Name: Lenworth HenninghamDate: July, 2014Instructor: Mr. AnglinInstitution: National Tools and Engineering Institute (NTEI)

Table of ContentsPageRigging Bowline ...Barrel Hitch Bowline on a Bight .Reef Knot Self Centering Bowline Cats Paw .Clove Hitch .Pipe Fittings Types of Fitting ..Elbow .Unions .Flanges Valves ..Types of Valves ..Coupling ..Tees, Wyes and Crosses .

RiggingDefinitions

Rigging refers to two things: the process of safely moving loads with slings, hoists, jacks, and other types of lifting equipment and the equipment used to lift and move these loads. The system of ropes or chains employed to support a ship's masts (standing rigging) and to control or set the yards and sails (running rigging). The ropes and wires supporting the structure of an airship, biplane, hang-glider, or parachute.

BowlineThebowline(/boln/or/bolan/) is an ancient and simpleknot used to form a fixed loop at the end of a rope. It has the virtues of being both easy to tie and untie; most notably, it is easy to untie after being subjected to a load. The bowline is sometimes referred asKing of the knotsbecause of its importance. It is one of the four basic maritime knots (the other three arefigure-eight knot,reef knotandclove hitch).The structure of the bowline is identical to that of thesheet bend, except the bowline forms a loop in one rope and the sheet bend joins two ropes. Along with the sheet bend and the clove hitch, the bowline is often considered one of the most essential knots. Although generally considered a reliable knot, its main deficiencies are a tendency to work loose when not under load, to slip when pulled sidewaysand thebightportion of the knot tocapsizein certain circumstances. To address these shortcomings, a number of more secure variations of the bowline have been developed for use in safety-criticalapplications.

What exactly defines a knot as being a Bowline?A precise definition has eluded some great knotting minds, but from personal observations I can conclude that all Bowlines exhibit the following characteristics: That all Bowlines are easy to untie even after heavy repeated loading events. (Example. As would be expected in a falling climber scenario) That all Bowlines can be tied in a one-stage tying process a concept known as Post Eye Tiable (PET). That all Bowlines fundamentally consist of a nipping turn component that grips and stabilises a bight component. That all Bowlines have a connective eye, and this eye does not slip under load which enables the knot to be linked to objects such as carabiners, trees & climbing harnesses.

The Following images are the Fundamental Bowlines based directly on the Original Structure.

How to tie a Bowling Knot1. Form a small loop, making sure that the running line (the loose end and the part that moves as you tie the knot) passes over the standing line (the part that will bear the load and the part that stays still as you tie the knot).

In this picture, the standing disappears off the top of the frame, and the running line is just to the left of the small loop.The loop you've just made represents "the hole", and the running end is "the rabbit." The standing line is "the tree." It is important to know that the "hole" will become part of the knot, and is NOT the loop of the bowline.2. The rabbit comes up out of the hole...

3. Around behind the tree

4. And back through the hole.

5. Hold the tree in one hand and pull on both parts of the rabbit with the other hand. This will close the "hole" and finish the knot. The "body" of the rabbit becomes the loop of the bowline.The most useful characteristic of the bowline is that (once you've finished tying the knot) the loop will not get bigger or smaller, no matter how much you tug on it.

Barrel Hitch

This is the simplest yet most effective method of hoisting or lowering an object while keeping it in a vertical position.In order to see how this hitch works, tie a fairly large Overhand Knot (picture 1). Where the rope crosses itself in the middle of the knot (near the blue dot in picture 1), grab the strand of rope on top and bring it towards you, then lay it back down as in picture 2 (notice where the blue dot is in picture 2). In picture 2, notice that there is a strand of rope which runs diagonally from the bottom left to the top right, creating two large loops. Place a plastic cup (or some other tall object) on top of that diagonal strand of rope, then carefully bring those two loops up the sides of the cup, and you should be able to lift up the cup using both ends of the rope (picture 3).

In picture 3 (above), notice that the end of the rope is tied off with a Bowline, although a Double Dragon can be used as well.Warning: For stability, the rope encircling the barrel must be well above the center of gravity but far enough below the top to avoid slipping off. Also, care must be taken to ensure that the rope is properly centered under the barrel. With smooth and steady lifting, the Barrel Hitch provides reasonable security and safety.

Bowline on the BightTheBowline on a bightis aknotwhich makes a pair of fixed-size loops in the middle of a rope. Its advantage is that it is reasonably easy to untie after being exposed to a strain. This knot can replace the figure-eight knot when tying into a climbing harness. However, it is critical to use a strong backup knot with plenty of tail beyond the knot.ApplicationsThis knot can be used to provide a toe hold in the middle of a rope; to make an emergencybosun's chair; and to create an upper rope "block" to make a crude purchase by threading the rope round an anchor point and then back up through the loop. It is sometimes used insport climbingto tie into two anchor bolts independently. This knot is convenient when a dependable loop is required but neither end of the line is available. It's also commonly used as a seat while being hoisted as there are two secure loops as opposed to the traditional one loop bowline. In theory, this knot would make hoisting many people with one line possible. This knot is very popular incavingas it allows the load to be spread between two anchor points, reducing the stress placed on them and providing a backup should one fail. Commonly known as the Y-hang it allows for a free-hang descent and can be easily adjusted to avoid waterfalls or rub points.As mentioned earlier, this knot can replace the figure-eight knot when tying into a climbing harness by tying a regular bowline knot and then re-threading it, such as is done with a figure eight knot. However, it iscriticalto use astrong backup knotwith plenty of tail beyond the knot, as the knot may untie during long climbs. The advantage of using this knot instead of the figure eight knot is that it can be easily untied after a severe fall.

TechniqueThebightof rope is initially used to make abowlinein the usual way. However, the bowline isnot completed by going on round the standing end(s) and tucking the bight back down beside itself. Instead, the bight is opened up to allow the whole knot to pass through it. When tightened, the bight now embraces the pair of standing ends.Steps:

Reef KnotThe Reef Know is also known as the square know. This knot is used for tying two ropes together. Also used for tying the reefing points on a sail or tying a triangular bandage in first aid.The reef knot is at least between 4,000 and 9,000 years old. The name "reef knot" dates from at least 1794and originates from its common use toreefsails,that is to tie part of thesaildown to decrease its effective surface area in strongwinds. To release the knot asailorcould collapse it with a pull of one hand; the sail's weight would make the collapsed knot come apart. It is specifically this behaviour which makes the knot unsafe for connecting two ropes together.The name "square knot" is found inDana's1841 maritime compendiumA Seaman's Friend, which also gives "reef knot" as an alternative name. UsesThe reef knot is used to tie the two ends of a single line together such that they will secure something, for example a bundle of objects that is unlikely to move much. In addition to being used by sailors forreefingandfurlingsails, it is also one of the key knots ofmacramtextiles. The knot lies flat when made with cloth and has been used for tyingbandagesfor millennia. As a binding knot it was known to theancient Greeksas theHerculesknot (Herakleotikon hamma) and is still used extensively in medicine.In hisNatural History,Plinyrelates the belief thatwounds healmore quickly when bound with a "Hercules knot".It has also been used since ancient times to tiebeltsandsashes. A modern use in this manner includes tying theobi(or belt) of amartial artskeikogi.With both ends tucked (slipped), it becomes a good way to tieshoelaces, whilst the non-slipped version is useful for shoelaces that are excessively short. It is appropriate for tying plastic garbage or trash bags, as the knot forms a handle when tied in two twisted edges of the bag.

Cats PawTheCat's pawis aknotused for connecting a rope to an object. It is very similar to thecow hitchexcept there is an additional twist on each side of the bight, making it less prone to slipping.The Cat's Paw, otherwise known as the offshore swivel knot is used to connect a snap swivel to a double line. Note that it can only be used when the double line has a complete loop. If the double has been cut to remove a previous Cat's Paw, use an improved clinch knot.Steps1. Thread the double through the eye of the swivel. Place the rod in a rod holder. This is necessary as the last step requires tension to tie this knot properly.

2. Rotate the swivel through the loop.-3 loops for greater than 50 lb line-4 loops for lines between 30 lb and 50 lb -5 loops for line between 12 lb and 30 lb-6 loops for line less than 12 lbs3. Apply steady pressure so the loops begin to tighten, ensuring that both legs are equal and all twists are removed. By placing the rod in a rod holder this process is made easier. Lubricate with saliva and pull firmly so the loops tighten snugly up against the swivel.

Clove Hitch1. A simple all purpose hitch. Easy to tie and untie. A useful and easy to tie knot, the Clove Hitch is a good binding knot. However, as a hitch it should be used with caution because it can slip or come undone if the object it is tied to rotates or if constant pressure is not maintained on the line. 2. Theclove hitchis a type ofknot. Along with thebowlineand thesheet bend, it is often considered one of the most important knots.A clove hitch is two successivehalf-hitchesaround an object. It is most effectively used as a crossing knot. It can be used as abindingknot, but is not particularly secure in that role.A clove hitch made around the rope's ownstanding partis known as eithertwo half-hitchesorbuntline hitch, depending on whether theturnsof the clove hitch progress away from or towards the hitched object.UsageThis knot is particularly useful where the length of the running end needs to be adjustable, since feeding in rope from either direction will loosen the knot to be tightened at a new position. With certain types of cord, the clove hitch can slip when loaded. In modern climbing rope, the clove hitch will slip to a point, and then stop slipping. With smaller diameter cords, after being heavily weighted it may become difficult to untie. It is also unreliable when used on a square or rectangular post, rather than round.

Pipe Fittings

Pipe fittings are the joining components that make possible or allow the assembly of pipes, valves and other equipment to be made into functioning piping systems.The functions of the fittings vary and some of these include: To change direction of flow in piping systems To connect and join piping and equipment To allow for branches, access, take off or auxiliary connections Block or regulate flow within the piping or equipmentPipe fittings are specified or identified by normal pipe size or tube size that the piping is manufactured to fit.

Types of Fittings

ElbowsAn elbow is a pipe fitting installed between two lengths of pipe or tubing to allow a change of direction, usually a 90 or 45angle, though 22.5 elbows are also made. The ends may be machined forbutt welding,threaded(usuallyfemale), orsocketed, etc. When the two ends differ in size, the fitting is called areducing elboworreducer elbow.Elbows are categorized based on various design features as below: Long Radius (LR) Elbows radius is 1.5 times the pipe diameter Short Radius (SR) Elbows radius is 1.0 times the pipe diameter 90 Degree Elbow where change in direction required is 90 45 Degree Elbow where change in direction required is 45A 90 degree elbow is also called a "90 bend" or "90 ell". It is a fitting which is bent in such a way to produce 90 degree change in the direction of flow in the pipe. It is used to change the direction in piping and is also sometimes called a "quarter bend". A 90 degree elbow attaches readily to plastic, copper, cast iron, steel and lead. It can also attach to rubber with stainless steel clamps. It is available in many materials like silicone, rubber compounds, galvanized steel, etc. The main application of an elbow (90 degree) is to connect hoses to valves, water pressure pumps, and deck drains. These elbows can be made from tough nylon material or NPT thread.A 45 degree elbow is also called a "45 bend" or "45 ell". It is commonly used in water supply facilities, food industrial pipeline networks, chemical industrial pipeline networks, electronic industrial pipeline networks, air conditioning facility pipeline, agriculture and garden production transporting system, pipeline network for solar energy facility, etc.Most elbows are available in short radius or long radius variants. The short radius elbows have a center-to-end distance equal to theNominal Pipe Size(NPS) in inches, while the long radius is 1.5 times the NPS in inches. Short elbows are widely available, and are typically used in pressurized systems.Long elbows are typically used in low-pressure gravity-fed systems and other applications where low turbulence and minimum deposition of entrained solids are of concern.

UnionsA union is similar to a coupling, except it is designed to allow quick and convenient disconnection of pipes for maintenance or fixture replacement. While a coupling would require eithersolvent welding,solderingor being able to rotate with all the pipes adjacent as with athreadedcoupling, a union provides a simple transition, allowing easy connection or disconnection at any future time. A standard union pipe is made in three parts consisting of a nut, a female end, and a male end. When the female and male ends are joined, the nuts then provide the necessary pressure to seal the joint. Since the mating ends of the union are interchangeable, changing of a valve or other device can be achieved with a minimum loss of time. Pipe unions are essentially a type of flange connector, as discussed further below.In addition to standard, simple unions, other types of union exist: Dielectric unionsare unions withdielectricinsulation, used to separate dissimilar metals (such as copper and galvanized steel) to avoid the damaging effects ofgalvanic corrosion. When two dissimilar metals are in contact with an electrically conductive solution (even tap water is conductive), they will form a battery and generate a voltage byelectrolysis. When the two metals are in direct contact with each other, theelectric currentfrom one metal to the other will cause a movement of ions from one to the other, dissolving one metal and depositing it on the other. A dielectric union breaks the electric current path with a plastic liner between two halves of the union, thus limiting galvanic corrosion. Rotary unionsare unions that allow forrotationof one of the united parts.

FlangesFlanges are generally used when there is a connection to valves, in-line instruments and/or connection to equipment nozzles is required. Flange fittings generally involve pressing two surfaces to be joined tightly together, by means of threadedbolts, wedges, clamps, or other means of applying highcompressiveforces. Often, a gasket,packing, or anO-ringis installed between the flanges to prevent leakage but it is sometimes possible to use only special grease or nothing at all if the mating surfaces are precisely formed. Flanges are designed to the following pressure ratings: 150lb, 300lb, 400lb, 600lb, 900lb, 1500lb and 2500lb or 10 Bar, 15Bar, 25Bar, 40Bar, 64Bar, 100Bar and 150Bar. Various types of flanges are available depending upon the type of their constructional features. The following are types of flanges generally used in piping. These flanges are available with different facing like raised face, flat face, ring joint face etc. Orifice Threaded Slip-On Blind Weld Neck Socket Lap Joint ReducingSlip On flanges are slipped over the pipe and then welded from both inside and outside to provide sufficient strength and prevent leakage. This flange is used instead of weld necks by many users because of its lower cost and also the fact that it requires less accuracy when cutting pipe to length.Blind flanges do not have a bore and are used to shut off a piping system or vassal opening. Its design permits easy access to vassal or piping system for inspection purpose. It can be supplied with or without hubs at the manufacturer's option.Weld neck flangesare designed to be joined to a piping system by butt welding. They are expensive because of its long neck, but is preferred for high stresses to the pipe, reducing stress applications. The neck, or hub, transmits stress concentration at the base of the flange. The gradual transition of thickness from the base of the hub to the wall thickness at the butt weld provides important reinforcement of the flange. Turbulence and erosion are reduced due to the matching bore size of the pipe and flange.Socket Flanges are similar to a slip on flanges in outline, but the bore is counter-bored to accept pipe. The diameter of the remaining bore is same as the inside diameter of the pipe. A fillet weld around the hub of the flange attaches the flange to the pipe. An optional interval weld may be applied in high stress applications. Its biggest use is in high pressure system such as hydraulic and steam lines.Lap Joint flange is again similar to a slip flange, but it has radius at the intersection of the bore and the flange face to accommodate a lap stub end. The face on the stub end forms the gasket face of the flange. Its applications are where sections of piping systems need to be dismantled quickly and easily for inspection or replacement.Flanged connections tend to be more bulky than other connections, but can perform well in demanding applications, such as largewater mainsandhydroelectric powersystems.

Valves Avalveis a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways.Valvesare technicallyvalvesfittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. A valve is simply a device that directs or regulates flow by opening, closing or partially obstructingpassageways. Valves are instrumental in everything from pumping soap out of a dispenser to starting a jet.You cant be a pipe expert without being anindustrial valve and fittingexpert, as well. Without valves, there would be no control of your pipe flow. Here are some of the types of valves and their applications.

Gate ValvesGate valves, the most common type of valve in the industry, are valves that open by lifting a gate out of the route of the fluid. Gate valves are designed to befully open or closed; they are regularly used as a block valve forisolating pipe systems.When a gate valve is open, there is no obstruction in the flow path resulting in very little friction loss. Gate valves are used when a straight-line flow of fluid and minimum restriction is desired.These can be controlled by a hand-wheel, air powered diaphragm, electric motor, or a piston actuator.

Globe ValvesGlobe valves are used forregulating flowin a pipeline, instead of having the all or nothing function of a gate valve. Globe valves regulate by the position of a movable disk (or plug) in relation with the stationary ring seat.A globe valve may have ports that run straight across, or may be pointed at an angle. This type of angled supply valve is commonly used for corrosive or thick, viscous fluids that tend to solidify. Having outlets on anangled supply valve that point downward helps the fluid to drain off to prevent clogging and corrosion.

Needle ValvesThe needle valve is essentially a variation of the globe valve used forvery fine control of flow. Needle valves contain a slender, tapered plug, as opposed to the globe valves larger and less accurate disk.

Butterfly ValvesThe butterfly valve is also designed toregulate flow, but with limited control capability. This is a simpler industrial valve and fitting that iseasily operatedby rotating a handle 90 degrees. The butterfly valve has not generally been thought to give a positive shut-off, however modern technology has facilitated the assembly of a bubble-tight shut-off.

Check ValvesCheck valves, also known as NRVs (non-return valves), permit fluid to flow in one direction only. Their purpose is to prevent backflow. There are several types of stoppers that prevent backflow in check valves.Ball check valves andpiston check valvesoperate by requiring a minimum amount of inbound flow pressure; backflow is not forceful enough to lift the ball or piston back up to travel the other direction. Flow in aswing check valvepushes through a hinged flap that only opens in one direction, assuring the fluid cannot travel backwards.

Relief ValvesThe relief valve, also known as the safety valve, is an industrial valve and fitting installed to set a limit on the amount of pressure in a system. This type of angled supply valve is strictly forpreventing over-pressurethat could cause damage to the system.

Coupling Acouplingconnects two pipes to each other. If the size of the pipe is not the same, the fitting may be called areducing couplingorreducer, or anadapter. By convention, the term "expander" is not generally used for a coupler that increases pipe size; instead the term "reducer" is used.

Couplings are used to join two pieces of pipe together in a straight line. Couplings are supplied in both straight and reducing styles. Straight couplings are used to join pipe of the same size. Reducing couplings are used to join pipes of different sizes. Reducing couplings are manufactured n either the concentric or eccentric configuration. The concentric coupling is used in lines where it is important to keep a constant centre line. Eccentric couplings are used when either the top or bottom of a line must remain level.

Tees, Wyes and CrossesThese fittings provide for branches, take off and auxiliary connections within a piping system.TeeA tee is the most common pipe fitting. It is available with all female thread sockets, all solvent weld sockets, or with opposed solvent weld sockets and a side outlet with female threads. It is used to either combine or split a fluid flow. It is a type of pipe fitting which is T-shaped having two outlets, at 90 to the connection to the main line. It is a short piece of pipe with a lateral outlet. A tee is used for connecting pipes of different diameters or for changing the direction of pipe runs. They are made of various materials and available in various sizes and finishes. They are extensively used in pipeline networks to transport two-phase fluid mixtures. They are categorized as: Equal UnequalWhen the size of the branch is same as header pipes, equal tee is used and when the branch size is less than that of header size, reduced tee will be used. Most common are tees with the same inlet and outlet sizes. Some of the industrial tees are Straight Tee, Reducing Tee, Double Branch Tee, Double Branch Reducing Tee, Conical Tee, Double Branch Conical Tee, Bullhead Tee, Conical Reducing Tee, Double Branch Conical Reducing Tee, Tangential Tee, and Double Branch Tangential Tee.The above tees are categorized on the basis of their shapes and structure. They can also be classified on the basis of the application they are required to perform.The three outlet sizes should be named in order (e.g. left, middle, right; measuring 15-22-15The three sizes of a tee are end x end x center. So if you want a tee that is 1" on both ends and 3/4" in the center it would be 1" x 1" x 3/4".

WyesA fitting with three openings, a wye is used to create branch lines. It is a tope of waste fitting tee which has the side inlet pipe entering at a 45 angle, or an angle other than 90 degrees. A standard wye is a "Y" shaped fitting which allows one pipe to be joined to another at a 45 degree angle.Wyes are similar to tees except that the branch line is angled to reduce friction and turbulence that could hamper the flow. The connection is typically at a 45-degree angle rather than a 90-degree angle. If a branch turns out further at the end to be perpendicular to the through line, the fitting becomes a "tee wye" (TY).PVDF Corrosive Waste Piping Systems utilize wye fittings that feature a smooth inside diameter without any irregularities, for uninterrupted flow path. These fittings should be able to withstand acids, bases, and solvents. Flame-retardant systems withstand intermittent corrosive fluids up to high temperatures. Polypropylene and PVDF Double Wyes and Double Reducing Wyes come in various sizes and are largely used for this purpose.A wye branch allows splitting a branch line equally in two directions. The opening sizes can vary for different situations, for instance in situation where a large main line needs to be split into two smaller branches.Low-priced wyes are often spot-welded together, whereas industrial wyes have a continuous weld at each seam. In long-distance pipeline applications, a true Wye fitting is also engineered for closed system instrumentation pigging configurations or wherever a smooth pipe branch is used.

CrossesCross fittings are also called 4-way fittings. If a branch line passes completely through a tee, the fitting becomes a cross. A cross has one inlet and three outlets, or vice versa. They often have solvent welded socket ends or female threaded ends.Cross fittings can generate a huge amount of stress on pipe as temperature changes, because they are at the centre of four connection points. A tee is steadier than a cross, as a tee behaves like a three-legged stool, while a cross behaves like a four-legged stool. (Geometrically, "any 3 non-collinear points define a plane" thus 3 legs are inherently stable.) Crosses are common infire sprinklersystems but not in plumbing, due to their extra cost as compared to using two tees.