konbaung dynasty - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Konbaung Dynasty

Kingdom

17521885

Flag

Capital Shwebo (17521760)Sagaing (17601765)Ava (17651783,18211842)Amarapura(17831821,18421859)Mandalay(18591885)

Languages Burmese

Religion Theravada Buddhism

Government Monarchy

King

- 17521760 Alaungpaya (first)

- 18781885 Thibaw (last)

Legislature Hluttaw

Historical era Early modern period

- Founding ofdynasty 29 February 1752

- Reunification ofBurma 17521757

- Wars with Siam 17601854

- Chinese invasions 17651769

- Anglo-BurmeseWars

18241826, 1852,1885

- End of dynasty 29 November 1885

Area

- 1824[1] 794,000 km(306,565 sq mi)

- 1826 584,000 km(225,484 sq mi)

Konbaung DynastyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Konbaung Dynasty (Burmese: , pronounced: [kb

k], formerly the Alompra Dynasty) was the last dynasty that ruled Burma(Myanmar), from 1752 to 1885. It created the second-largest empire inBurmese history and continued the administrative reforms begun by theToungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of the modern state of Burma. Thereforms, however, proved insufficient to stem the advance of the British, whodefeated the Burmese in all three Anglo-Burmese wars over a six-decade span(18241885) and ended the millennium-old Burmese monarchy in 1885.

An expansionist dynasty, the Konbaung kings waged campaigns againstManipur, Arakan, Assam, the Mon kingdom of Pegu and the Siamese kingdomof Ayutthaya, thus establishing the Third Burmese Empire. Subject to laterwars and treaties with the British, the modern state of Burma can trace itscurrent borders to these events.

Throughout Konbaung Dynasty, the capital was relocated several times forreligious, political, and strategic reasons.

Contents

1 History

1.1 Establishment

1.2 Reforms

1.3 Relations with Siam

1.4 Relations with China

1.5 Relations with the British and downfall

2 Government

2.1 Administrative divisions

2.2 Royal agencies

2.3 Royal service2.4 Royal court

2.5 Military2.6 Royal rituals

2.6.1 Consecration ceremonies (abhiseka)

2.6.2 Coronation

2.6.3 Installation of the Crown Prince

2.6.4 Feeding of the first betel

2.6.5 Naming ceremony

2.6.6 Royal Ploughing Ceremony

2.6.7 Head-washing ceremony

2.6.8 Obeisance ceremony

2.6.9 Ancestor worship

2.6.10 Funerals

2.6.11 Foundation sacrifice

2.6.12 Devotional rituals

3 Society and culture

3.1 Social classes3.2 Sumptuary laws

3.3 Demography

Konbaung Dynasty - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konbaung_Dynasty

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- 1852 470,000 km(181,468 sq mi)

- 1875 460,000 km(177,607 sq mi)

Population

- 1824[1] est. 3,000,000

Density 3.8 /km (9.8 /sq mi)

Currency Kyat

Today part of Burma

China

India

Laos

Thailand

Lion Throne in the throne hall of the

royal palace of Amarapura (Painting

by Colesworthy Grant, 1855.

3.4 Literature and arts

3.5 Architecture

3.6 Religion

4 Rulers

4.1 Family tree

5 See also

6 Notes

7 References

8 External links

History

Establishment

The dynasty was founded by a village chief, who later became known as Alaungpaya, in 1752 to challenge the RestoredHanthawaddy Kingdom which had just toppled the Toungoo dynasty. By 1759, Alaungpaya's forces had reunited all of Burma

(and Manipur), and driven out the French and the British who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy.[2]

Alaungpaya's second son, Hsinbyushin, came to the throne after a short reign by hiselder brother, Naungdawgyi (17601763). He continued his father's expansionist policyand finally took Ayutthaya in 1767, after seven years of fighting.

Reforms

Realizing the need to modernize, the Konbaung rulers tried to enact various reformswith limited success. King Mindon with his able brother Crown Prince Kanaungestablished state-owned factories to produce modern weaponry and goods; in the end,these factories proved more costly than effective in staving off foreign invasion andconquest.

Mindon also tried to reduce the tax burden by lowering the heavy income tax andcreated a property tax, as well as duties on foreign exports. Ironically, these policies had the reverse effect of increasing the taxburden, as the local elites used the opportunity to enact new taxes without lowering the old ones; they were able to do so ascontrol from the centre was weak. In addition, the duties on foreign exports stifled the burgeoning trade and commerce.

Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms begun in the Restored Toungoo Dynasty period (15991752), and achievedunprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. They tightened control in the lowlands and reduced thehereditary privileges of Shan chiefs. They also instituted commercial reforms that increased government income and renderedit more predictable. Money economy continued to gain ground. In 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash

taxes and salaries, assisted by the country's first standardized silver coinage.[3]

Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British

colonialism.[4]

Relations with Siam

In 1760, Burma began a series of wars with Siam that would last well into the middle of the 19th century. By 1770,Alaungpaya's heirs had temporarily defeated Siam (1767), subdued much of Laos (1765) and defeated four invasions by Qing

China (17651769).[5] With the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the

Chinese,[6] the Siamese recovered their territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776.[7] Burma and Siam wentto war until 1855 but after decades of war, the two countries exchanged Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam).

Relations with China


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The last king, Thibaw Min (right),

here with Queen Supayalat and her

sister Princess Supayagyi, was

forcibly deposed in a war with the

British colonialists in 1885.

In the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing Dynasty of China which saw the threatof the expansion of Burmese power in the East. In 1770, despite his victory over the Chinese armies, King Hsinbyushin suedfor peace with China and concluded a treaty in order to maintain bilateral trade with the Middle Kingdom which was veryimportant for the dynasty at that time. The Qing Dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788after reconciliation. Thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time.

Relations with the British and downfall

Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, Bodawpaya acquired western kingdoms of Arakan (1784),

Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817), leading to a long ill-defined border with British India.[8]

Europeans began to set up trading posts in the Irrawaddy delta region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain itsindependence by balancing between the French and the British. In the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against the British Empire, culminating in total annexation of Burma by theBritish.

The British decisively defeated the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese War (18241826). Burma was forced to cede Arakan,Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds.

In 1837, King Bagyidaw's brother, Tharrawaddy, seized the throne, put Bagyidaw under house arrest, and executed the chief

queen Me Nu and her brother.[9] Tharrawaddy made no attempt to improve relations with Britain.

His son Pagan, who became king in 1846, executed thousands some sources say asmany as 6,000 of his wealthier and more influential subjects on trumped-up

charges.[10] During his reign, relations with the British became increasingly strained. In1852, the Second Anglo-Burmese War broke out. Pagan was succeeded by his youngerbrother, the progressive Mindon. Mindon attempted to bring Burma into greater contactwith the outside world, and hosted the Fifth Great Buddhist Synod in 1872 atMandalay, gaining the respect of the British and the admiration of his own people.

Mindon avoided annexation in 1875 by ceding the Karenni States. He died before hecould name a successor, and Thibaw, a lesser prince, was manoeuvred onto the throneby Hsinbyumashin, one of Mindon's queens, together with her daughter, Supayalat.(Rudyard Kipling mentions her as Thibaw's queen, and borrows her name, in his poemThe Road to Mandalay) The new King Thibaw proceeded, under Supayalat's direction,to massacre all likely contenders to the throne. This massacre was conducted by thequeen.

The dynasty came to an end in 1885 with the forced abdication and exile of the kingand the royal family to India. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of FrenchIndochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in1885. The annexation was announced in the British parliament as a New Year gift toQueen Victoria on 1 January 1886.

Although the dynasty had conquered vast tracts of territory, its direct power waslimited to its capital and the fertile plains of the Irrawaddy valley. The Konbaung rulers enacted harsh levies and had a difficulttime fighting internal rebellions. At various times, the Shan states paid tribute to the Konbaung Dynasty, but unlike the Monlands, were never directly controlled by the Burmese.

Government

The Konbaung Dynasty was an absolute monarchy. As in the rest of Southeast Asia, the traditional concept of kingship aspiredto the Chakravartin (Universal Monarchs) creating their own mandala or field of power within the Jambudipa universe, alongwith the possession of the white elephant which allowed them to assume the title Hsinbyushin or Hsinbyumyashin (Lord of theWhite Elephants), played a significant role in their endeavours. Of more earthly importance was the historical threat ofperiodic raids and aiding of internal rebellions as well as invasion and imposition of overlordship from the neighbouring


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A traditional painting by Saya Chone

depicts the abdication of King

Thibaw.

kingdoms of the Mon, Tai Shans and Manipuris.[11]

Administrative divisions

The kingdom was divided into provinces called myo ( ).[12][13] These provinceswere administered by Myosa ( ), who were members of the royal family or

the highest-ranking officials of the Hluttaw.[14] They collected revenue for the royalgovernment, payable to the Shwedaik (Royal Treasury) in fixed installments and

retained whatever was leftover.[14] Each myo was subdivided into districts called taik

(), which contained collections of villages called ywa ().[12]

The kingdom's peripheral coastal provinces (Pegu, Tenasserim, Martaban and Arakan)were administered by a Viceroy called a Myowun, who was appointed by the king and

possessed civil, judicial, fiscal and military powers.[14] Provincial councils (myoyon) consisted of myo saye (town scribes),nakhandaw (receivers of royal orders), sitke (chiefs of war), htaunghmu (jailer), ayatgaung (head of the quarter), and dagahmu

(warden of the gates).[15] Each province was divided into districts called myo, each led by a myo ok (if appointed), or by a myo

thugyi (if the office was hereditary).[15] The Viceroy of Pegu was assisted by several additional officials, including an

akhunwun (revenue officer), akaukwun (customs collector), and a yewun (conservator of port).[16]

The outlying tributary fiefdoms on the edges of the kingdom were autonomous in practice and nominally administered by the

king.[17] These included the Tai-speaking (what became the Shan States during British rule), Palaung, Kachin and Manipurikingdoms. The tributary princes of these fiefdoms regularly pledged allegiance and offered tribute to the Konbaung kings

(through rituals called gadaw pwedaw)[18] and were accorded with royal privileges and designated sawbwa (from Shan

saopha, 'lord of the sky')[17][19] In particular, the families of Shan sawbwas regularly intermarried into Burmese aristocracy

and had close contact with the Konbaung court.[17]

Royal agencies

The government was centrally administered by several advisory royal agencies, following a pattern established during the

Taungoo Dynasty.[20]

The Hluttaw ( , lit. "place of royal release," c.f. Council of State)[21] held legislative, ministerial and judicial

functions, administering the royal government as delegated by the king.[21] Sessions at the Hluttaw were held for 6 hours daily,

from 6 to 9 am, and from noon to 3 pm.[22] Listed by rank, the Hluttaw was composed of:

Head of the Council - the king, his heir apparent, or a high-ranking prince who presided over the Hluttaw as its nominal

head.[23]

Wunshindaw ( , Prime Minister) - served as the Chief Minister of the Hluttaw, an office established during

the reign of Mindon Min and most notably served by the Kinwun Mingyi U Kaung[23][24][25]

Four Wungyi () - jointly administered the Hluttaw's administrative portfolio and shared joint responsibility for

the kingdom's administration.[21][26]

Four Wundauk () - served as deputies to the Wungyi

Myinzugyi Wun (, lit. "Minister of the Cavalry Regiments") - as the highest regular army position,

oversaw the Tatmadaw.[27]

Athi Wun (, lit. "Minister of the Athi") - responsible for allocating corve labour resources and mobilization of

taxpaying commoners, called athi, during wartime[21][27]

The Byedaik (, lit. "Bachelor Chambers," with Bye stemming from Mon blai , "bachelor") served as the Privy

Council by handling the court's internal affairs and also served as an interlocutor between the king and other royal agencies.[27]

The Byedaik consisted of:


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A royal scribe, 1855.

Eight Atwinwun (, c.f. 'Ministers of the Interior')- communicated business affairs of the Hluttaw to the king,

administered internal transactions of general affairs relating to the royal court.[28]

Thandawzin (, "Heralds") - performed secretarial duties and attended king's audiences to note king's

orders and forward them to Hluttaw for inscription.[29]

Simihtunhmu (, lit. "Lamp Lighthers") - kept a list of all persons sleeping in the palace[30]

Hteindeinyanhmu (, "caretakers of royal appointments") - performed menial tasks such as

maintaining the palace furniture, draperies and other appointments[31]

The Shwedaik ( ) was the Royal Treasury, and as such, served as the repository of the state's precious metals and

treasures.[32] Moreover, the Shwedaik retained the state's archives and maintained various records, including detailed

genealogies of hereditary officials and census reports.[32][31] The Shwedaik was composed of:

Shwedaik Wun ( ) - Chancellor of the Exchequer[31]

Shwedaik Saw ( ) - Governor of the Treasury[31]

Shwedaik Kyat ( ) - Superintendent[31]

Shwedaik Saye ( ) - Clerk of the Treasury[31]

Shwedaik Thawkaing ( ) - Keeper of the Treasury Key[31]

Royal service

Each royal agency included a large retinue of middle and low level officials responsiblefor day-to-day affairs. These included the:

Nakhandaw () - charged with conveying communications to and

from the King and Hluttaw.[33] Also served as intermediary between royal

agencies and between king and ministers.[32] Collected, sorted, interpretedreports, read proclamations at official gatherings, transmitted orders to provincial

councils.[32]

Sayedawgyi (; great chief clerks) - performed executive

level work and preliminary investigations for trials[33]

Saye (; clerks)

Ameindawgyi (; writers of great orders) - prepared and

issued royal orders after necessary preliminary steps had been taken.[33]

Athonsaye (; clerks of works) - oversaw construction and repairs of

all public buildings[33]

Ahmadawye (; recorders of orders) - drafted orders and

letters to be issued by Hluttaw[33]

Awayyauk (; distant arrivals) - received and read letters coming from distance before submission to

ministers[33]

Thandawgan () - ceremonial officers who received letters on behalf of the king[34]

and 3 classes of ceremonial officers:

Letsaungsaye (clerks of presents) - read lists of offerings made to the King at royal functions[34]1.


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"Royal Audience," a traditional

painting by Saya Chone.

The King and Queen observing a

ceremony involving riders on

horseback. From a 18th-century

parabeik (picture book)

Yonzaw (master of ceremonies) - arranged royal functions and audiences of the King[34]2.

Thissadawge (recorders of great oaths) - administered oaths of fealty to those entering the royal service[34]3.

Royal court

Konbaung society was centred on the king, who took many wives and fatherednumerous children, creating a huge extended royal family which formed the powerbase of the dynasty and competed over influence at the royal court. It also posedproblems of succession at the same time often resulting in royal massacres.

The Lawka Byuha Kyan (), also known as the Inyon Sadan(), is the earliest extant work on Burmese court protocols and

customs.[35] The work was written by the Inyon Wungyi Thiri Uzana, also known asthe Inyon Ywaza, during the reign of Alaungpaya, the founder of the Konbaung

dynasty.[36]

Royal court life in the Konbaung dynasty consisted of both codified rituals andceremonies and those that were innovated with the progression of the dynasty. Manyceremonies were composed of Hindu ideas localized and adapted to existing traditions, both Burmese and Buddhist in origin.These rituals were also used to legitimize the rule of Burmese kings, as the Konbaung monarchs claimed descent from MahaSammata through the Sakyan clan (of which Gotama Buddha was a member). Life in the royal court was closely regulated.

Eunuchs () oversaw the ladies of the royal household and apartments.[37] Inferior queens and concubines could not

reside in the main palace buildings.[37]

Brahmins, generally known as ponna ( ) in Burmese, served as specialists forritual ceremonies, astrology, and devotional rites to Hindu deities at the Konbaung

court.[38] They played an essential role in king-making rituals, consecration and

ablution ceremonies called abhiseka ().[39] Court Brahmins (,parohita) were well embedded in daily life at the court, advising and consulting the

king on various matters.[40] A social hierarchy among the Brahmins determined their

respective duties and functions.[40] Astrologer Brahmins called huya () wereresponsible for determining astrological calculations, such as determining theauspicious moment for the foundation of a new capital, a new palace, pagoda, orassumption of the royal residence, announcing an appointment, leaving a place, visiting

a pagoda or starting a military campaign.[41] They also established the religiouscalendar, prepared the almanac (), calculated upcoming solar and lunareclipses, identified major festival days based on the lunar cycle, and communicated

auspicious times and dates.[41] A special group of Brahmins who performed abhiseka

rituals were also selected as pyinnya shi (), appointed royal counselors.[42]

Military

Royal rituals

Lavish affairs were also organised around the life ceremonies of royal family members.[43] Brahmins presided over many ofthese auspicious ceremonies, including the construction of a new royal capital; consecration of the new palace, the royalploughing ceremony; the naming, first rice feeding and cradling ceremonies; the abhiseka head anointing rituals, and the

King's participation in Burmese New Year (Thingyan) celebrations.[44] During Thingyan, a group of 8 Brahmins sprinkledwater blessed by a group of 8 Buddhist monks, throughout the palace grounds, at the Hluttaw, various courts, the major city

gates, and the 4 corners of the capital.[44] The king attended many of the ceremonies involving royal family members, from

cradling ceremonies () to ear-boring ceremonies, from marriages to funerals.[43]

Specific buildings in the royal palace served as the venue for various life ceremonies. For instance, the Great Audience Hall


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A nineteenth-century watercolor

painting by royal painters depicts an

Konbaung abhiseka ceremony. The

king and queen are respectively

seated in the pavilion, surrounded by

a retinue of Brahmins.

was where young princes underwent the shinbyu coming-of-age ceremony and were ordained as monk novices.[45] This was

also the venue where young princes ceremonially had their hair tied in a topknot ().[45] Elaborate Burmese NewYear feasts took place at the Hmannandawgyi (Palace of Mirrors): on the third day of the New Year, the king and chief queen

partook in Thingyan rice, cooked rice dipped in cold perfumed water, while seated on their throne.[46] Musical and dramatic

performances and other feasts were also held in that complex.[46]

Consecration ceremonies (abhiseka)

The most significant court functions of a king's reign were the abhiseka or consecratoryrituals, held at various times throughout a king's reign, to reinforce his place as the

patron of religion (Sasana) and righteousness.[43] Abhiseka rituals all involved thepouring of water from a conch on the candidate's (usually the king's) head, instructinghim what to do or not to do for the love of his people and warning him that if he failed

to oblige, he might suffer certain miseries.[44] Ablution rituals were the responsibility

of a group of 8 elite Brahmins uniquely qualified to perform the ritual.[44] They were to

remain chaste before the ceremony.[44] Another group of Brahmins was responsible for

the consecration of the Crown Prince.[44]

There were 14 types of abhiseka ceremonies in total:[44]

Rajabhiseka () - coronation of the king1.

Muddhabhiseka () - formal vow by the king to work for the

propagation of the Sasana (Buddha's teachings); held five years after accession[47][44]

2.

Uparajabhiseka () - installation of crown prince[47]3.

Mahesibhiseka () - coronation of chief queen[47]4.

Mangalabhiseka () - held to celebrate the possession of white elephants[47]5.

Siriyabhiseka () - held to renew the king's glory, held on occasion[47]6.

Ayudigabhiseka () - held to gain longevity, held on occasion[47]7.

Jeyyabhiseka () - held to ensure victory and success in war[47]8.

Mahabhiseka () - held to increase economic prosperity, held seven years after accession[47]9.

Sakalabhiseka () - held to ensure peace in the kingdom[47]10.

Vijayabhiseka () - held to conquer enemies[44]11.

Mandabhiseka (Manda beittheit) - held to marry the candidate to a queen of royal lineage.[48]12.

Singabhiseka (Thenga beittheit) - held to recommit a king to abide by the laws, whereupon full powers for the

government and administration of the country are conferred[48]13.

Coronation

Rajabhiseka () - the Coronation of the king, which was presided over by Brahmins, was the most important ritual

of the royal court.[47][49] The ceremony was typically held in the Burmese month of Kason, but did not necessarily occur

during the beginning of a reign.[49][47] The Sasanalinkaya states that Bodawphaya, like his father, was coronated only after

establishing control over the kingdom's administration and purifying the religious institutions.[49] The most important features

of this ritual were: the fetching of the anointing water; the ceremonial bath; the anointment; and the king's oath.[50]

Elaborate preparations were made precisely for this ceremony. Three ceremonial pavilions (Sihasana or Lion Throne;Gajasana or Elephant Throne; and the Marasana or Peacock Throne) were constructed in a specifically designated plot of land

(called the "peacock garden") for this occasion.[51] Offerings were also made to deities and Buddhist parittas were chanted.[47]


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Specially designated individuals, usually the daughters of dignitaries including merchants and Brahmins, were tasked with

procuring anointing water midstream from a river.[52] The water was placed in the respective pavilions.[53]

At an auspicious moment, the king was dressed in the costume of a Brahma, and the queen in that of a queen from

devaloka.[54] The couple was escorted to the pavilions in procession, accompanied by a white horse or a white elephant.[55][54]

The king first bathed his body in the Morasana pavilion, then his head in the Gajasana pavilion.[56] He then entered theSihasana pavilion to assume his seat at the coronation throne, crafted to resemble a blooming lotus flower, made of figwood

and applied gold leaf.[56] Brahmins handed him the five articles of coronation regalia (, Min Myauk Taza):

White umbrella (, hti byu)[57]1.

Crown, in the form of a crested headdress (, magaik)[57]2.

Sceptre (, thanlyet)[57]3.

Sandals (, che nin)[57]4.

Fly-whisk, made of yak tail (, thamyi yat)[57]5.

At his throne, eight princesses anointed the king by pouring specially procured water atop his head, each using a conch

bedazzled with gems white solemnly adjuring him in formulae to rule justly.[56][55] Brahmins then raised a white umbrella

over the king's head.[55] This anointment was repeated by eight pure-blooded Brahmins and eight merchants.[58] Afterward,the king repeated words ascribed to Buddha at birth: "I am foremost in all the world! I am most excellent in all the world! I am

peerless in all the world!" and made invocation by pouring water from a golden ewer.[55] The ritual ended with the king taking

refuge in the Three Jewels.[55]

As part of the coronation, prisoners were released.[58] The king and his pageant returned to the Palace, and the ceremonial

pavilions were dismantled and cast into the river.[59] Seven days after the ceremony, the king and members of the royal family

made an inaugural procession, circling the city moat on a gilt state barge, amid festive music and spectators.[48]

Installation of the Crown Prince

Uparajabhiseka () - the Installation of the Uparaja (Crown Prince), in Burmese Einshe Min ( ), was

one of the most important rituals in the king's reign. The Installation Ceremony took place in the Byedaik (Privy Council).[60]

The Crown Prince was invested, received appenages and insignias, and was bestowed a multitude of gifts.[61] The king also

formally appointed a retinue of household staff to oversee the Prince's public and private affairs.[62] Afterward, the Crown

Prince was paraded to his new Palace, commiserate with his new rank.[63] Preparations for a royal wedding with a princess,

specially groomed to become the new king's consort, then commenced.[63]

Feeding of the first betel

Kun U Khun Mingala () - the Feeding of the First Betel ceremony was held about 75 days after the birth of a

prince or princess to bolster the newborn child's health, prosperity and beauty.[64] The ceremony involved the feeding of betel,

mixed with camphor and other ingredients. An appointed official () arranged the rituals preceding the ceremony.[64] Theserituals included a specific set of offerings to the Buddha, indigenous spirits (yokkaso, akathaso, bhummaso, etc.), Guardians of

the Sasana, and to the parents and grandparents of the child, all of which were arranged in the infant's chamber.[65] Additionalofferings were made to the Hundred Phi (), a group of 100 Siamese spirits headed by Nandi (),personified by a Brahmin figure made of kusa grass, which was ceremonially fed scoops of cooked rice with the left

hand.[65][66]

Naming ceremony

Namakarana () the naming ceremony took place 100 days after the birth of a prince or princess.[65] Food was

also offered for the dignitaries and entertainers in attendance.[67] The infant's name was inscribed on a gold plate or on palm


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A depiction of the Royal Ploughing

Ceremony by Saya Chone, a painter

at the royal court.

leaf.[67] The night before the ceremony, a pwe was held for the attendees.[67] The dawn of the ceremony, Buddhist monks

delivered a sermon to the court.[66] Afterward, at the Chief Queen's apartment, the infant was seated on a divan with the Chief

Queen, with respective attendees from the royal court seated according to rank.[68] A Minister of the Interior then presidedover ceremonial offerings () made to the Triple Gem, the 11 deva headed by Thagyamin, 9 Hindu deities, indigenous nat,

and the 100 Phi.[69][68] A protective prayer was then recited.[70] After the prayer, a pyinnyashi prepared and 'fed' Nandi. At the

auspicious moment calculated by astrologers, the name of the infant was read out thrice by the royal herald.[70] Afterward,

another royal herald recited an inventory of presents offered by the dignitaries in attendance.[70] At the closing of the

ceremony, a feast ensued, with attendees fed in the order of precedence.[70] Offerings to the Buddha were shuttled to the

pagodas, and those to Nandi, to the sacrificial Brahmins.[70]

Royal Ploughing Ceremony

Lehtun Mingala ()[71] - the Royal Ploughing Ceremony was an annualfestival of breaking ground with ploughs in the royal fields east of the royal capital, toensure sufficient rainfall for the year by propitiating the Moekhaung Nat, who was

believed to control rain.[37][72] The ceremony was traditionally linked to an event inGotama Buddha's life. During King Suddhodana's royal ploughing of the fields, theinfant Buddha rose to stand, sat cross-legged and began to meditate, underneath the

shade of a rose apple tree.[73]

The ceremony was held at the beginning of June, at the break of the southwest

monsoon.[74] For the ceremony, the king, clad in state robes (a paso with the peacockemblem (daungyut)), a long silk surcoat or tunic encrusted with jewels, a spire-likecrown (tharaphu), and 24 strings of the salwe across his chest, and a gold plate orfrontlet over his forehead) and his audience made a procession to the leya (royal

fields).[75] At the ledawgyi, a specially designated plot of land, milk-white oxen were

attached to royal ploughs covered with gold leaf, stood ready for plowing by ministers, princes and the kings.[76] The oxenwere decorated with gold and crimson bands, reins bedecked with rubies and diamonds, and heavy gold tassels hung from the

gilded horns.[76] The king initiated the ploughing, and shared this duty among himself, ministers and the princes.[77] After the

ceremonial ploughing of the ledawgyi was complete, festivities sprung up throughout the royal capital.[77]

Head-washing ceremony

At Thingyan and at the end of the Buddhist lent, the king's head was ceremonially washed with water from Gaungsay Gyun

(lit. Head Washing Island) between Martaban and Moulmein, near the mouth of the Salween River.[78] After the SecondAnglo-Burmese War (which resulted in Gaungsay Gyun falling under British possession), purified water from Irrawaddy Riverwas instead procured. This ceremony also preceded the earboring, headdressing, and marriage ceremonies of the royal

family.[79]

Obeisance ceremony

The Obeisance ceremony was a grand ceremony held at the Great Audience Hall thrice a year where tributary princes and

courtiers laid tribute, paid homage to their benefactor, the Konbaung king, and swore their allegiance to the monarchy.[37] Theceremony was held 3 times a year:

Hnit Thit Gadaw ()[80] - Beginning of the Burmese New Year (April)[45]1.

Wa-win Gadaw ()[80] - Beginning of the Buddhist Lent (June or July) - required the attendance of princes,

ministers and city officials[45]

2.

Wa-gyut Gadaw ()[80] - End of the Buddhist Lent (October) - required the attendance of provincial

governors and tributary princes (sawbwa)[45]

3.


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The tomb of King Mindon on the

grounds of Mandalay Palace in 1903.

During this ceremony, the king was seated at the Lion Throne, along with the chief queen, to his right.[45] The Crown Prince

was seated immediately before the throne in a cradle-like seat, followed by princes of the blood (min nyi min tha).[45]

Constituting the audience were courtiers and dignitaries from vassal states, who were seated according to rank, known in

Burmese as Neya Nga Thwe ():[45]

Taw Neya ();[81]1.

Du Neya ();[81]2.

Sani ();[81]3.

Atwin Bawaw ();[81]4.

Apyin Bawaw ()[81]5.

There, the audience paid obeisance to the monarch and renewed their allgeiance to the monarch.[45] Women, barring the chief

queen, were not permitted to be seen during these ceremonies.[45] Lesser queens, ministers' wives and other officials wereseated in a room behind the throne: the queens were seated in the centre within the railing surrounding the flight of steps,

while the wives of ministers and others sat in the space without.[45]

Ancestor worship

Throughout the Konbaung Dynasty, the royal family performed ancestral rites to honor their immediate ancestors. These riteswere performed at the thrice a year at the Zetawunsaung (Jetavana Hall or "Hall of Victory"), which housed the Goose Throne

( ), immediately preceding the Obeisance Ceremony.[82] On a platform in a room to the west of hall, the kingand members of the royal family paid obeisance to images of monarchs and consorts of the Konbaung dynasty. Offerings and

Pali prayers from a book of odes were also made to the images.[82] The images, which stood 6 to 24 inches (150 to 610 mm)

tall, were made of solid gold.[83] Images were only made for Konbaung kings at their death (if he died on the throne) or forKonbaung queens (if she died while her consort was on throne), but not of a king who died after deposition or a queen who

survived her husband.[83] Items used by the deceased personage (e.g. sword, spear, betel box) were preserved along with the

associated image.[83] After the British conquest of Upper Burma, 11 images fell into the hands of the Superintendent at the

Governor's Residence, Bengal, where they were melted down.[83]

Funerals

When a king died, his royal white umbrella was broken and the great drum and gong at

the palace's bell tower (at the eastern gate of the palace), was struck.[57] It was customfor members of the royal family, including the king, to be cremated: their ashes were

put into a velvet bag and thrown into the river.[84] King Mindon Min was the first tobreak tradition; his remains were not cremated, but instead were buried intact,

according to his wishes, at the place where his tomb now stands.[84] Before his burial,the King Mindon's body was laid in state before his throne at the Hmannandawgyi

(Palace of Mirrors).[46][45]

Foundation sacrifice

The Foundation Sacrifice was a Burmese practice whereby human victims known asmyosade () were ceremonially sacrificed by burial during the foundation of a royal capital, to propitiate and appease

the guardian spirits. in order to ensure impregnability of the capital city.[85] The victims were crushed to death underneath amassive teak post erected near each gateway, and at the four corners of the city walls, to render the city secure and

impregnable.[86] Although this practice contradicted the fundamental tenets of Buddhism, it was in alignment with prevailinganimistic beliefs, which dictated that the spirits of persons who suffered violent deaths became nats (spirits) and protective and

possessive of their death sites.[86] The preferred sites for such executions were the city's corners and the gates, the most

vulnerable defence points.[86]


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The Guardians of the Four Cardinal

Directions (Lokapala) in Burmese

depiction.

The Konbaung monarchs prescribed to ancient precedents and traditions to found the new royal city. Brahmins were taskedwith planning these sacrificial ceremonies and determining the auspicious day according to astrological calculations and the

signs of individuals best suited for sacrifice.[86] Usually, victims were selected from a spectrum of social classes, or

unfortuitiously apprehended against will during the day of the sacrifice.[86] Women in the latter stages of pregnancy were

preferred, as the sacrifice would yield two guardian spirits instead of one.[86]

Such sacrifices took place at the foundation of Wunbe In Palace in Ava in 1676 and may have taken place at the foundation of

Mandalay in 1857.[85] Royal court officials at the time claimed that the tradition was dispensed altogether, with flowers and

fruit offered in lieu of human victims.[86] Burmese chronicles and contemporary records only make mention of large jars of oilburied at the identified locations, which was, by tradition, to ascertain whether the spirits would continue to protect the city

(i.e., so long as the oil remained intact, the spirits were serving their duty).[86] Shwe Yoe's The Burman describes 52 men,women and children buried, with 3 buried under the post near each of the twelve gates of the city walls, one at each corner ofthose walls, one at each corner of the teak stockade, one under each of the four entrances to the Palace, and four under the

Lion Throne.[87] Taw Sein Ko's Annual Report for 1902-03 for the Archaeological Survey of India mentions only four victimsburied at the corners of the city walls.

Devotional rituals

Brahmins at the Konbaung court regularly performed a variety of grand devotional

rituals to indigenous spirits (nat) and Hindu deities.[43] The following were the mostimportant devotional cults:

Ganesha (Maha Peinne in Burmese) - During the Burmese month of Nadaw(November to December), a festival for Ganesha, the god of prudence and good

policy, was held. Grain first reaped from the royal fields was sent to theMahamuni Buddha Temple as an offering to Ganesha, in three huge containers in

the shape of a buffalo, bullock and prawn, in which paddy, millet, and bulrush

millet were respectively placed.[88] Ganesha, mounted on a peacock, was placed

on a ceremonial procession and was then brought before the king, who after

paying homage, scattered pieces of silver and clothes among the poor.[88][89]

Ganesha occupied a prominent place in royal ceremonies, especially as he was considered a guardian deity of the

elephants.[90] Offerings to Ganesha, made in the Burmese month of Tazaungmon were established during Bodawpaya's

reign.[91]

Phaya Ko Zu (, lit. "Nine Deities") - This was a devotional rite performmed by Khettara Brahmins. The

deities referenced were either Buddhist: Buddha and the 8 arahats, or non-Buddhist: 5 Hindu deities, including Candi

and Ganesha, and 4 nats).[92]

Skanda (Sakanta or Sakanta Tattika) - King Bodawpaya reformed the annual ceremonial procession to honor Ganesha to

instead honor Skanda, the god of war (and a son of Shiva and Candi), following the advice of a Brahmin from Benares.[93][94] This procession was held in the Burmese month of Tabaung.[91] Skanda was closely linked with a deity called

Citrabali-mara (Cittarapali-mar[a]), both of whom were connected to rituals mentioned in Rajamattan, a standard

reference for ceremonies at the royal court compiled during Bodawphaya's reign.[91]

Hindu deities: Candi (Canni), Indra (Thagyamin), Shiva, Vishnu, Asuras and the 4 Lokapala - These deities were placed

at specific locations, at the entrances of the capital city, the royal palace, or in temples, to ward off evil.[93]

Other spirits (nat): Planets, Sky, Sun, Moon, Hon (the fire spirit)[91][95]

Society and culture

Social classes

During the Konbaung dynasty, Burmese society was highly stratified. Loosely modeled on the four Hindu varnas, Konbaung

society was divided into four general social classes () by descent:[81]


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Burmese court officials in 1795.

Konbaung era Myinkhin Thabin.

Rulers () or Khattiya ( )[96]1.

Ritualists ( ) or Brahmana ()[96]2.

Merchants () or Vessa ()[96]3.

Commoners () or Sudda ()[96]4.

Society also distinguished between the free and slaves (), who were indebtedpersons or prisoners of war (including those brought back from military campaigns inArakan, Ayuthaya, and Manipur), but could belong to one of the four classes. Therewas also distinction between taxpayers and non-taxpayers. Tax-paying commonerswere called athi (), whereas non-taxpaying individuals, usually affiliated to the royal court or under governmentservice, were called ahmudan ().

Outside of hereditary positions, there were two primary paths to influence: joining the military () and joining theBuddhist Sangha in the monasteries.

Sumptuary laws

Sumptuary laws called yazagaing dictated life and consumption for Burmese subjects in the Konbaung kingdom, everythingfrom the style of one's house to clothing suitable to ones social standing from regulations concerning funerary ceremonies and

the coffin to be used to usage of various speech forms based on rank and social status.[97][98][99] In particular, sumptuary laws

in the royal capital were exceedingly strict and the most elaborate in character.[100]

For instance, sumptuary laws forbade ordinary Burmese subjects to build houses of stone or brick and dictated the number oftiers on the ornamental spired roof (called pyatthat) allowed above ones residence the royal palace's Great Audience Halland the 4 main gates of the royal capital, as well as monasteries, were allowed 9 tiers while those of the most powerful

tributary princes (sawbwa) were permitted 7, at most.[101][102]

Sumptuary laws ordained 5 types of funerals and rites accorded to each: the king, royal family members, holders of ministerial

offices, merchants and those who possessed titles, and peasants (who received no rites at death).[103]

Sumptuary regulations regarding dress and ornamentation were carefully observed. Designs with the peacock insignia werestrictly reserved for the royal family and long-tailed hip-length jackets () and surcoats were reserved for

officials.[104] Velvet sandals ( ) were worn exclusively by royals.[105] Gold anklets were worn only by the royal

children. [97] Silk cloth, brocaded with gold and silver flowers and animal figures were only permitted to be worn by members

of the royal family and ministers wives. [97] Adornment with jewels and precious stones was similarly regulated. Usage of

hinthapada (), a vermilion dye made from cinnabar was regulated.[97]

Demography

Throughout the Konbaung Dynasty, cultural integration continued. For the first time inhistory, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddyvalley, with the Mon language and ethnicity completely eclipsed by 1830. The nearerShan principalities adopted more lowland norms.

Captives from various military campaigns in their hundreds and thousands werebrought back to the kingdom and resettled as hereditary servants to royalty and nobilityor dedicated to pagodas and temples; these captives added new knowledge and skills toBurmese society and enriched Burmese culture. They were encouraged to marry into

the host community thus enriching the gene pool as well.[106] Captives from Manipurformed the cavalry called Kath myindat (Cassay Horse) and also Kath a hmyauk tat(Cassay Artillery) in the royal Burmese army. Even captured French soldiers, led by

Chevalier Milard, were forced into the Burmese army.[107] The incorporated French troops with their guns and muskets playeda key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They became an elite corps, which was to play a role in the


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An 1855 watercolor of a Kathe

horseman from Manipur.

The royal palace of Mandalay.

Burmese battles against the Siamese (attacks and capture of Ayutthaya from 1760 to1765) and the Manchus (battles against the Chinese armies of the Qian Long emperor

from 1766 to 1769).[107] Muslim eunuchs from Arakan also served in the Konbaung

court.[108][109][110][111][112]

A small community of foreign scholars, missionaries and merchants also lived inKonbaung society. Besides mercenaries and adventurers who had offered their servicessince the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century, a few Europeans served asladies-in-waiting to the last queen Supayalat in Mandalay, a missionary established aschool attended by Mindon's several sons including the last king Thibaw, and anArmenian had served as a king's minister at Amarapura.

Among the most visible non-Burmans of the royal court were Brahmins. They typically originated from one of four locales:

Manipur - acquired with the conquest of Manipur; perhaps from Bengal, since Manipur was Hinduized by Bengali

Brahmins in the 1700s[113]

Arakan - acquired with the conquest of Arakan in 1785 by King Bodawpaya's son, Thado Minsaw[113]

Sagaing - long-established lines of Brahmins at Burman and Mon royal courts, who traced their origins to 9th century

Sri Ksetra or 14th century Sagaing[113]

Benares - Indian Brahmins from Benares who arrived in upper Burma between the late 1700s to early 1800s.[114]

Literature and arts

The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theater continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for

the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[115] Foreign observers such as Michael Symes remarked on widespread literacy

among commoners, from peasants to watermen.[106]

The Siamese captives carried off from Ayutthaya as part of the BurmeseSiamese War (176567) went on to have an outsizeinfluence on traditional Burmese theatre and dance. In 1789, a Burmese royal commission consisting of Princes and Ministerswas charged with translating Siamese and Javanese dramas from Thai to Burmese. With the help of Siamese artists capturedfrom Ayutthaya in 1767, the commission adapted two important epics from Thai to Burmese: the Siamese Ramayana and the

Enao, the Siamese version of Javanese Panji tales into Burmese Yama Zattaw and Enaung Zattaw.[116] One classical Siamesedance, called Yodaya Aka (lit. Ayutthaya-style dance) is considered one of the most delicate of all traditional Burmese dances.

Architecture

Religion

Monastic and lay elites around the Konbaung kings, particularly from Bodawpaya'sreign, also launched a major reformation of Burmese intellectual life and monasticorganization and practice known as the Sudhamma Reformation. It led to amongst

other things Burma's first proper state histories.[117]

Rulers


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No Title Literal meaning Lineage Reign Notes

1 AlaungpayaFuture

Buddha-Kingvillage chief 17521760

founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese

Empire, invaded Ayutthaya

2 Naungdawgyi Royal Elder Brother son 17601763 invaded Ayutthaya with his father

3 HsinbyushinLord of the White

Elephantbrother 17631776

invaded and sacked Ayutthaya, invaded Chiang Mai

and Laos, invaded Manipur, successfully repulsed 4

Chinese invasions

4 Singu King Singu son 17761781

5 PhaungkaYounger Brother

(Lord of Phaungka)

cousin (son of

Naungdawgyi)1782

the shortest reign in Burmese history of just over

one week

6 BodawpayaRoyal Lord

Grandfather

uncle (son of

Alaungpaya)17821819 invaded and annexed Arakan, invaded Ayutthaya

7 Bagyidaw Royal Elder Uncle grandson 18191837

invaded Ayutthaya with his grandfather, invaded

Assam and Manipur, defeated in the First Anglo-

Burmese War

8 Tharrawaddy King Tharrawaddy brother 18371846fought in the First Anglo-Burmese War as Prince of

Tharrawaddy

9 Pagan King Pagan son 18461853overthrown by Mindon after his defeat in the

Second Anglo-Burmese War

10 Mindon King Mindon half-brother 18531878

sued for peace with the British; had a very narrow

escape in a palace rebellion by two of his sons buthis brother Crown Prince Ka Naung was killed

11 Thibaw King Thibaw son 18781885the last king of Burma, forced to abdicate andexiled to India after his defeat in the Third Anglo-

Burmese War

Note: Naungdawgyi was the eldest brother of Hsinbyushin and Bodawpaya who was the grandfather of Bagyidaw who wasMindon's elder uncle. They were known by these names to posterity, although the formal titles at their coronation by customran to some length in Pali; Mintayagyi paya (Lord Great King) was the equivalent of Your/His Majesty whereas Hpondawgyipaya (Lord Great Glory) would be used by the royal family.

Family tree

1

Alaungpaya(17521760)

Yun San

3 6 2

Me HlaHsinbyushin(17631776)

Bodawpaya(17821819)

Naungdawgyi(17601763)

Shin HpoU

4 5

Singu Min(17761781)

Thado MinsawPhaungka

(1782)

7 8


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Bagyidaw(18191837)

Tharrawaddy(18371846)

9 10

Pagan[N 1]

(18461853)Mindon[N 2]

(18531878)

Princessof

Laungshe

11

Thibaw(18781885)

Notes

Half brother of Mindon, son of Princess Me Myat Shwe.1. Half brother of Pagan, son of Queen Me Nu.2.

Royal house Konbaung dynastyFounding year: 1752

Deposition: 1885

Preceded byTaungoo dynasty

Dynasty of Burma29 February 1752 29 November 1885

VacantMonarchy abolished

British rule

See also

History of Burma

Notes

Harvey 1925, p. 333.1. Phayre 1883, p. 153.2. Lieberman 1996, p. 184-187.3. Myint-U 2001.4. Lieberman 2003, p. 184187.5. Dai 2004, p. 145189.6. Wyatt 2003, p. 125.7. Myint-U 2006, p. 109.8. Christopher Buyers. "The KonbaungDynasty Genealogy"(http://www.royalark.net/Burma/konbau11.htm). royalark.net.Retrieved 19 September 2009.

9.

Sanderson Beck. "Burma, Malaya andSiam 18001950"(http://www.san.beck.org/20-8-BurmaMalaya1800-1950.html#a1).Retrieved 2007-04-22.

10.

Surakiat 2006, p. 8, 11, 25.11. Bird 1897, p. 104.12. Seekins 2006, p. 51.13. Nisbet 1901, p. 153.14. Nisbet 1901, p. 154.15. Nisbet 1901, p. 154-155.16. Myint-U 2001, p. 77.17.

Philips 1951, p. 117, 121.18. Scott 1882, p. 102.19. Seekins 2006, p. 50.20. Nisbet 1901, p. 152.21. Taw 1913, p. 47.22. Nisbet 1901, p. 156.23. Myint-U 2001, p. 157-158.24. Myint-U 2001, p. 133.25. Myint-U 2001, p. 65.26. Myint-U 2001, p. 66.27. Nisbet 1901, p. 159.28. Nisbet 1901, p. 160.29. Nisbet 1901, p. 160-161.30. Nisbet 1901, p. 161.31. Myint-U 2001, p. 67.32. Nisbet 1901, p. 157.33. Nisbet 1901, p. 158.34. Working People's Daily 1988.35. Myint-U 2001, p. 70.36. Nisbet 1901, p. 205.37. Leider 2005, p. 160-161.38. Leider 2005, p. 159.39. Leider 2005, p. 168.40. Leider 2005, p. 169.41. Leider 2005, p. 177.42.

Myint-U 2001, p. 57.43. Leider 2005, p. 175.44. DAS 1963, p. 27.45. DAS 1963, p. 29.46. Yi 1982, p. 136.47. Scott 1882, p. 450.48. Leider 2005, p. 174.49. Yi 1982, p. 147.50. Yi 1982, p. 137.51. Yi 1982, p. 137-138.52. Yi 1982, p. 138.53. Yi 1982, p. 139.54. Harvey 1925, p. 325.55. Yi 1982, p. 140.56. Nisbet 1901, p. 204.57. Yi 1982, p. 141.58. Yi 1982, p. 142.59. Yi 1982, p. 129.60. Yi 1982, p. 129-135.61. Yi 1982, p. 131-135.62. Yi 1982, p. 135.63. Yi 1982, p. 105.64. Yi 1982, p. 106.65. Yi 1982, p. 108.66. Yi 1982, p. 107.67.


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Yi 1982, p. 109.68. Yi 1982, p. 106-7.69. Yi 1982, p. 110.70. Also known as Mingala Ledaw

() or Ledwin

Mingala.

71.

Scott 1882, p. 257.72. Scott 1882, p. 257-258.73. Scott 1882, p. 258.74. Scott 1882, p. 259.75. Scott 1882, p. 260.76. Scott 1882, p. 261.77. Nisbet 1901, p. 206.78. Yi 1982, p. 124.79. Scott & 1900 94.80. MLC 1993.81. DAS 1963, p. 28.82. Hall 1925, p. 327-328.83.

DAS 1963, p. 23.84. Harvey 1925, p. 321.85. DAS 1963, p. 19.86. Scott 1882, p. 482.87. DAS 1963, p. 34.88. Scott 1900, p. 103.89. Leider 2005, p. 171.90. Leider 2005, p. 173.91. Leider 2005, p. 170-171.92. Leider 2005, p. 172.93. Said Brahmin had the following issue:, by the Govinda-maharajinda-aggamahadhammarajaguru.

94.

Leider 2005, p. 170.95. Myint-U 2001, p. 31.96. Scott 1882, p. 411.97. Scott 1882, p. 406-407.98. Andrus 1947, p. x.99.

Scott 1882, p. 406.100. Nisbet 1901, p. 15.101. Cocks 1919, p. 161.102. Scott 1882, p. 411-412.103. Scott 1882, p. 409.104. Scott 1882, p. 409-10.105. Symes 1800.106. Findlay 2007, p. 277.107. Myint-U 2006, p. 126.108. Yegar 1972, p. 10.109. MHRJ 2007, p. 57.110. Fleischmann 1981, p. 49.111. Peletz 2007, p. 73.112. Leider 2005, p. 178.113. Leider 2005, p. 182.114. Lieberman 2003, p. 202206.115. Brandon, p. 27116. Charney 2006: 96107117.

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Maung Maung Tin, U (1905). Konbaung Hset Maha Yazawin () (in Burmese) 13 (2004 ed.). Yangon:

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Peletz, Michael G. (2007). Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times (http://books.google.com/books?id=BFXpi5ZKKF8C). Routledge. ISBN 9780203880043.Phayre, Arthur P. (1883). History of Burma (1967 ed.). London: Susil Gupta.Pollak, Oliver B. (1976). "Dynasticism and Revolt: Crisis of Kingship in Burma, 18371851.". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 7:187196. doi:10.1017/s0022463400015009 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022463400015009).Surakiat, Pamaree (March 2006). "The Changing Nature of Conflict between Burma and Siam as seen from the Growth andDevelopment of Burmese States from the 16th to the 19th centuries" (http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/wps/wps06_064.pdf) (PDF). AsiaResearch Institute. pp. 8, 11, 25.Philips, Cyril Henry (1951). Handbook of Oriental History (http://books.google.com/books?id=zjRnAAAAMAAJ) 6. University ofLondon School of Oriental and African Studies. pp. 117, 121.Scott, James George (1882). The Burman, His Life and Notions (https://archive.org/stream/burmanhislifenot00scot). London:Macmillan.Scott, J. George (1900). Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan states (http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs07/Scott_1-2-red.pdf) (PDF)2. Superintendent, Government Printing.Taw, Sein Ko (1913). Burmese Sketches (http://archive.org/stream/burmesesketchesb00tawsrich). British Burma Press.Seekins, Donald M. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810864863.Symes, Michael (1800). An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India, in the year 1795(http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/4.1Symes-red.pdf) (PDF). London: SOAS Spring 2006.Wyatt, David K. (2003). History of Thailand (2 ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08475-7.

Myanmar Historical Research Journal (in Burmese) ( ) (19). 2007 http://books.google.com

/books?id=CXQMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA57&hl=en. Missing or empty |title= (help)Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma. Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447013574.Yi, Yi (1982). "Life at the Burmese Court under the Konbaung Kings" (http://www.lib.washington.edu/myanmar/pdfs/YI0012a.pdf)

(PDF). Silver Jubilee Publication ( ) (Rangoon: Historical Research Department): 100147.

External links

Forty Years in Burma (http://anglicanhistory.org/asia/burma/forty/18.html) John

Ebenezer Marks, London: Hutchinson & Co., 1917

The Last Queen of Burma (http://www.irrawaddymedia.com

/article.php?art_id=3011) Kenneth Champeon, The Irrawaddy, July 2003

Ayutthaya and the End of History:Thai Views of Burma Revisted (http://www.irrawaddymedia.com

/article.php?art_id=1967) Min Zin, The Irrawaddy, August 2000

A rare meeting with the last of Burma's royals (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/02/11

/wburma211.xml) The Daily Telegraph, 26 February 2008

Myanmar's last royal laments a crumbling nation (http://uk.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKBKK8341620080310)

Reuters, 10 March 2008

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