨特的對切鏡頭(shot/reverse

shot)。高達提到的「但是使用對切來實現前面說到的那種效果的地方除外」這段話,

意指他自己在同一篇文章的稍前部分闡述的關於特寫對切的設想,即,在他的構思裡

影片高潮部分會使用特寫對切,但會把特寫只給兩人中的一個人身上,而且當一個人

被給了特寫後,對方的那個人要頻繁地消失,然後又

頻繁地突然現身。要讓人感到「像是生活中的一個復

活奇跡一般」,「不是對話被空間分割開來,而應是空

間被對話的集合體和連續體分割。這也是因為,愛還

沒有被找到,交流也還沒有展開」11。這一點,我們

在羅傑/李歇爾跟艾蘭娜兩人單獨相處時的場景裡很

容易得到確認。而且,讓人更不可思議的,是湖上事

故時的鏡頭處理。尤其在影片中部第一次事故裡,從

碼頭出發後,接上一個藍天的鏡頭,隨後極其突兀地

出現艾蘭娜翻身入水的鏡頭,畫面裡是她的身體剛剛

離開船體跳入湖中,留在船上的羅傑則正被應該是艾

蘭娜起跳時扔過來的衣服蒙住頭,他努力去拉扯開這

件衣服,並在由艾蘭娜起跳下水而引起的船體晃動中

試圖保持自己的身體平衡(figure 4)。沒有湖面單獨的鏡頭,沒有小船在湖面的鏡頭,

沒有兩人在船上的鏡頭,也沒有人物之間的言語交換,也就是說,沒有場面交待的遠

景,沒有人物並置以及他們之間動作展開的循序漸進,一場極其重要的戲,以這樣一

個突兀的細節動作即「入水」這個動作、而且是這個動作後半程的一個在畫面上 支

離破碎的瞬間開始,恐怕影史罕見。

隨後的對切鏡頭的展開也始終保持著畫面連接上的詭譎和奇拔。從艾蘭娜入水到

11 同註 7,頁 290。

figure 4 構成影片 重要情節之一的

湖上事故這場戲,就從這樣一個在畫

面上 支離破碎的瞬間粗暴地開

始。所謂「從中間出發」(rhizome),

在電影裡也可以是這樣的。圖 4:取

自尚廬.高達,《新浪潮》(東京:

紀伊國屋書店,2002)

Page 262:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

255

羅傑失足落水(水中的艾蘭娜跟船上的羅傑互換位置)之間的這個鏡頭段落,鏡頭之

間的連接非常詭譎,總讓人看著覺得哪兒有問題,畫面沒有流暢準確地連接起來。這

一段,從來沒有出現過一次雙人鏡頭,其基本內容是水中的艾蘭娜和船上的羅傑之間

的近景鏡頭的切換。她很享受自己的戲水,並再三招呼羅傑也一起下水,而他則似乎

沒好氣地把話堵回去,說自己不會游泳。一般說來,這種場合的拍攝和剪輯方法,是

把鏡頭給說話一方(如果某段臺詞太長,也許會插入簡短的聽話方的鏡頭),由於這段

對話並非訴說衷腸或長篇大論,全篇都是「來呀」、「不會游」之類的短平快臺詞,因

此,誰說話給誰鏡頭是 便捷的方法。然而影片處理的詭譎之處在於,雖然也比較規

矩地部分使用了把鏡頭給說話方的方法,但在若干個地方,高達卻正好採用了完全相

反的方式,她說「來呀」時,畫面一定是船上的他,而當聲音是他說「我不會游泳」

時,畫面則一定是在戲水的她。而且,鏡頭之間的切換很快,令觀者有一種微微的錯

亂。然而,可以姑且稱作聲畫錯位的這種狀態,並不僅限於這裡的「正好相反」這一

種。對話經過若干個來回後,畫面是羅傑低頭不語,似乎在看著船艙,也沒有兩人間

的對話。此時他慢慢轉過頭部,突然間冒出一句:「不」,而幾乎跟這個「不」同時出

來但又可以確認比「不」只晚了零點幾秒的「來呀」從艾蘭娜那裡傳過來。他的「不」

和她的「來呀」實際上是沒有「對上」,彷彿「不」不是在回應這個「來呀」,彷彿兩

個人都是面對一個並不存在的對方在自言自語,或者,跟前面我們提及的臺詞和旁白

的組合情形相似,彷彿是兩只公雞伸出脖子啄向對方,一方的攻擊和另一方的攻擊在

動作開始和結束上不一致又形成某種動作伸縮的獨特韻律12。然而,更令人感到不可

思議的是,緊隨其後的畫面,艾蘭娜在戲水,沖著羅傑說「來呀,你在幹什麼!」,畫

面不變,傳過來羅傑的回應「我不會游」,而這句話剛說到一半,艾蘭娜一句「愚蠢的

法國人!」已經從嘴裡說出來,並且,艾蘭娜這句話的 後一個語音落下時,鏡頭跳

到了羅傑這邊,畫面中的他正好是在把用力說「我不會游」時微微伸出去的頭部收回

來。也就是說,不僅「我不會游」和「愚蠢的法國人!」這兩句臺詞因為其重疊出現

而沒有完全構成「招喚/回應」的關係,而且艾蘭娜說的「愚蠢的法國人!」 後一個

12 羅傑的這個「不」之前,是羅傑再一次強調說「我不會游泳」,艾蘭娜則在戲水的歡悅中隨意追

加性地冒一句「來呀」。此後,鏡頭回到羅傑,又變成水中的艾蘭娜,然後再次回到羅傑,似乎

對這個已經說過好幾次的「來呀」,已經沒有回答的必要。也就是說,我們正在討論的這個「不」

/「來呀」裡的「不」,應該不是對時間上間隔較久的上一個「來呀」的回答。

Page 263:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

256

音的結束跟羅傑說完「我不會游」的身體動作接在了一起。這跟我們剛剛提到的不給

說話方鏡頭的那種方式又有新的變化。錯亂,不僅僅是反某個規則,反規則本身也產

生諸種偏移。這已經不是一個錯亂,而是錯亂本身也再度、再再度地變異,這已然是

錯亂的錯亂,是傳染病病毒或細菌細胞式的瘋狂增生。

但是,錯亂的錯亂絕不意味著隨意胡亂的排列組合。相對規矩老實的一組鏡頭,

反-規則的一組鏡頭,另一種反規則的一組鏡頭……,它們合起來,如細菌的繁衍增生,

一次裂變引出更多的裂變,它們連接在一起,形成各種各樣既相似又絕然不同的連接

紋樣和韻律。

「不是對話被空間分割開來,而應是空間被對話的集合體和連續體分割。這也是

因為,愛還沒有被找到,交流也還沒有被展開」。愛還沒有到來,愛是需要被創造出來

的將要到來的東西。因此,在現實空間的層面上,男人和女人的鏡頭不能按照常規電

影的邏輯被一一接上,因為鏡頭之間的連接,不能是結果論式的連接,而必須是斷裂

之後的某種關係,這才是連接出、創造出未來的條件。從這個意義上說,高達式的剪

輯,是真正在未來的維面上展開的鏡頭連接方法。此時,我們也許會想起《芳名卡門》

(Prenom Carmen, 1983)結尾的那個對話:

「就算都失敗了,太陽會升起,會有空氣可以呼吸」

「這叫黎明,小姐」

對,這就是向著「黎明」的高達式的剪輯。也正是在這個意義上,他才有理由、有底

氣說,奠定電影表現之基本文法的格里菲斯和愛森斯坦其實還沒有真正理解剪輯……

4.

德勒茲在《電影 2》第 7 章〈思考與電影〉裡,討論了高達電影中的「隙縫」與

「和」的問題。在高達影片裡,重要的已經不是影像間的結合、引力,而是影像之間

的隙縫。將巴黎的一個家庭和巴勒斯坦的法塔赫戰士並列展陳的《此處和他處》(Ici et

ailleurs, 1976),被當作一個重要的例子,「當我們有了一個影像時,重要的是選擇一

個能在兩個影像之間導入隙縫的影像。這不是結合操作,而是數學家說的那種微分操

作,是物理學家說的那種背離操作。一個潛在的力出現時,要去選擇另外一個潛在的

Page 264:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

257

力,不是隨意選擇一個,而要讓兩者之間產生潛在力的差異,這種差異又生產出第三

個潛在力或某個新的什麼東西」。去打破好像互相之間被鎖鏈拴起來、互為奴隸的影像

連鎖,「這正是「之間」、「兩個影像之間」的方法,將所有由「一」構成的電影排除在

外。這是「和」的方法,是「這個,然後還有那個」,將關於「是」的所有電影排斥掉」。

同時,德勒茲進一步提及了高達強調的與蒙太奇有別的混編(mixing)方法。「當高達

宣稱混編剝奪蒙太奇的優勢位置時,從中會引出所有結果,即,混編不單單是對不同

的聲音要素的分配,還帶來它們和各個視覺要素之間的差異性關係的界定。因此視覺

影像之間、聲音影像之間、還有視覺影像和聲音影像之間,到處都有隙縫之增生。……

電影有近似數學之處,所謂合理性切斷,可以屬於其分割的兩個集合之中的一個(一

方的開始,另一個的結束),這正是「經典」電影的情形。在現代電影裡,切斷變成為

隙縫,乃是非合理性的,不屬於集合中的任何一個,一方不存在終結,同樣,另一方

也不存在開始」13。德勒茲的這番論述,實際上與根莖(rhizome)思想一脈相通。高

達電影裡那種看似蠻不講理的影像組接(或者叫混編),事實上創造出了一種嶄新的方

法,在這裡,重要的不是將影像以我們常規的「看得懂」的方式連起來,因為我們的

常規意識、常規視覺裡已經充滿了權力、惰性、無知的傲慢,與本文前面談到作為分

身反面的人格統一性的問題時提到的一樣,它們已經是組織化的人文技術的結果。而

這種結果論式的影像世界,一定是某種自我完整的、封閉性的內向循環。拒絕這種結

果論式思維,將影像的組接置於打開這個封閉性連鎖的前提之上,擴張並凸現影像和

影像之間連不起來的那個縫隙,讓每一個影像不是成為跟別的影像「天衣無縫」地接

合的影像,而要讓每一個影像被選擇出來能夠獲得另一個縫隙,或者是縫隙之上進一

步生產出縫隙。這就是縫隙性影像如細菌、病毒般的增生繁殖。於是,一個影像和另

一個影像,就不是因果的關係,也不是比喻的關係,而是 簡單 直接的「和」(et/and)

的關係,這個和那個,然後那一個,還有這一個……,它們之間擺脫掉了界定從屬關

係的「是……」的樣態。電影中的根莖思維,可以是這樣的。

在《差異和重複》第五章開篇,德勒茲這樣寫道:「……上帝經過計算創造了世界

的說法如果是真的話,其計算也絕不會是完整除盡的狀態。留在計算結果裡的這種除

13 Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image, translated by Hugh Tomlinson & Robert Galeta,

continuum, 2005, pp.173-174。

Page 265:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

258

不盡的狀態,這種難以解消的不等性,構成了世界的條件」14。其實,這也正是數學

中的無理數(irrational number)的概念,例如圓周率 π=3.14159265...這樣的永遠不會

被除盡、不能作為整數來表達的數字。那麼問題是,如果我們要把眾多的無理數集合

到一起,它們將會被怎樣連接呢? 由於它們是無理數,它們之間沒有代數因果關係,

除了用「和」的方法將它們連起來以外,難道還有別的方法嗎?並且,由於它們的集

合體沒有可能出現某個有機體構造,在形態上必然是「平坦」的(相反,有理數之間

總能以整數來表達,能尋找出數字間的關係,即結構,然後擁有「深度」)。

不過,僅僅指出這一點似乎已不太令人滿足,至少是不足以說明我們一直在討論

的《新浪潮》裡的影像狀態。《新浪潮》裡的影像組接,當然首先是「和」的狀態,但

是各個被「和」起來的影像形成著獨特的紋樣,構成了獨特的韻律。這是一種你找不

出平衡對稱的、類似沙漠上無數細沙的堆積所形成的紋樣,是一種互相之間絕不押韻

的波浪之間所形成的韻律,我們給它一個詞,這個詞也不是本文的發明,而就是德勒

茲本人的一個關鍵字,我們叫它「重複」(repetition)。而我們知道,重複一定是與差

異同在的。

在德勒茲和他的弟子克萊.帕萘(Claire Parnet)共同完成的《對話》(Dialogues)

一書的第二章〈英美文學的優勢位置〉裡,帕萘提到了現代科學中的趨向問題。她說,

科學擺脫構造論式的研究,益發變成關於事件性、發生性的研究。「『自我增生』,這在

膠化體,也在瘟疫、在資訊領域被實現」15。譬如材料科學裡的凝膠類(gel),比之以

前的材料學研究來說,是相對新興的材料學研究對象,它屬於分散系物質。例如代替

人體軟骨用的人工軟骨材料,這是一種具有雙重網眼構造的高強度凝膠,還有,日常

生活裡,例如日本料理裡的蒟蒻(こんにゃく,konjak),或者豆腐、膠囊等。它們共

有的特點是,經歷了一次破局,即從原來所屬的那個自然物質的集合體中分離出來,

失去原本的那個集合體具有的組織結構,失去建立在組織、構造之上的「深度」,然後

這些「平坦」的斷片們互相連接起來,成為一個新的集合體。

從這個意義上,也許我們可以說,高達的電影是破局之後的斷片化影像排列組合

14 Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, translated by Paul Patton, continuum, 2004, p.280。 15 Gilles Deleuze & Claire Parnet, Dialogues, Flammarion, 1977; éd. Augmentée, 1996.本文引自日文譯

本,ジル・ドゥルーズ、クレール・パルネ『対話』,江川隆男、增田靖彥譯,河出書房新社,

1996 年,頁 106-107。

Page 266:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

259

成的膠化體式聲音-影像集合體。從格里菲斯式的故事、空間完整性中脫離出來,同時

從愛森斯坦式的隱喻連接關係中分離出來,這些「無理數」式的影像們互相牽連起來

構成新的集合體,互相之間沒有因果或比喻性的從屬關係,因此它們是「平坦」的影

像群,如同豆腐內的物質之間的關係,同時它們又構成種種紋樣。如果說這裡有材料

科學的進化,我們在高達這裡也可以明確無誤地看到現代電影的進化。這已然是

gel-cinema,電影膠化體。16

我們終於可以回到這篇文章第 2 節的開篇部分。固然,和黑澤清的影片一樣,高

達也處理了分身的題目,以一人飾演兩人在影片的前後部分別出現,而且情節的設定

是第一個男子在影片中段時已經死亡。高達自己在劇本中的說法是,「兩個男人正是同

一個男人,即便如此他們也依然是兩個人」,「一樣的人,一樣的單鏡頭或近似的鏡頭。

彷彿得到了機會來再度經驗一遍同樣的東西。當然,不是用同樣的方式再度經驗,因

為他現在雖然相似卻是另一個人」17。現在,我們應該明白《新浪潮》裡這個謎一樣

的人物設定的緣由,可以說,由阿蘭.德龍扮演的羅傑/李歇爾,甚至都不能用「分

身」來命名,如果要用 多也只能用「無根據的絕對分身」來稱呼。因為,如同我們

16 這裡,本文針對高達『新浪潮』裡涉及臺詞、影像、人物及故事設定的多重「偏移」現象,一

併提及了「隙縫」、「和」、「之間」(或「中間」)、「根莖」、「無理數」等多個德勒茲的術語,並

最終把它們引向「膠化體」的概念。也許我們可以這樣來對這些概念術語做一個梳理。首先,「偏

移」是高達電影中出現的聲音、影像現象。而這裡的「隙縫」、「和」、「之間」則是《電影 2》

第 7 章分析高達電影的構成方法時所使用的術語(當然在別的地方或別的著述中這些概念也時

或出現),其中「隙縫」與「之間」強調聲音和影像的連接時的斷裂特徵,而斷裂性的鏡頭被組

合在一起時,其連接方法是最平易、最平坦的「和」的方法。這三個術語所指涉的現象,從數

學的角度看具有無理數式的性格(因此只能以「和」的方法來連接),並且,它們其實跟相對被

談得較多的「根莖」概念直接相通,因為「根莖」擺脫了「樹木」型的構造,擺脫了樹幹、樹

枝、枝葉之間的主/次關係或統治/從屬關係,呈現出綿延不絕的橫向展開(「橫向」恰恰是從「之

間」出發的展開)。然而,德勒茲在此對高達影片的讀解還不足以充分說明《新浪潮》一片所展

陳的局面,因為斷裂或「隙縫」還只是更多地從負面的角度、即這些聲音和影像「不是什麼」

來談問題,而如果我們更多地從正面的角度去思考當這些斷裂性的聲音和影像被組成為一個集

合體時它們「是什麼?」時,我們就會對德勒茲在《電影 2》第 7 章中的相關討論有不滿足(當

然寫作《電影 2》時《新浪潮》還沒有拍攝),不僅「隙縫」與「之間」是不夠的,「和」也還

不足以說明《新浪潮》所呈現的由「偏移」出發而最終形成的那種排斥了常規邏輯下的獨特邏

輯、絕不去押韻之下的獨特韻律。這一局面和樣態,用德勒茲的弟子克萊.帕萘提及的「膠化

體」一詞來描述或許會更為準確。 17 同註 7,頁 290,頁 296。

Page 267:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

260

已經說明過的「偏移」或互相追逐的聲音,亦如同後半部的種種場面是前半部的場面

的「偏移」性再生一般,李歇爾準確地說應該是前半部的羅傑的「重複」,偏移下的重

複,猶如一滴水和另一滴水,一粒沙子和另一粒沙子,或者蜂窩裡無數只馬蜂中的一

隻和另一隻,狼群裡無比相似但又絕對不同的一匹狼和另一匹狼……

到了這裡,我們已經不需要、也不太應該繼續使用「分身」一詞了,因為這個詞

多少有一個前提性設定,即有一個「分身」得以分出來的原來的那個起源之物。就《新

浪潮》而言,我們 多只能用到「無根據的絕對分身」。黑澤清的《分身》之出色,在

於他有意識地把分身引向 後的那個無以辨識的絕對狀態,這是他那部影片的 高

點,但是反過來說,如果不擺脫分身構想,走得 遠也就是把它解構到「無根據的絕

對分身」的狀態。而高達的這部影片,則是以這種絕對分身為當然的前提,這是影片

的起點,從這裡出發,建立在絕對差異上的「重複」展開了其美妙絕倫的變奏。這是

「重複」的天籟之音,如謎一般,在宇宙浩瀚遙遠之處,或者在精神深遠幽邃的地方,

自會被準確接聽。

Page 268:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

261

參考書目

川崎公平,〈根拠なき分身―黒沢清《ドッペルゲンガー》における断続の諸相〉,《映

像学》第 83 号(日本:日本映像學會,2009 年)。

黑澤清,《分身》(東京:アミューズソフトエンタテインメント,2004)

尚廬·高達,《新浪潮》(東京:紀伊國屋書店,2002)

Jean‐Luc Godard 著,奥村昭夫譯,《ゴダール全評論・全発言Ⅰ 1950-1967》,筑摩書

房,1998 年。

Jean‐Luc Godard 著,奥村昭夫譯,《ゴダール全評論・全発言Ⅱ 1967-1985》,筑摩書

房,1998 年。

Jean‐Luc Godard 著,奥村昭夫譯,《ゴダール全評論・全発言Ⅲ 1984-1998》,筑摩書

房,2004 年。

《現代思想》臨時増刊号=〈総特集 ゴダールの神話〉,青土社,1995 年。

ジル・ドゥルーズ、クレール・パルネ,《対話》,江川隆男、增田靖彥譯,河出書房

新社,1996 年。

Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image, translated by Hugh Tomlinson & Robert

Galeta, continuum, 2005.

Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, translated by Paul Patton, continuum, 2004.

Page 269:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

262

Toward Repetition without Double:

Kiyoshi Kurosawa’s Doppelgänger and Jean-Luc

Godard’s Nouvelle Vague

Xiong Ying*

Abstract

Doppelgänger, made by Kiyoshi Kurosawa, one of Japan’s most important

contemporary filmmakers, can be seen as a destructive film, rather than just another horror

movie. Kohei Kawasaki aptly points out that this film represents the double in three phases:

‘replacement’, ‘juxtaposition’ and ‘replacement once again’. He observes that, by the third

phase, the film has reached an ‘absolute’ state in which the double becomes a ‘baseless’ one

and the distinction of origin/copy is no longer self-evident.

However, Jean-Luc Godard’s Nouvelle Vague, which also deals with the double, gives

us a different version. Almost the same lines or scenes appear frequently in both the first and

second halves of the film, but they appear in the latter part as more or less shifted ones; for

instance, a line is spoken in both parts, but in the latter part, one or a few extra sentences, are

added, or the same set is shown twice but is shot at different angles. On the other hand, the

combinations of images which violate both the continuity editing established by D. W.

Griffith, and also Eisensteinian dialectical montage, are made in such a way as to separate

images from each other. But as Godard says, when a connection is made between two

images, they ought to be far apart from each other, while their connection ought to be correct.

With this in mind, we should try to unearth the truth behind these disconnected and

fragmented images. Indeed, Gilles Deleuze notes that ‘it is the method of BETWEEN’ and

‘the method of AND’, which can be considered as the same thought as rhizome, but the

images connected by AND also form some figures as a set, and rhyme with each other in a

particular way. They are like the figures formed by grains of sand in the desert, or like the

* Professor at the Graduate School of Letters / Faculty of Letters, Hokkaido University, Japan.

Page 270:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

從分身到重複—黑澤清的《分身》與高達的《新浪潮》

263

rhythm of waves which rhyme with each other, while never harmonizing. To describe this

unique state we have already come across an appropriate term: repetition. Nouvelle Vague

has demonstrated a kind of evolution in cinema, which, after gel in the material sciences,

might be called gel-cinema. Kiyoshi Kurosawa’s Doppelgänger barely, but admirably,

arrived at ‘the baseless doubt’, but this is just the point of departure of Nouvelle Vague. As

opposed to doubt, what Godard shows us is the subject of repetition involving difference.

Accordingly, two men being played by one actor (Alain Delon), should also be read under

the concept of repetition.

Keywords: double, repetition, shift, rhizome, figures/rhythms, gel-cinema

Page 271:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

應雄 興大人文學報第五十期

264

Page 272:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

興大人文學報

第五十期,頁 265-294 二○一三年三月

265

On the Connection of the Cults of Historical Persons and

Baojuan Storytelling: with Baojuan of the Small King of

Thousand Sages of the Changshu Area of Jiangsu Province

As an Example

Rostislav Berezkin*

Abstract

This paper deals with the connection of baojuan (寶卷, precious scrolls), the

texts of popular storytelling of the Changshu (常熟) area (Jiangsu province,

China), and the cults of deified historical persons in this area, a subject not analyzed

anywhere before. The author uses Baojuan of Small King of Thousand Sages, which

is still circulated and performed in the Gangkou (港口)area of modern

Zhangjiagang (張家港) city and the Shanghu (尚湖)area of Changshu city, as

the main example. It deals with the life and posthumous miracles of the deity who is

identified as a son of the famous historical person – Zhang Xun (張巡), and

reflects a quite complex situation with the cults of Zhang Xun and his son, Small

King of Thousand Sages, that existed in the former Changshu county. Baojuan

analyzed in this paper is related to different forms of particular deities: these forms

co-existed in this area and it was often the case that different groups of people

preferred different ones. The comparison of materials from Baojuan of Small King of

Thousand Sages and other related baojuan texts, with the information in local

historical sources, helps us to re-construct the complex origins of these deities’ cults

* Associate research fellow, Institute for Advanced Humanistic Studies, Fudan University.

I would like to express my gratitude to Yu Yongliang, Yu Dingjun and Di Qiuyan for the help with

materials used in this article, and also to Yang Yujun, Vincent Goossaert, Victor H. Mair, and the two

anonymous readers for their comments and suggestions.

(收稿日期:101.10.30;通過刊登日期:101.03.14)

Page 273:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

266

in Changshu. Furthermore, baojuan presents some information on the development

of these cults, which is not found in other sources; thus it is a valuable material on

the religious situation in Changshu.

Keywords: baojuan, popular religion, local cults, historical persons,

historical legends

Page 274:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

267

This paper deals with the connection of baojuan (寶卷, precious scrolls) and the cults

of deified historical persons in the Changshu(常熟)area. I argue that baojuan storytelling is

an important form of the expression and transmission of local beliefs. It is closely related to

the cults that developed in this area for several centuries. Baojuan are the sources that

contribute to our understanding of the history of these cults, especially their development on

the lower level of local society. Although Chinese and foreign scholars have studied the

local beliefs of the Changshu area of the late imperial period, they have not used the material

of baojuan in their works1. This paper is designed to fill in this lacuna.

Baojuan are texts with primarily religious content intended for oral presentation. The

literary form of baojuan appeared approximately in the 13th-14th centuries and flourished in

the 16th-early 20th centuries; these texts are still performed in several regions in China till

now. Several schools of performers are still active in the area around modern city of

Changshu in Jiangsu province. Baojuan performances there are called “telling scriptures”

(jiangjing 講經), and their performers – “masters of telling scriptures” (jiangjing xiansheng

講經先生). Changshu baojuan are especially valuable for the scholars of Chinese religion,

because a lot of them present hagiographies of local deities.

In this paper I analyze Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages (Qiansheng xiao

wang baojuan《千聖小王寶卷》, a representative example of baojuan that deals with the

deified historical and pseudo-historical figures. It tells the story of the Tang-dynasty official

Zhang Xun (張巡, 709—757)and his son Zhang Tan(張倓, called Zhang Jun 張俊 in

several baojuan versions)2. I would like to note the unique nature of this text: Baojuan of the

Small King of Thousand Sages is specific of the Changshu area and most probably was

composed there.3 It is not included in the most up-to-date catalogue of baojuan texts by Che

1 Hamashima, Ming Qing Jiangnan nongcun shehui, pp. 14–62; Wang Jian, Li hai xiang guan, pp.

174–186. 2 Zhang Yafu 張亞夫 in the historical sources. 3 The exact time of composition is unknown, however, judging by the contents of baojuan and data

about its transmission, it was most probably between 1870 and 1930.

Page 275:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

268

Xilun(車錫倫),4 based primarily on the library materials. This text is still performed in the

areas of Gangkou (港口) town of modern Zhangjiagang(張家港)city5 and Shanghu (尚

湖)town of Changshu.

Baojuan of the Gangkou area have already attracted the attention of scholars of Chinese

literature. A considerable number of texts were collected by local scholars and published

under the title of the Collection of baojuan from Heyang in China (Zhongguo Heyang

baojuan ji 《中國河陽寶卷集》).6 Chinese and foreign scholars have published several

fieldwork reports that give general introduction to telling scriptures in the Gangkou area of

Zhangjiagang.7 They have discussed the special features of telling scripture in Gangkou and

have described different types of performances. Here I turn to the contents of performed

texts. Although there have been several special studies of texts discovered in the Gangkou

area,8 many baojuan found there have not been analyzed. Baojuan of the Small King of

Thousand Sages9 is a text that has not been studied so far.

I also use materials from the town of Shanghu in the Changshu area, where the tradition

of telling scriptures very similar to that of Gangkou has survived. Both areas are very close,

and there is interaction between the masters of telling scriptures in these two places. I

obtained these materials from a master of telling scriptures Yu Dingjun (余鼎君 b. 1942)

4 Che Xilun, Zhongguo baojuan zongmu. 5 It was a part of Changshu county before 1962. 6 ZHBJ. “Heyang” in the title refers to the old geographical name in the Gangkou area. 7 Yu Yongliang, “Heyang baojuan diaocha”; Che Xilun, “Jiangsu Zhangjiagang Gangkou zhen de

zuohui; Li Shuru, “Jiangsu diqu Tongli, Zhangjiagang baojuan”; Berezkin, “Scripture-telling (jiangjing)

in the Zhangjiagang Area”; Berezkin, “An Analysis of “Telling Scriptures” during Temple Festivals”. 8 Yu Yongliang and Zhou Jihong, “Heyang baojuan zhong de ‘Chunyang juan’”; Chen Yiyuan and Li

Shuru, “Heyang xijian baojuan ‘Niulang zhinü’”; Li Shuru, “Heyang baojuan yanjiu”. 9 There are two variants of this text, called Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages (based on the

manuscript copied by Hu Zhengxing 胡正興 from Zhuangjing 莊涇 village of Gangkou township in

fall 2001) and Baojuan of the Small King (based on the manuscript copied by Xia Genyuan 夏根元

from Shuangtang 雙塘 village of Gangkou township), published in ZHBJ, 1. 147-149 and 266-267.

The differences between them are minor: only several expressions and details differ; in my discussion I

follow the first variant. I have also seen the manuscripts by the other performers in Gangkou (see fig.

1-2).

Page 276:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

269

from Jianhua village (建華村) of Shanghu town, when interviewed him and observed his

performances in 2011-2012. Yu Dingjun started to study telling scriptures with his brother in

2000; now he performs independently and also is noteworthy for his deliberate changes of

the contents of baojuan texts, which makes him different from the majority of telling

scriptures performers in Changshu.10 At the same time he has a large collection of the

traditional baojuan texts (mainly manuscripts of local performers). The tradition of telling

scriptures in Shanghu has been scarcely studied so far,11 but deserves our attention, as Yu

Dingjun’s materials can complement and clarify many aspects of the Gangkou tradition.12

Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages in the version close to those from Gangkou

has been recited in the Shanghu area as well.13

In this paper, I have used published baojuan texts, historical sources (mostly gazetteers

and epigraphy of the Changshu area), and fieldwork materials. As for the structure of the

paper; firstly, I provide the details of the contents of this baojuan, then I analyze its

connection to the two related local cults. I compare the information provided in the baojuan

text with the historical sources about the related cults, and demonstrate the connection

between them as well as the difference in their portrayal of deities.

1. Zhang Xun and his son Zhang Tan in Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages

Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages says that Zhang Xun, an official known

for his honesty and loyalty, was a native of Songchang (松常)town of Dengzhou (鄧州)

county in Nanyang (南洋)14 prefecture. Zhang Xun and his wife both are aged 46 when

they give birth to their son Zhang Tan. After he grows up, he becomes accomplished both in

10 See Berezkin, “Modern performances of “precious scrolls” as a part of folk religious and

social life in the Shanghu area.” 11 See Che Xilun, “Jiangsu Changshu de ‘zuohui jiangjing’”; Yu Dingjun, “Lue shuo Changshu xianzai de

baojuan.” 12 Yu Dingjun has published several texts that he performs: QXB; Gao Guofan and Yu Dingjun, ed.,

Hexie Changshu baojuan. However, these editions cover only a small part of baojuan texts in the Yu

Dingjun’s collection. There are more than 200 different texts in his collection. 13 Yu Dingjun, see QXB, pp. 3-22. 14 This place name is obviously misspelled in baojuan, it should be 南陽.

Page 277:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

270

civil and military arts. Then, the text mentions briefly the story of the Tang emperor

Xuanzong (玄宗 r. 712-756) and Yang Guifei (楊貴妃) in connection with the start

of the An Lushan’s revolt. The emperor sends Zhang Xun and other generals to fight with

An Lushan (安祿山), and after the decisive battle Zhang Xun and Zhang Tan are besieged

by rebellious army in Rongcheng (蓉城). Zhang Xun asks the Tang court for help and

provision, but his plea is neglected by the courtiers. Zhang Xun continues to defend the city

until most of his army is starved to death, and An Lushan’s troops capture Rongcheng.

Zhang Xun is killed by the enemies, while Zhang Tan dies from starvation. When the

emperor learns about their loyalty, he bestows the title of the Prime Minister, King Pacifying

the East (Shang xiang Dong ping wang 上相東平王) on Zhang Xun, and the [King] of

Thousand Sages in charge of transmission of memorials to the Ninth Heaven (Jiu tian chuan

zou qian sheng 九天傳奏千聖) on Zhang Tan.

The text then proceeds with the recent history of the cult of the Small King of

Thousand Sages in the Changshu area. It does not say when the temple for this deity in

Changshu was first built. However, it states that this temple existed before 1860. Baojuan of

the Small King of Thousand Sages says that a temple of the Small King of Thousand Sages

in the Changshu area15 was destroyed by the Taiping forces when the Taiping war broke out

and the rebels ravaged the Changshu area; the statue of the Small King was thrown into the

lake. However, during Guangxu reign (1875-1908) this statue was discovered by a

fisherman Yang Zirong (楊子榮), who became lucky in commerce after he prayed to this

deity. Later on, the temple for the Small King of Thousand Sages was rebuilt by the local

people on the original place, and many people went to pray there. Therefore, the association

between Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages and the activities centered on the

temple of the Small King in the Changshu area is made.

15 Its place is not specified. Yu Dingjun explains that there were two temples of this deity near Changshu

city: the original temple was located in modern Jianhua village of Liantang (練塘) township of

Changshu (on the southern shore of Shanghu lake); while another temple was built in Xiaohudian (小

湖甸)on the northern shore of Shanghu lake, where the statue was found: QXB, pp. 12-14.

Page 278:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

271

2. The cult of Zhang Xun and its reflection in baojuan of the Changshu area

Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages demonstrates that the cult of the Small

King of Thousand Sages is connected to the cult of his father, Zhang Xun, which

corresponds to historical reality of Changshu. Zhang Xun and his son were real historical

persons; according to the New History of the Tang (Xin Tang shu 新唐書), Zhang Xun was

a native of Dengzhou (鄧州) county in Nanyang (南陽)prefecture (in modern Henan

province);16 and a hero of the war against An Lushan. He perished during the siege of

Suiyang(睢陽),17 which in Baojuan of the Small king of Thousand Sages is called

Rongcheng.18 Shortly after Zhang Xun’s death he was deified and the temple for both

Zhang Xun and his companion-in-arms Xu Yuan (許遠, 709-757) was built in Suiyang.19

The New History of the Tang also mentions Zhang Xun’s son Zhang Yafu in the passage

about awards for Zhang Xun, his companion-in-arms, and relatives.20

Zhang Xun was widely worshipped in the Changshu area since around the 15th century.

His cult in Changshu represents one out of several forms of his worship throughout China.21

16 Ouyang Xiu, et al., Xin Tang shu, vol. 45, juan 192, pp. 5534. Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand

Sages preserves this detail. The Old History of the Tang gives other information about his native place:

Hedong河東 in Puzhou 蒲州 (in modern Yongji永濟 county of Shanxi): Liu Xu, et al., Jiu Tang shu,

vol. 39, juan 187, p. 4899. 17 Now the district of Shangqiu 商丘 city in Henan province. 18 Xin Tang shu, vol. 45, juan 192, pp. 5534-5542. 19 Ibid., p. 5541. 20 I was not able to find more information about this person in historical sources. The database of the

historical sources (中國基本古籍庫) does not give any references except for quite late gazetteers of

Hangzhou (see below). 21 Here I do not deal with the Zhang Xun’s cult in the areas other than Changshu. Zhang Xun as a deity

had several images. His cult has been widespread in several regions of China, especially noteworthy are

beliefs in Ang-kong, the Zhang Xun’s form, in Fujian and Taiwan. On Zhang Xun’s cult, see Ma

Jianhua, “Putian minjian Zhang Xun”; Chen Chunsheng, “Song-Ming shiqi Chaozhou diqu de shuang

zhong gong”; Huang Ting, “Minjian zongjiao xinyang zhong de guojia yishi”; Fan Chunwu, “Shuang

zhong chongsi”; Fan Chunwu, “Daojiao duiyu minjian su shen”; Fan Chunwu, “Ming-Qing Jiangnan

Dutian xinyang”; Wang Zhenzhong, “Ming-Qing yilai Huizhou de baoan shanhui”. Besides Zhang

Xun’s popularity in folk beliefs, he was also featured in novel and drama – the fact that also contributed

to the spread of his cult, see Fan Chunwu, “Shuang zhong chongsi”, pp. 54-67.

Page 279:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

272

The title with which Zhang Xun is rewarded in Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand

Sages points to the deity called the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East (Dongping

zhongjing wang東平忠靖王), one of the titles of deified Zhang Xun.22 According to several

historical sources, the imperial court bestowed this title on Zhang Xun during the Northern

Song period (960-1127). However, I was not able to find the proof of the award of this

posthumous title to Zhang Xun in the official historical sources of the Song dynasty. After

consulting a number of unofficial sources that date back to the Song, Yuan (1260-1368), and

Ming (1368-1644) dynasties, one can agree with Fan Chunwu (范純武), who studied

different forms of Zhang Xun’s cult, that the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East

became the popular title of Zhang Xun under which he was known in many places of China,

including Changshu.23 At the same time the close study of local histories demonstrates that

the association between the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East and Zhang Xun

took place at the comparatively late time.

There are records about the cult of the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East in

the local histories of Changshu county that date back to the Southern Song period

(1127-1279); however, the earliest records do not specify that this deity was in any way

related to Zhang Xun. The earliest gazetteer of Changshu county available now, The Newly

Revised Gazetteer of Qinchuan (Qinchuan zhi 琴川志), compiled by Sun Yingshi (孫應時,

1154-1206)in 1196 and revised by Bao Lian (鮑廉, fl. 1241-1275)and Lu Zhen(盧鎮,

dates unknown)in 1254 and 1363 respectively, says that the temple for the Loyal and

Peaceful King Pacifying the East (Dongping zhongjing wang ci 東平忠靖王祠) existed in

Changshu during the Southern Song. It was attached to the Temple of the Eastern Peak

(Taishan), called the Travel Palace of the Eastern Peak (Dongyue xing ci 東嶽行祠),

located on the eastern slope of Yu mountain (虞山)in vicinity of the county seat of

Changshu. This gazetteer says:

The Temple for the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East is situated on the

22 Fan Chunwu, “Shuang zhong chongsi”, pp. 35-37. 23 pp. 37.

Page 280:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

273

east side of it (Temple of the Eastern Peak – R.B.). This King was a son of Zhang

Youyan from Huaiyin. He was born on the 18th day of the 8th month of the 1st year of

Kaiyuan reign of the Tang dynasty (713) and died and became a deity on the 25th day

of the 7th month of the 14th year [of Kaiyuan]. Because he protected the state and

rescued people he was awarded the title of the Accomplished and Benevolent Count.

When the first emperor of the Song dynasty was on campaign in Taiyuan, the water

in a river flooded. The emperor was worried about this, but it suddenly was frozen

and the army was able to cross it [by ice] then. They saw that the deity manifested

itself in the air. [The court] then added the title of the Responsive Messenger Who

Guards the Sacred One. In the 5th year of Xining reign (1072) the deity was

“promoted” to the Count Responsive to All Matters. The prime minister Wang Jing

ordered the relevant authorities to verify the cases of the deity’s miracles and then it

was awarded the title of the Loyal and Virtuous, Civilized and Calm, Martial but

Peaceful Count of Benevolent Response. After the Song court moved to the South,

this deity again offered [miraculous] response in Zhe province, especially remarkable

his miracles were in this place. The deity was finally awarded the title of the Loyal

and Peaceful King Pacifying the East. The people in Changshu county worshipped

him with reverence. The original temple was old, low and small, but was re-built in

the 9th year of Chunxi reign (1182).

東平忠靖王祠在其東偏。按王淮陰人張有嚴之子。唐開元元年八月十八日生。

十四年七月二十五日入滅為神。護國救民封成濟侯。宋太祖親征太原川水泛溢。

上憂之。冰忽合師遂濟。空中見神來朝。加征應護聖使者。熙寧五年陞濟物侯。

宰相王荆公令有司勘會靈顯事跡。再封忠懿文定武寧嘉應侯。南渡以來神復響

答於浙間。而此方尤顯著。累封東平忠靖王。邑人尊事之。殿基舊卑隘。淳熙

九年重建。24

Therefore, the gazetteer does not provide a date of this temple’s building, but it says that its

first rebuilding took place as early as in 1182. It was dedicated to the unnamed son of Zhang

Youyan from Huaiyin (modern Huaian 淮安 city in Jiangsu province), who was born in 713

and died in 736. He became a deity after death and performed miracles. The imperial court

24 Sun Yingshi, et al. Qinchuan zhi, vol. 2, juan 10, pp. 2a-b.

Page 281:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

274

continuously awarded him new titles during the Northern Song and the Southern Song

periods till he received the final title of the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East

sometime after the Song court moved to the South in 1127 (the exact date is not provided).

As we see, this passage does not mention Zhang Xun’s name; besides, the information in the

gazetteer does not correspond to the facts that we know about Zhang Xun from historical

sources. The place of birth and dates of life given for the deified person in the gazetteer do

not correspond to the information about Zhang Xun in the historical sources. The date of the

final title award also is not supported by the contemporary historical records.

As for the other titles of the Zhang Youyan’s son that The Newly Revised Gazetteer of

Qinchuan mentions, they are not known titles of Zhang Xun either. One cannot find them in

official historical sources at all. I was able to find only the title of Count of Benevolent

Response in the unofficial and local sources that date back to the Song dynasty. However,

these sources do not mention Zhang Xun either: Count of Benevolent Response usually

appears with the name of Zhang the Commander (Zhang taiwei 張太尉), so it is not clear

whether it was related to Zhang Xun in any way.25

Fan Chunwu has supposed that the passage in The The Newly Revised Gazetteer of

Qinchuan mentions Zhang Xun;26 however, we can see that there are no solid foundations

for this conclusion. The local Changshu scholar Yao Fujun(姚福鈞)in the late 19th century

commented on this passage that though Zhang Xun and the supposed historical prototype of

the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East had the same surname, their reported

25 These sources also insist that the deified person was a native of Huaiyin. The temple for him in

Bianliang 汴梁 (Kaifeng 開封) was built sometime between 1068 and 1077, and the Song court

conferred the title of Count of the Benevolent Response on him sometime between 1078 and 1085. See

Gao Cheng, Shi wu ji yuan, juan 7, p. 378; Li Lian, Bianjing yi ji zhi, juan 11, p. 174; et al. Besides,

there is a record about the origin of Righteous and Peaceful King Pacifying the East that is very similar

to the passage in Newly Revised Gazetteer of Qinchuan in the compendium of documents that

presumably date back to the Song dynasty: Xu Song, Song huiyao ji gao, vol. 1, Li section (vol. 20), p.

134 (831). The source that this book cites is Gazetteer of the Linting [Prefecture] 臨汀志 that dates

back to the Song dynasty. However, I was not able to find any relevant information in the modern

edition of this gazetteer. 26 Fan Chunwu, “Shuang zhong chongsi”, p. 36.

Page 282:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

275

miracles after deification were obviously different.27 Therefore, there is no firm evidence

that Zhang Xun was worshipped in Changshu under this title before the 15th century. The

origins of the cult of the Loyal and Peaceful King in Changshu remain obscure.

According to the gazetteer of Changshu that dates back to Wanli reign of the Ming

(1573-1620) – The Private Gazetteer of Changshu (Changshu si zhi 《常熟私志》) --, the

firm association between the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East and Zhang Xun

took place during Hongzhi(弘治)reign (1488-1505) of the Ming dynasty and was related to

the officials’ policies in regard of popular beliefs. According to this source, during Hongzhi

reign the main cult of the temple for the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East was

changed into that of Zhang Xun because of the campaign against the “illicit cults” (yinsi 淫

祀)28 held by the county magistrate of Changshu.29 The association between Loyal and

Peaceful King Pacifying the East and Zhang Xun appears in the source of even earlier time

-- the gazetteer of Changshu dating back to the year 1539; however, the detail about the

illicit cults is not present there.30 The adjacent temple for the deity of unknown origin called

the Bright and Heroic King of Certain Response (Fu ying zhao lie wang 孚應昭烈王)

during the Hongzhi reign was turned into the temple of Zhang Xun’s companion-in-arms Xu

Yuan, who also then received the new title of the Bright and Heroic King of Certain

Response.31

27 Yao Fujun, Zhu ding yu wen, p. 146. 28 On the illicit (or profane) cults and the government sanctions against them in the Lower Yangtze region,

see Jiang Zhushan, “Tang Bin jinhui Wutong”; Hamashima, Ming Qing Jiangnan nongcun shehui, pp.

34, 64-68, 89; Wang Jian, Li hai xiang guan, pp. 187–208. 29 Yao Zongyi and Feng Laifu, Changshu si zhi, juan 6, p. 7b. Yang Ziqi 楊子器 (1458-1513) served as a

county magistrate of Kunshan 崑山 and Changshu in succession, and his campaigns against illicit cults

are well known, see Hamashima, Ming Qing Jiangnan nongcun shehui, p. 17. 30 Deng Fu, et al., Changshu xian zhi, juan 4, 10a (357). According to this source, because on Hui

mountain 慧山 in Wuxi 無錫Righteous and Peaceful King Pacifying the East was represented (or

“realized” shi 實) by Zhang Xun, the officials of Changshu also followed this example and worshipped

Zhang Xun at the temple on Yu Mountain. The gazetteer of the Hongzhi reign does not mention Zhang

Xun: Yang Ziqi, Sang Yu, et al., [Hongzhi] Changshu xian zhi, juan 2, p. 79a, see also manuscript

version rpt. in Siku quanshu cunmu congshu, juan 2, p. 79 (90). 31 Yao Zongyi and Feng Laifu, Changshu si zhi, juan 6, p. 7b.

Page 283:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

276

It is important to note that the officials of the Ming dynasty regarded the original cult of

the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East as an illicit one. It is well known that the

policy of local elites towards popular cults in the late imperial period was quite flexible: they

often patronized cults of dubious origin for different reasons.32 At the same time the official

recognition of a deity was an important factor for the spread of a cult.33 The official

identification of the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East as a loyal statesman Zhang

Xun certainly contributed to the growth of his cult in the Changshu area.

The late source, The Revised Draft of the Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and

Zhaowen (Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao《重修常昭合志稿》, later abbreviated as The

Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and Zhaowen) compiled by Pang Hongwen (龐鴻文,

jinshi 1876) and others (first printed in 1904) states that the cults of Zhang Xun and Xu

Yuan started to spread after the temples adjacent to the Temple of the Eastern Peak were

turned into the temples of these persons during Hongzhi reign. These cults were also

supported by the local elites:

Our county is not the place where [those two] should be worshipped according to the

rules. However, since Hongzhi reign of the Ming dynasty, after the temples were

turned into [the places] to worship [Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan], literati started to

venerate them, and built many other temples for them. Those temples where these

two persons were worshipped together were called the Temples of the Two Loyal.

吾邑非秩祀之地。惟自明宏【弘】治改祀以來士人尊祀。惟謹分建廟宇甚多。

其合祀兩公者稱雙忠廟。34

The literary anthology of texts from Changshu called Haiyu wen zheng《海虞文徵》includes

32 For the overview of evidence, see Katz, “Xifang xuejie yanjiu Zhongguo shequ zongjiao”, pp. 61-63;

Katz, “Orthopraxy and Heteropraxy Beyond the State”. 33 As Fan Chunwu has demonstrated, there was a number of local deities’ cults in the Lower Yangtze

region that local literati tried to substitute with Zhang Xun, see his “Ming-Qing Jiangnan Dutian

xinyang de fazhan ji qi yishuo”, p. 106. 34 Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao, juan 15, p. 834.

Page 284:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

277

a text of the stele at the temple of the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East35 on Yu

mountain by Qian Renfu(錢仁夫)dated to the year of 1525 – “The stele [commemorating]

the rebuilding of the temple of the Perfected Lord Jingyou Pacifying the East” (Chongxiu

Dongping jingyou zhen jun shenmiao bei 重修東平景佑真君社廟碑).36 It briefly narrates

the story of the Zhang Xun’s exploits.37 According to this text, local elites (jinshen dafu 縉

紳大夫) of Changshu especially venerated Zhang Xun and his companions. The inscription

also tells about the renovation of the temple with the funds donated by the family of the

minister of works 司空Cheng Zong (程宗, style name Cheng Yuanyi 程原伊).38 The text

further links this support with the miracle tale related to the Cheng Zong’s birth. Therefore,

this record testifies for the elite support of the deity’s cult. This support certainly had

influence on the transmission of the Zhang Xun’s deified image in Changshu.39

According to The Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and Zhaowen, the temple for

Zhang Xun was restored in 1720, 1759, and 1839; however, the temple was destroyed in

1860 (apparently during the Taiping war) and left abandoned since then.40 At the same time,

as we have seen, the worship of Zhang Xun was not limited to the spiritual center of Yu

Mountain: a number of other temples dedicated to him existed in Changshu county.

Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages mainly follows the official version of

identification of Zhang Xun and the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East, as it

35 In the inscription title the deity is called by its name in use by the Daoists, see below. 36 According to the historical sources, Qian Renfu had a jinshi 進士 (Advanced Scholar) degree and held

several official posts. He was also a quite prolific author. Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao

he zhi gao, juan 20, p. 1009. 37 Shao Songnian, ed., Haiyu wen zheng, juan 6, pp. 36a-37b. 38 This person was an Advanced Scholar and served as a minister of works (gongbu shangshu 工部尚書,

commonly known as sikong). On him, see Deng Fu, et al., Changshu xian zhi, juan 6, pp. 17a-32b

(643-654); Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao, juan 20, p. 1001. 39 As the studies of the Zhang Xun’s cult in the Chaozhou area have demonstrated, that was also true for

the other areas of China, though elite and popular interpretations of the cult could be very different, see

Chen Chunsheng, “Song-Ming shiqi Chaozhou diqu de shuang zhong gong”, pp. 65-70; Huang Ting,

“Minjian zongjiao xinyang zhong de guojia yishi”, pp. 96-102. 40 Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao, juan 15, p. 834.

Page 285:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

278

narrates the story of the Zhang Xun’s life. However, it also reflects another dimension of the

cult of the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East that also existed in Changshu, when

it calls Zhang Xun the Prime minister. In Changshu both the Loyal and Peaceful King

Pacifying the East and Bright and Heroic King of Certain Response had the functions of the

officials of the Emperor of the Eastern Peak, an important deity of netherworld in China.

The Private Gazetter of Changshu County says:

According to the views of mediums, the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East

is the prime minister of the Eastern Peak, Perfected Lord Jingyou. They do not call

him Zhang [Xun]. [Accordingly] the minister on the right side of the Eastern Peak

[Emperor] is called the King of Certain Response, Perfected Lord Zhaolie. They do

not call him Xu Yuan either.

按巫家稱東嶽上相東平王景佑真君。不言張。東嶽右相孚應王昭烈真君。亦不

言許。41

This passage testifies for the fact that the mediums in Changshu worshipped two ministers

of the Eastern Peak at the beginning of the 17th century; significantly, mediums remain very

important religious figures in this area now (see below). At the same time, the association of

deified Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan with the bureaus of the Eastern Peak is not limited to

Changshu. Sources that come from different places of China (the earliest dating back to the

12th century) also represent Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan as the functionaries of the Eastern Peak.

They say that two heroes were appointed as underworld officials as a reward for their

loyalty.42 The roles of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan as the functionaries of the Eastern Peak and

hence exorcists of demons were accepted by Daoists of different schools in the late imperial

period.43 As we saw above, in the Song period the temples for the Loyal and Peaceful King

Pacifying the East and Bright and the Heroic King of Certain Response were attached to the

Temple of the Eastern Peak on Yu Mountain. This Temple of the Eastern Peak had the

41 Yao Zongyi and Feng Laifu, Changshu si zhi, juan 6, p. 7b. 42 See Fan Chunwu, “Shuang zhong chongsi”, pp. 69-88. 43 Fan Chunwu, “Shuang zhong chongsi”, pp. 93, 96.

Page 286:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

279

Daoist orientation and was serviced by Daoists, so the temples affiliated with it were

certainly also operated by Daoists. When these two deities under question were associated

with Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan, their connection with the deity of the Eastern Peak was

preserved and even intensified.44 It is obvious that not only mediums, but Daoists in

Changshu also presented the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East and the Bright and

Heroic King of Certain Response as the “perfected lords” (a common term for a Daoist deity)

and subordinates of the Eastern Peak,45 therefore, we term this form of their cult as a

“Daoist” one.

On the basis of this historical evidence, though it is quite scarce, we can see that ritual

specialists of different levels, including Daoists and mediums, referred to the two deities

under question as the underworld functionaries, ignoring their “historical” identity as Zhang

Xun and Xu Yuan. The “Daoist” form of the two cults was also quite prominent in Changshu,

as we can find its presence in several written sources. For example, the stele inscription by

Qian Renfu (see above) also uses the title of the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East

as a “perfected lord”. Therefore, we can see that this form of the deity’s cult was also

accepted by the scholars-officials. The Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and Zhaowen also

notes that along with the “Temples of the Two Loyal,” where Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan were

worshipped together, there were rural temples around Changshu dedicated to the first and

second ministers (xia xiang 下相) of the Eastern Peak.46 Furthermore, there were baojuan in

Changshu that dealt specifically with the two ministers of the Eastern Peak.

According to the Yu Dingjun’s information, there were two baojuan in the Changshu

area dedicated to the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East and the Bright and Heroic

King of Certain Response – Baojuan of the First Minister [of the Emperor of the Eastern

Peak] King Pacifying the East (Shang xiang Dong ping wang baojuan 《上相東平王寶卷》

and Baojuan of Heroic King of Certain Response (Fu ying zhao lie wang baojuan《孚應昭

44 On the connection of their cults with the Eastern Peak in Changshu, see Yao Fujun, Zhu ding yu wen, p.

89. 45 Note also the interpretation of Small King of Thousand Changes by the Daoists (see next section). 46 Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao, juan 15, p. 834.

Page 287:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

280

烈王寶卷》with the alternative title of [Baojuan] of the Second Minister [of the Emperor of

the Eastern Peak] (Xia xiang 下相).47 Interestingly enough, the stories narrated in these

baojuan are not related to Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan. Instead, they tell the stories of

pseudo-historical persons Zhang Jishan(張繼善)and Xu Yuan(許淵)set in the remote

past – the Shang (ca. 1600-1046 B.C.E.) and Zhou (1046-256 B.C.E.) dynasties respectively.

These baojuan demonstrate that not all baojuan performers accepted the “historical” identity

of the two deities as Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan. These two texts preserve the original

association of the two deities with the cult of the Eastern Peak, and are related to the cults of

the deities in their “Daoist” form.

How does this “Daoist” form entered baojuan in Changshu? One should connect this

fact with the influence of mediums and Daoists on telling scriptures in Changshu. Masters of

telling scriptures often cooperate with both these groups now. Mediums, who consult local

believers on different matters, often prescribe a session of telling scriptures or/and a Daoist

service as a cure. Therefore, three groups are in constant contact. Masters of telling

scriptures even borrowed several texts and rituals from the local Daoist priests.48 It is

probable that the contents of narrative baojuan about deities were also influenced by their

representations by mediums and Daoists that are quite old and may be traced back to the

historical sources.

Yu Dingjun considered baojuan texts devoted to the ministers of the Eastern Peak

unreliable and inappropriate for performances, after he consulted local gazetteers that

associate these two deities with the cults of historical Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan. Being an

educated person (in comparison of other masters of telling scriptures, whose educational

level is quite low), he values the sources compiled by the scholars-officials of the past.

Therefore, for him the identity of two deities as the historical figures appears the “true” one.

For this reason and in order to correct the contents of telling scriptures, in 2008 Yu Dingjun

47 Yu Dingjun, “Changshu Shanghu Yuqingtang Yu Dingjun cang baojuan mulu”, p. 10. I have not found

the texts with similar titles in the Gangkou area. 48 About these interactions of the three groups, see Yu Yongliang, “Daojiaohua de Heyang baojuan”; Qiu

Huiying, “Jiangsu Changshu Baimao diqu xuanjuan,” pp. 201-202.

Page 288:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

281

composed Baojuan of the Two Loyal (Shuang zhong baojuan《雙忠寶卷》)that deals with the

lives of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan,49 which he uses in his performances of telling scriptures.

Yu Dingjun based his new text on the biographies of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan in the

dynastic histories. The facts about the traditional texts of baojuan related to the ministers of

the Eastern peak and their transformation in the Yu Dingjun’s tradition of performances

demonstrate the complex lines of connections of telling scriptures with the related cults of

the Changshu area.

We can see that baojuan texts in Changshu included different images of the Loyal and

Peaceful King Pacifying the East that existed in this area. This situation is related to the

process of substitution of local cults of obscure origin with deified historical persons that

started quite long ago and originally was related to the activities of scholars-officials who

promoted the “appropriate” cults. However, it continues till now as the revision of baojuan

texts by the literate performers such as Yu Dingjun takes place.

3.The cult of Zhang Xun’s son, the Small King of Thousand Sages, and its reflection in

baojuan

Now I would like to turn to another historical person who is featured in Baojuan of the

Small King of Thousand Sages – in fact he is the main character of the text -- and his cult in

Changshu. The cult of the Small King of Thousand Sages existed in Changshu since the

beginning of the 17th century at latest, as The Private Gazetter of Changshu County written

at that time mentions the temple of the Small King of Thousand Sages (Qiansheng xiao

wang ci 千聖小王祠) near the Temple of the Eastern Peak.50 However, this source does not

say that this temple was associated with the deified son of Zhang Xun, Zhang Yafu. This

association appears in The Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and Zhaowen that mentions

another temple related to this cult, called the Temple of the Small King of Thousand

Victories (Qiansheng xiao wang miao 千聖小王廟), which was built during Jiaqing reign

49 Published in QXB, pp. 23-38. 50 Yao Zongyi and Feng Laifu, Changshu si zhi, juan 6, p. 7b.

Page 289:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

282

(1796-1821), burned down in 1861 and rebuilt in 1870.51 This source refers to The

Hangzhou Gazetteer (Hangzhou zhi 《杭州志》) by Chen Shan (陳善), which says that

Zhang Xun’s son named Zhang Yafu was famous for his military accomplishments during

the siege of Suiyang and then was commemorated under the title of the General of Thousand

Victories (Qiansheng jiangjun 千勝將軍) together with his father in the Zhang Xun’s

temple in the capital Bianliang (Kaifeng) during the Northern Song; then during the

Southern Song the temple for him was built in the new capital Lin’an (臨安) (Hangzhou

杭州).52 One should note that in standard Mandarin the second character in the title of the

General of Thousand Victories is pronounced in the same way as that in the title of the Small

King of Thousand Sages. Therefore, baojuan and The Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and

Zhaowen certainly refer to the same deity. If one believes the information of gazetteers of

the Hangzhou area, the history of the cult of Zhang Xun’s son (General of Thousand

Victories) in the Lower Yangtze region can be traced to the 12th century. At the same time I

do not have any other evidence about the authenticity of General of Thousand Victories

title53 and the early existence of Zhang Xun’s son (General of Thousand Victories) cult.

The Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and Zhaowen also says that there were other

temples to this deity, in that case called temples of the Small King of Thousand Sages, in the

rural areas of Changshu, and the prince (taizi 太子) Small King of Thousand Sages was

worshipped there. It also quotes The Abbreviated Gazetteer of Yuxiang (Yuxiang zhi lüe 《虞

鄉志略》),54 according to which, in the Daoist view this deity was the eldest son of the

Emperor of the Eastern Peak with the title of the Small King of Thousand Sages in charge of

51 This passage may refer to the temple mentioned in baojuan edited by Yu Dingjun (see note 15 above),

however, one cannot assert that it is the same temple with the use of gazetteer’s information. 52 Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao, juan 15, p. 844. There are indeed very similar

passages in the gazetteers of the Hangzhou area dated to the Ming dynasty, see: Shen Chaoxuan,

[Jiaqing] Renhe xian zhi, juan 7, 19a; Liu Bojin, [Wanli] Hangzhou fu zhi, juan 47, p. 23a-b. 53 It contradicts official sources: according to the dynastic history, the Emperor awarded to Zhang Yafu the

title of the commander-in-chief of the imperial guards (jinwu jiangjun 金吾將軍): Ouyang Xiu, et al.,

Xin Tang shu, juan 192, p. 5541. 54 Compiled in 1840 by Deng Lin 鄧琳.

Page 290:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

283

transmission of memorials to the Ninth Heaven.55 However, the authors of The Combined

Gazetteer of Changshu and Zhaowen doubted the veracity of this saying and termed it as a

recent speculation. We can see that the Small King of Thousand Sages, same as the Loyal

and Peaceful King Pacifying the East, had multiple forms in the Changshu area; and local

baojuan also reflect this situation. We can see it in several aspects of these texts.

Firstly, there are several versions of the origin of the Small King of Thousand Sages

presented in the texts of telling scriptures in Changshu. According to Yu Dingjun, there are

five different versions of Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages in this area that he

collected. They name different pseudo-historical persons as the prototypes of this deity: (1)

Yin Chujun (印儲君), a companion-in-arms of the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the

East; (2) Liu Sheng(劉聖), a winner at the palace examinations; (3) Liu Zu (劉祖), or

Deity Liu (劉神);56 (4) Zhang the Number One Scholar(張狀元); (5) Zhang Tan, the son

of Zhang Xun.57 Yu Dingjun favored the last version of the story (especially as it

corresponds to the information of The Combined Gazetteer of Changshu and Zhaowen), so

he has edited it and used in his performances.

Secondly, in modern situation, the association of the Small King of Thousand Sages

with both the Eastern Peak and Zhang Tan (or Yafu) can appear. The version of Baojuan of

the Small King of Thousand Sages from Gangkou calls this deity both the Imperial Heir

Apparent (huang taizi 皇太子), which certainly hints at his connection with the Emperor of

the Eastern Peak, and the King of Thousand Sages in charge of transmission of memorials to

the Ninth Heaven.58 In the version of Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages edited

and published by Yu Dingjun, Zhang Yafu is said to be the reincarnation of the eldest son of

the Emperor of the Eastern Peak.59

55 Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao, juan 15, pp. 844-845. 56 This story is related to the cult of Fierce General Liu (Liu Mengjiang 劉猛將), very popular in the

Changshu area, for this cult, see Berezkin, “An Analysis of “Telling Scriptures” (jiangjing) during

Temple Festivals,” p. 29, n. 18. 57 Yu Dingjun, “Changshu Shanghu Yuqingtang Yu Dingjun cang baojuan mulu”, p. 11. 58 ZHBJ, 1. 148-149. 59 Yu Dingjun, ed., Qiansheng xiao wang baojuan, pp. 5-7.

Page 291:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

284

The Small King of Thousand Sages remains an important deity in both Gangkou and

Shanghu areas; there were temples for him in Tianzhuang (恬莊)(田莊) township in the

Gangkou area60 and Jianhua village of Shanghu.61 According to my informants, the Small

King of Thousand Sages in present-day Changshu is worshipped by mediums, who play an

important role in the organization of telling scriptures (see above). He is one of the most

popular deities associated with mediums along with the Liu Deity, a local variant of Fierce

General Liu, and “the Virtuous and Good [Person] of the West Lake” (Xihu xian liang 西湖

賢良, the water spirit of the Shanghu lake).62

The Small King of Thousand Sages and the Loyal and Peaceful King Pacifying the East

both had multiple forms in Changshu. Certain forms of the cults of these two deities

appealed to different groups of population. For example, elite emphasized the loyalty of the

historical Zhang Xun, while religious specialists (Daoists and mediums) favored the images

of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan as the functionaries of the Eastern Peak and presented the Small

King of Thousand Sages as a Prince of the Eastern Peak. The controversy concerning the

forms of these deities also found its expression in baojuan texts that have been related to the

worship of these deities. At the same time the fact that at certain point of time both these

deities became associated with the historical persons was an important factor that influenced

the art of telling scriptures: we saw that several versions of Baojuan of the Small King of

Thousand Sages from the Gangkou and Shanghu areas feature a historical person Zhang

Xun and his pseudo-historical son Zhang Tan.

4.The special features of the deities’ cults found in Baojuan of the Small King of

Thousand Sages

Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages also reveals some aspects of the cults

that one cannot find in the local historical sources: gazetteers and literati’s notes.

Firstly, it provides some facts about the miraculous origin of two deified historical

60 Pang Hongwen et al., Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao, vol. 153. 1, juan 2, p. 182. 61 The second one still exists. 62 On their hagiographies in baojuan, see ZHBJ, 1.194-208; 2.888-890; 992-996.

Page 292:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

285

figures. It says that Zhang Xun was the reincarnation of the Star of Pestilence (wen xing 瘟

星). According to Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages, when the warriors of

Zhang Xun were starving in the city while besieged by rebels, Zhang Xun dug up tubers of

shanyu (山芋 sweet potato)from the hill inside the city and offered them to his warriors as

food. Those tubers were originally poisonous, but after Zhang Xun ate the first one of them,

he neutralized this poison, and people would not be harmed by them anymore.63 Because

Zhang Xun had absorbed the poison of sweet potato, his face is said to have turned purple.

The association of Zhang Xun with the gods of pestilence also appears in other regions of

China, including several areas of Jiangsu and Anhui provinces, which are close to

Changshu.64 However, we cannot find this association in the gazetteers of Changshu.

Furthermore, the legends about Zhang Xun being a star reincarnation and his neutralizing of

poison can be found only in the baojuan texts.

Secondly, baojuan provides important information about the forms of worship of the

Small King of Thousand Sages in the Changshu area. An important form of the worship

were temple festivals. Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages describes temple

festivals in honor of this deity: it says that festivals in the temple of the 4th lane (Sixiang 四

巷) were organized twice a year, on the 20th day of the 2nd lunar month and the 24th day of

the 7th month. On those dates ceremonies of worship took place in the temple of the Small

King of Thousand Sages.65 On the 20th day of the 2nd lunar month there was also a parade of

Dragon boats, so this day was referred to as “the assembly of Dragon boats” (Long chuan

hui 龍船會). The text says: “Friends and relatives from every village and lane and each

household came to watch the contest of the Dragon boats, people gathered in big crowds,

and it was especially lively celebration. When they watched the contest of the Dragon boats,

they invited the famous masters of martial arts, who placed 18 kinds of weapons on the

boats and performed all types of martial arts. One of the masters was sitting on the boat that

63 ZHBJ, 1. 147-148. 64 Fan Chunwu, “Ming-Qing Jiangnan Dutian xinyang de fazhan ji qi yishuo”, pp. 102-103; Wang

Zhenzhong, “Ming-Qing yilai Huizhou de baoan shanhui”, p. 23. 65 Unfortunately the details of them are not specified.

Page 293:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

286

carried the deity’s image, he sailed it safely, and was not allowed to rush. Furthermore, the

sounds of gongs and drums were so loud that they reached heaven, people set firecrackers

on fire, and there was also exquisite music of trumpets, pipes, and flutes.”66 Therefore, this

text gives a vivid description of temple festivals associated with the Small King of Thousand

Sages; while there are no mentions of them in historical sources.

Baojuan texts (and Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages in particular) were

also recited during these celebrations. The tradition of telling scriptures during temple

festivals is still thriving in the Gangkou area; Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages

is often recited during the temple festivals there. Those are not necessarily related with the

temple of this particular deity. For example, I witnessed the performance of this baojuan

during festival at the temple of Deity Liu in Shuangtang village of Gangkou town on April

16, 2009 (see fig. 3 and 4). Yu Dingjun also mentions that the masters of telling scriptures

are often invited by the locals to perform during temple festivals, including that of the Small

King of Thousand Sages in Jianhua village of Shanghu town.67 Baojuan played important

role in the transmission of the cult among commoners, as these texts in vernacular were

recited for lay and illiterate audience. The appearance of folk literary pieces during temple

festivals was not a unique feature of Changshu: for example, during the “benevolent

assemblies granting peace” in Dameikou (大梅口)of Shexian (歙) county of Anhui

province, related to the cult of Zhang Xun, participants also recited verses dealing with the

story of Zhang Xun’s and Xu Yuan’s defense of Suiyang.68 Therefore, the tradition of the

recitation of the deity’s hagiography during temple festivals is not limited to Changshu, but

appears in other areas close to this place as well. However, Changshu appears to be unique

in terms of use of baojuan recitation during the community celebrations.

Thirdly, as was already noted, different versions of Baojuan of the Small King of

Thousand Sages give some information about the recent history of the cult in the Changshu

66 ZHBJ, 1. 148. 67 Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages is also performed during the religious assemblies in

private houses in both the Gangkou and Shanghu areas. 68 Wang Zhenzhong, “Ming-Qing yilai Huizhou de baoan shanhui”, p. 48.

Page 294:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

287

area. All of them narrate the legend about the miracles performed by the deity during

Guangxu reign that explains the revival and spread of this cult. One cannot find this

information in the historical sources either.

Conclusion

Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages is an important part of cultural heritage

of the places that formerly belonged to Changshu county. This baojuan reflects the religious

situation in this area. The comparison of materials from baojuan with the information in

local historical sources – mostly records left by literati – helps us to re-construct this

complex situation with the cults of several local deities. Baojuan text analyzed in this paper

invokes different forms of particular deities’ cults: these forms co-existed in the area and

were related to different groups of population. The cult of a historical person – a loyal

official Zhang Xun -- enjoyed popularity of the elite and was adapted by the ritual specialists

for their purposes. It also co-existed with the cult of another local protective deity the Small

King of Thousand Sages who is presented as the Zhang Xun’s son in local sources, but about

whom almost nothing is known from the official history.

The ideas of Baojuan of the Small King of Thousand Sages, which features local

popular deities Zhang Xun and the Small King of Thousand Sages as historical persons,

correspond to the late stage of the development of the local cults and conform to the views

of elites as the comparison with the historical sources demonstrates. At the same time, many

details in this baojuan cannot be found in other sources. This text contains unique details of

the popular hagiographies, local temples’ history and related temple celebrations; these

complement other materials. In this perspective, it appears to be an important source on local

religious life. It provides rare information on the history of several cults and their present

situation in Changshu. In this locally composed baojuan, we can observe the interplay of the

written and oral, elite and popular traditions, which appear inseparable in this kind of

performative literature.

Page 295:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

288

Figures (All pictures are taken by the author)

Fig.1 A manuscript of Baojuan of the

Small King of Thousand Sages by a

master of telling scriptures Di

Jianxin from the Gangkou area,

cover.

Fig.2 A manuscript of Baojuan of the

Small King of Thousand Sages from

the Gangkou area, first page.

Fig.3 Telling scriptures during festival at

the temple of Deity Liu in

Shuangtang village of Gangkou

town on April 16, 2009.

Fig.4 Decorations during festival at the temple

of Deity Liu in Shuangtang village of

Gangkou.

Page 296:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

289

Abbreviations:

ZHBJ -- Zhongguo Heyang baojuan: Zhongguo Heyang baojuan ji (《中國河陽寳卷集》).

Shanghai: Shanghai wenhua, 2007. 2 vols.

QXB -- Yu Dingjun (余鼎君), ed., Qiansheng xiao wang baojuan: Yuqingtang cang ben

xuan (《千聖小王寶卷:餘慶堂藏本選》). Huh-hoto: Nei Menggu renmin chubanshe,

2010.

Works Cited

Berezkin, Rostislav. “Scripture-telling (jiangjing) in the Zhangjiagang Area and the History

of Chinese Storytelling,” Asia Major, third series, 24.1 (2011): 1–42.

---. “An Analysis of “Telling Scriptures” (jiangjing) during Temple Festivals in Gangkou

(Zhangjiagang), with Special Attention to the Status of the Performers,” CHINOPERL

papers 30 (2011): 25-76.

---. “Modern performances of “precious scrolls” as a part of folk religious and social life in

the Shanghu area of Changshu city in Jiangsu province, China.” In E.A. Serebryakov

and Fijita Rina, ed., Issues of Far Eastern Literatures: Book of Papers of 5th

International Scientific Conference. Saint-Petersburg: Saint-Petersburg State University,

Russia, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 128-145.

Che Xilun (車錫倫). Zhongguo baojuan zongmu (《中國寳卷縂目》). Beijing: Yanshan

shuju, 2000.

---. “Jiangsu Zhangjiagang Gangkou zhen de zuohui jiangjing (diaocha baogao)” (江蘇張

家港港口鎮的做會講經 (調查報告)). In his Zhongguo baojuan yanjiu (《中國寶

卷研究》). Guilin: Guangxi shifan daxue chubanshe, 2009, pp. 384–400.

---. “Jiangsu Changshu de ‘zuohui jiangjing’ he baojuan jianmu” (江蘇常熟‘做會講經’

和寶卷簡目). In his Zhongguo baojuan yanjiu, pp. 401-415.

Chen Chunsheng (陳春聲). “Song-Ming shiqi Chaozhou diqu de shuang zhong gong

chongbai” (宋明時期潮州地區的雙忠公崇拜). In Zheng Zhenman (鄭振滿)and

Chen Chunsheng(陳春聲), ed., Minjian xinyang yu shehui kongjian (《民間信仰

Page 297:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

290

與社會空間》). Fuzhou: Fujian renmin chubanshe, 2003: 42-73.

Chen Yiyuan (陳益源)and Li Shuru (李淑如). “Heyang xijian baojuan ‘Niulang zhinü’

de faxian ji qi jiazhi” (〈河陽稀見寶卷《牛郎織女》的發現及其價值〉). Minjian

wenxue niankan (《民間文學年刊》)2 (additional series, 2009.02): 101-116.

Deng Fu(鄧韍), et al. Changshu xian zhi (《常熟縣志》). Rpt. in Zhongguo shixue

congshu(《中國史學叢書》). Taibei: Taiwan xuesheng shuju, 1965, 32 (1).

Fan Chunwu(范純武). “Shuang zhong chongsi yu Zhongguo minjian xinyang” (《雙忠

崇祀與中國民間信仰》). PhD dissertation, Guoli Taiwan shifan daxue, 2003.

---. “Daojiao duiyu minjian su shen de bianna: yi Huanan daopai dizhifa he Zhang Xun

xinyang de guanxi wei li” (〈道教對於民間俗神的編納—以華南道派地祇法和張巡

信仰的關係為例〉). In Lai Chi Tim (黎志添), ed., Xianggang ji Huanan daojiao

yanjiu(《香港及華南道教研究》). Xianggang: Zhonghua shuju, 2005: 405-433.

---. “Ming-Qing Jiangnan Dutian xinyang de fazhan ji qi yishuo” 明清江南都天信仰的發

展及其異說. In Gao Zhihua(高致華), ed., Tanxun minjian zhu shen yu xinyang

wenhua (《探尋民間諸神與信仰文化》). Hefei: Huangshan shushe, 2006: 87-115.

Gao Cheng(高承) (11th century). Shi wu ji yuan(《事物紀原》), Li Guo (李果), ed.,

Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1989.

Gao Guofan (高國藩)and Yu Dingjun(余鼎君), ed. Hexie Changshu baojuan, di yi ji

(《和諧常熟寶卷》),第一集. Xianggang: Dongya wenhua chubanshe, 2009.

Hamashima Atsutoshi(滨島敦俊). Ming Qing Jiangnan nongcun shehui yu minjian

xinyang (《明清江南農村社會與民間信仰》), Zhu Haibin(朱海滨), tr. Xiamen:

Xiamen daxue, 2008 (original edition -- Sōkan shinkō: kinsei Kōnan nōson shakai to

minkan shinkō (《総管信仰: 近世江南農村社会と民間信仰》) [Tōkyō : Kenbun

Shuppan, 2001]).

Huang Ting (黃挺). “Minjian zongjiao xinyang zhong de guojia yishi yu xiangtu guannian:

yi Chaozhou shuang zhong gong chongbai wei li” (〈民間宗教信仰中的國家意識與

鄉土觀念──以潮州雙忠公崇拜為例〉)in Minjian xinyang yu shehui kongjian:

74-107.

Jiang Zhushan (蔣竹山). “Tang Bin jinhui Wutong shen: Qingchu zhengzhi jingying daji

Page 298:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

291

tongsu wenhua de ge’an” (〈湯斌禁毀五通神—清初政治菁英打擊通俗文化的個

案〉). Xin shixue (《新史學》)6.2 (1995): 67–110.

Katz, Paul R. (Kang Bao 康豹). “Xifang xuejie yanjiu Zhongguo shequ zongjiao chuantong

de zhuyao dongtai” (〈西方學界研究中國社區宗教傳統的主要動態〉), Li Qionghua

(李瓊花), transl.; Chen Jinguo 陳進國, ed. Wen shi zhe (《文史哲》) 2009, 1

(cumulative 310): 58-74.

---. “Orthopraxy and Heteropraxy Beyond the State: Standardizing Ritual in Chinese

Society.” Modern China 30, no. 1 (Jan. 2007): 72-90.

Li Lian (李濂) (1488-1566). Bianjing yi ji zhi (《汴京遺蹟志》). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju,

1989.

Li Shuru(李淑如). “Jiangsu diqu Tongli, Zhangjiagang baojuan liuchuan xianzhuang

diaocha yu shili” (〈江蘇地區同里、張家港寶卷流傳現況調查與實例〉). Yunhan

xuekan (《雲漢學刊》)21 (2010.06): 133-146.

---. Heyang baojuan yanjiu (《河陽寶卷研究》). PhD dissertation; Tainan: Chenggong

daxue, 2011.

Liu Bojin (劉伯縉). [Wanli] Hangzhou fu zhi (《[萬曆]杭州府志》). Photocopy of the

woodblock edn. of the Wanli reign period (1573-1620) of the Ming dynasty in the

digital database of gazetteers Zhongguo fangzhiku (《中國方志庫》).

Liu Xu (劉昫)(887-946), et al., Jiu Tang shu 《舊唐書》. In Ershisi shi(《二十四史》).

Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985.

Ma Jianhua (馬建華) , “Putian minjian Zhang Xun xinyang yanjiu: Jiaoweizhen

Zhilinggong, Meiyanggong Yuanxiao qinian miaohui ge an fenxi” (〈莆田民間張巡信

仰研究——郊尾鎮至靈宮、梅洋宮元宵祈年廟會個案分析〉). Minjiang xueyuan

xuebao (《閩江學院學報》)29. 3 (2008. 6): 16-23.

Ouyang Xiu(歐陽修)(1007-1072), et al., Xin Tang shu (《新唐書》)in Ershisi shi. (《二

十四史》)。

Pang Hongwen (龐鴻文) (jinshi 1876) et al. Chongxiu Chang-Zhao he zhi gao(《重修

常昭合志稿》). Woodblock edn. of 1904 rpt. in Zhongguo fangzhi congshu: Huazhong

difang (《中國方志叢書》): 華中地方. Taibei: Chengwen, 1974, vol. 153.

Page 299:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

292

Qiu Huiying (丘慧瑩). “Jiangsu Changshu Baimao diqu xuanjuan huodong diaocha

baogao” (〈江蘇常熟白茆地區宣卷活動調查報告〉). Minsu quyi (《民俗曲藝》)

169 (2010.9): 183–247.

Shao Songnian(邵松年), ed. Haiyu wen zheng (《海虞文徵》). [Changshu?]: Hongwen

shuju, 1905.

Shen Chaoxuan (沈朝宣). [Jiaqing] Renhe xian zhi (《[嘉靖] 仁和縣志》) (photocopy

of the woodblock edition of The Wulin zhanggu (《武林掌故》) series of the Guangxu

reign (1875-1908) of the Qing dynasty in the digital database Zhongguo fangzhiku).

Sun Yingshi (孫應時) (1154-1206), et al., ed. Qinchuan zhi (《琴川志》)Woodblock

edition of Xigu Mansion of the Mao family (毛氏汲古閣) of the end of the Ming

dynasty. Rpt. in Song-Yuan fangzhi congkan (《宋元方志叢刊》). Beijing: Zhonghua

shuju, 1990.

Wang Jian (王健). Li hai xiang guan: Ming Qing yilai Jiangnan Su Song diqu minjian

xinyang yanjiu (《利害相關: 明清以來江南蘇松地區民間信仰研究》). Shanghai:

Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 2010.

Wang Zhenzhong (王振忠). “Ming-Qing yilai Huizhou de baoan shanhui yu ‘wu yu’

zuzhi” (〈明清以来徽州的保安善會與‘五隅’組織〉). Minsu quyi (《民俗曲藝》)

174 (2011. 12): 17-102.

Xu Song(徐松) (1781-1848). Song huiyao ji gao (《宋會要輯稿》). Beijing: Zhonghua

shuju, 1957.

Yang Ziqi(楊子器) (1458-1513), Sang Yu (桑瑜), et al. [Hongzhi] Changshu xian

zhi (《【弘治】常熟縣志》). Ming dynasty woodblock edition in the possession of

Tōyō bunko, microfilm at the Fu Ssu-nien Library of Academia Sinica, Taiwan, ROLL

3318.

Yang Ziqi, Sang Yu, et al. [Hongzhi] Changshu xian zhi. Undated manuscript rpt. in Siku

quanshu cunmu congshu(《四庫全書存目叢書》): Shibu 史部, dili lei 地理類; 185.

Yao Zongyi (姚宗儀) and Feng Laifu (鳳來父). Changshu si zhi (《常熟私

志》). Woodblock edition of 1617 in the possession of Tōyō bunko, microfilm at the

Fu Ssu-nien Library of Academia Sinica, Taiwan, ROLL 3314–3317.

Page 300:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係─以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

293

Yao Fujun (姚福鈞), Zhu ding yu wen(《鑄鼎餘聞》). 1899 woodblock edn. rpt. Taibei:

Taiwan xuesheng shuju, 1989.

Yu Dingjun (余鼎君). “Lue shuo Changshu xianzai de baojuan yu xuanjiang” (〈略說

常熟現在的寶卷與宣講〉)

). In QXB, pp. 153-167.

---. “Changshu Shanghu Yuqingtang Yu Dingjun cang baojuan mulu” (〈常熟尚湖餘慶堂

余鼎君藏寶卷目錄〉), unpublished manuscript.

Yu Yongliang (虞永良). “Heyang baojuan diaocha baogao” (〈河陽寶卷調查報告〉).

Minsu quyi (《民俗曲藝》)110 (1997): 67–68.

---. “Daojiaohua de Heyang baojuan yu minjian xiqu” (〈道教化的河陽寶卷與民間戲曲〉).

Zhong Han wenhua yanjiu(《中韓文化研究》) 5 (Seul: Zhongwen chubanshe, 2002):

287–302.

Yu Yongliang (虞永良) and Zhou Jihong (周繼紅). “Heyang baojuan zhong de

‘Chunyang juan’ yu Lü Dongbin” (〈河陽寶卷中的《純陽卷》)與呂洞賓〉). In

Changjiang liuyu minzu minjian wenhua baohu yu fazhan: lunwen huibian (《長江流

域民族民間文化保護與發展: 論文彙編》). Without Place, 2008: 97-102.

Page 301:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

白若思 興大人文學報第五十期

294

論歷史人物崇拜與寶卷講唱的關係

──以中國江蘇省常熟縣的《千聖小王寶卷》為例

白若思*

摘 要

昔屬常熟縣的港口鎮(現屬張家港市)及今常熟市尚湖鎮的周圍地區,寶卷作為

講唱藝術“講經”的底本,相關講經活動歷史悠久,它們成為當地的一種習俗,至今仍

在民間存續。當地的地方保護神信仰(其中一部分是被神化的歷史人物)相當流行,

而講經一般跟祭祀這些神靈的活動有密切關係,一部分的寶卷就是敘述有關這些人物

的生平及其被神化後發生靈驗的傳說。本文的重點是對叙述這種傳說《千聖小王寶卷》

的內容研究。雖然最近已有學者開始研究常熟地區的寶卷及其講唱方式,但至今仍無

分析《千聖小王寶卷》內容及有關的民間故事、信仰的研究。本文試圖補充有關常熟

縣近現代地方保護神崇拜的研究成果。

本文介紹《千聖小王寶卷》中的歷史人物形象:被神化的唐代忠臣張巡 (709-757)

與他兒子張倓「千聖小王」(在《新唐書》為張亞夫「金吾大將軍」。本文也解釋這些

歷史人物在寶卷這種通俗講唱文學中的神化現象及相關故事的演變過程,同時也透過

將寶卷與當地的歷史資料(以歷代地方志為主)進行比較,分析相關歷史人物的寶卷

和當地民間信仰之間的關係。這兩個保護神在常熟縣以幾個不同的形象出現,而常熟

地區的寶卷反映這種情況。通過這種比較研究,本文也解釋寶卷中有關地方保護神傳

說的特點,并指出寶卷文本及其講唱方式在普及當地民間信仰時發揮的作用。

關鍵詞:寶卷、民間信仰、地方保護神、歷史人物、歷史傳說

* 上海復旦大學文史研究院副研究員。

在此特別鳴謝虞永良先生、余鼎君先生、狄秋燕女士提供珍貴資料;也鳴謝楊玉君、高萬桑、

梅維恒教授與兩位匿名審查老師指正。

Page 302:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《興大人文學報》徵稿簡約

一、本學報為純學術期刊(半年刊),歡迎有關文學、語言學、史學、思想、

藝術、圖書資訊學、人類學、文化研究等領域之研究論文及書評。

二、來稿以未曾發表於任何正式發行之刊物者為限,如發生抄襲、侵犯他

人著作權而引起糾紛情事,文責自負,且日後不得再投稿本刊。

三、研究論文以中文 10,000 字至 25,000 字;英文 4,000 字至 8,000 字;中

文書評 5,000 字至 6,000;英文書評 1,500 字至 3,000 字為原則,特約稿

除外。請依本院訂定之格式撰稿。無論以何種語文撰稿,均請由左至

右橫排。

四、來稿請附中英文題目、摘要、關鍵詞及中英文姓名與職稱。

五、來稿請附電腦磁片或光碟片,並請用 Word 軟體編輯。

六、截稿日期為每年 4 月 30 日及 10 月 31 日,預定每年 3 月、9 月出刊。

七、本學報稿件審查,採雙審制,若兩審意見相左,則送第三審,但刊登

與否及刊登時程由編委會參考審查意見並依審畢時間決定之。

八、凡在本學報發表之論文(每期每人以刊登一篇為原則),每篇贈送作者

當期學報一本及抽印本 5 份,光碟一張,不另支稿酬。

九、稿件一經審查通過予以刊登,出版權歸本學報所有,非經本學報書面

同意,不得轉載(作者出版專著者不在此限)。

十、本學報自 36 期起數位化,紙本與網路版同時發行。稿件通過審查准予

刊登者,請附「投稿授權同意書」,以供上網查詢、瀏覽、下載。

Page 303:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Chung Hsing Journal of Humanities

投稿授權聲明書

本人________________姓名茲將_____________________________ 論文名稱

稿件乙篇投稿於 貴刊。本稿件內容未曾以任何文字形式發表或出版,特此聲明。

如有聲明不實,而致 貴刊違反著作權法或引起版權糾紛,本人願意負一切法律

責任。

若經審查通過,茲同意授權國立中興大學文學院「興大人文學報編輯委員會」

將本人著作同步刊登於文本、網站及有簽約收錄《興大人文學報》之資料庫業者,

進行數位化典藏、重製、透過網路公開傳輸、授權用戶下載、列印等行為。

此致 國立中興大學文學院

立同意書人: 親筆簽名蓋章

身份證字號:

連 絡 電 話:

地 址:

電 子 郵 件:

中 國 民 國 年 月 日

◎◎◎請列印、填寫,並親筆簽名、加蓋私章後擲寄

臺中市 402 南區國光路 250 號國立中興大學文學院 「興大人文學報編輯委員會」

洽詢電話:04-22840316;或傳真:04-22856117

本表可於 http://www.cla.nchu.edu.tw/people2/download/p3.doc 下載

Page 304:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

《興大人文學報》撰稿格式

甲、中文稿

一、每篇論文應包括下列各項:(一)篇名 (二)作者 (三)摘要

(四)關鍵詞 (五)正文 (六)附註 (七)參考文獻。

二、各章節序數,依一、(一)、1.、(1)、a、(a)……等順序表示。

三、請用新式標點,書名號用《》,篇名號用〈〉,書名和篇名連用時,省略篇名

號,如《史記‧滑稽列傳》。

四、獨立引文,每行縮三格,並請改用標楷體。

五、註釋採當頁註,號碼請用阿拉伯數字標示,如 1、2……置於標點符號後。

六、註釋之體例,請依下列格式:

(一) 引用專書

牟宗三,《中國哲學十九講》(臺北:臺灣學生書局,1991 年),頁 130。

美國 · 孔恩(Thomas Kuhn)著,王道還編譯,《科學革命的結構》(臺北:

遠流出版事業公司,1989 年增訂版),頁 10。

(二) 引用論文

1. 期刊論文:

王叔岷,〈論校詩之難〉,《臺大中文學報》第 3 期(1989 年 12 月),頁

15。

2. 論文集論文:

黃景進,〈中國詩中的寫實精神〉,《中國詩歌研究》(臺北:中央文物供

應社,1985 年 6 月),頁 12。

3. 學位論文:

張以仁,《國語研究》(臺北:臺灣大學中文研究所碩士論文,1958 年),

頁 100。

Page 305:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

(三) 引用古籍

1. 古籍原刻本

宋‧陶叔獻編,《西漢文類》(南宋高宗紹興十年刊本,約西元 11–40

年),卷 37,頁 1 上。

2. 古籍影印本

清‧王先謙,《漢書補注》(臺北:新文豐出版公司,1975 年影印清

光緒 26 年王氏家刻本),卷 84,頁 19。

(四) 引用報紙

丁邦新,〈國內漢學研究的方向和問題〉,《中央日報》,第 22 版,1988 年 4

月 2 日。

(五) 再次徵引:

再次徵引時可用簡便方式處裡,如:

註 1:王叔岷,〈論校詩之難〉,《臺大中文學報》第 3 期(1989 年 12 月),

頁 1。

註 2:同註 1。

註 3:同註 1,頁 3。

(六) 徵引資料來自網頁者,需加註:作者,〈篇名〉日期(網址),

檢索日期,如:

李家同,〈我們是個很不錯的國家〉,2008 年 9 月 14 日聯合知識庫。

(http://udndata.com/library),2009 年 2 月 14 日檢索。

Page 306:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

乙、英文稿

一、每篇論文應包括下列各項:(1) title (2) author’s name (3) abstract (4) keywords and

phrases (5) main text (6) notes (7) bibliography / reference.

二、請按最新版 MLA、APA 或 Chicago style 格式撰寫。

三、請一律用 footnotes,不用 endnotes。

Page 307:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Chung Hsing Journal of Humanities

Submission Authorization Statement I, , Author’s name would like to submit a manuscript ________________________ article title to Chung Hsing Journal of Humanities. The author declares that the manuscript has not been published. If the false statement may cause the journal, cause a violation of copyright law or copyright disputes, I am willing to bear all legal responsibilities. If accepted for publication, authorize the National Chung Hsing University, College of Liberal Arts, Chung Hsing Journal of Humanities to publish my article in the journal, the website and in the database industry(which contract with National Chung Hsing University), the digital collection, public transmission over the network, authorized users to download, print and other acts.

To National Chung Hsing University, College of Liberal Arts Signature: Id number: Telephone number: Address: e-mail:

Date: / / ◎Please print, fill in and sign the statement before delivery. College of Liberal Arts National Chung-Hsing University The Committee of Chung Hsing Journal of Humanities 250 Kuokuang Road. Taichung, 40227, Taiwan, Republic of China TEL:886-4-22840316;FAX:886-4-22856117

Page 308:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Chung Hsing Journal of the Humanities Notice to Contributors

1. The Chung Hsing Journal of Humanities is an academic journal (biannual

journal). We welcome contributions of humanities research and reviews on related topics in literature, language, history, thoughts, art, library information, anthropology, and culture.

2. The Journal shall not be held liable for copyright violations. In cases of violations, the author, not the Journal, shall bear full responsibility for all legal consequences. In addition, this Journal will not accept any future submissions made by the author.

3. For articles in Chinese: 10,000-25,000 Chinese characters; for articles in English: 4,000-8,000 words, reviews in Chinese:5,000-6,000 Chinese characters; for reviews in English: 1,500-3,000 words, special contributions are exceptions to these guidelines. Please contribute in the format we designate. Each language should start from left to right in horizontal writing.

4. Submissions should include the following: Chinese and English title, author’s name, affiliation, abstract and keywords.

5. To submit an article, please send a Word file on disk or CD. 6. The deadlines are April 30th, October 31st each year, with issues appearing in

March, and September. 7. Submissions are peer-reviewed in a two-stage process. In the event that the

external reviewers disagree, the piece will be sent to a third external reviewer. The editorial board and the length of time needed to complete the review process will determine whether the submission is chosen for publication and, if so, which volume it will appear in.

8. After publication of an article, authors will receive a complementary copy of the issue in which the article appears, as well as five offprints of the article; no monetary compensation will be offered.

9. Authors of accepted articles must agree to publication by this journal in paper and electronic formats. Published articles may not be reprinted, translated, or excerpted without express written consent of this journal.

10. After manuscripts are accepted for publication, authors shall sign an Agreement to assign property rights of their works to the Journal for search and download from the Internet.

Page 309:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Chung Hsing Journal of theHumanities

Vol. 50 March 2013 Articles

Special Issue: Speech Acts Across Cultures

Yang-lien Chen Victoria Rau Ming-chung Yu Yuh-huey Lin Po-chin Ho Chun-mei Chen

Compliment Exchanges in Taiwan TV Programs ································ 1 Cultural Influences on the Responses to Indirect Complaints ················· 25 Internal Modifications in Apology Realization: A Need for a Multi-leveled Categorization ······································· 63 Politeness of Japanese Learners in Cross-Cultural Mandarin Classrooms ·········································································· 113

Literary and Cultural Criticism

Pei-huang Hsu Ming-yuan Li Hsiu-mei Lo Xiong Ying Rostislav Berezkin

The Trials of Heroes: the Female Figures in the Novel Water Margin ····· 143 The Research of the Ci Written by Lin Yu-Shu ································ 171 Addition to Novelist Identity Outside Meng Yao: from “Feminine Prose” and “Meng Yao’s Three Historical Works” on the Positioning of Literary History ··············································································· 197 Toward Repetition without Double: Kiyoshi Kurosawa’s Doppelganger and Jean-Luc Godard’s Nouvelle Vague ········································ 241 On the Connection of the Cults of Historical Persons and Baojuan Storytelling: with Baojuan of Small King of Thousand Sages of the Changshu Area of Jiangsu Province As an Example ·························································· 265

Appendices Notice to contributors Style sheet

Page 310:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Chung Hsing Journal of the Humanities

Vol. 50

Publisher : Ming-ke Wang

Editor-in-Chief : Shu-chen Lin

Associate Editors : Hsiu-li Juan (National Chung Hsing University)

Shu-chen Lin (National Chung Hsing University)

Wan-chuan Hu (Tung Hai University)

Shu-li Chang (National Cheng Kung University)

Chin-yu Chen (National Chung Hsing University)

Che-san Chen (Feng Chia University)

Ko-wu Huang (Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica)

Mei-yu Liao (Feng Chia University)

Chen-fu Liao (National Chung Hsing University)

Special Issue Editor : Yuh-fang Chang

Executive Editors : Jen-hsiang Wang Pei-ju Wu Hsiu-mei Lo

Chinese Inscription : Ching-chung Chen

Assistant Editors : Liang-chen Leu Pi-ling Weng Yi-fang Chen

Li-wen Tseng

English Abstract Proofreader : Donna L.Worley Teresa Marie Reinsma

Assistants: Wen-jun Lo Nien-yi Cheng

Page 311:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Chung Hsing

Journal of the Humanities

(Formerly Journal of the College of Liberal Arts Vol. 1~31)

Volume 50

Special Issue: Speech Acts Across Cultures

College of Liberal Arts National Chung Hsing University

Taichung, Taiwan March 2013

Page 312:  · 文學史定位〉一文則耙梳孟瑤在小說作家的身份之外,另有給女性讀者閱讀的散 ... 林淑貞序於2013

Chung Hsing Journal of the Humanities

Vol. 50

Publisher: College of Liberal Arts‚ National Chung Hsing University

Published by: The Committee of Chung Hsing Journal of Humanities

Address: 250 Kuo Kuang Road‚ Taichung 402‚ Taiwan‚ Republic of China

Telephone: 886-4-22840316

Fax: 886-4-22856117

E-mail: [email protected]

Website: http://www.cla.nchu.edu.tw/people2/publication.htm

Publication Date: March 2013

Founded in 1971, Journal of the College of Liberal

Arts has been renamed Chung Hsing Journal of

Humanities as of June 2002 (vol.32). It is published

biannually since 2006.

Price: NT$500

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced without permission.

GPN:2009105233

ISSN:1727 - 8562