Grammatical Underpinnings - 文法主義

English Schools of Thought - 英語派

descriptivism 記述文法的 referring to the structure of a language as it is actually used

prescriptivism 規範文法的 referring to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used

Important English Linguistic Terms - 重要英語言語学語彙

Grammar Related (General) - 文法関係 (一般)

language 言語 the method of human communication

grammar 文法 the system and structure of a language, consisting of syntax and morphology, and sometimes also semantics and phonology

syntax 構文論 the branch of linguistics concerned with the correct arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences

morphology 形態論 the branch of linguistics concerned with the formation of words

semantics 意味論 the branch of linguistics concerned with meaning

phonology 音韻論 the branch of linguistics concerned with systems of sounds

Syntax Related (Specific) - 構文関係 (特定)

composition 文章 the formation or construction of one’s writing

punctuation 句読点 the marks used in writing to define and separate elements

literary style 文体 the style (use of literary devices) used in one’s writing

usage 用法 the directions; the rules of use

clause 文節 a syntactic unit consisting of a subject and a predicate

sentence 文章 an independent clause

paragraph 段落 a section of writing dealing with a single theme

do-support do 挿入 adding the auxiliary verb “do” to normal verbs in non-declarative contexts

ellipses 省略 the omission of words that are understood from contextual clues

inversion 主語助動詞倒置 the reversal of the normal order of words (as in questions)Morphology Related (Specific) - 形態関係 (特定)

morpheme 形態素 a unit of a language that cannot be further divided

bound morpheme 拘束形態素 a morpheme only occurring when bound to a root word

free morpheme 単独形態素 a morpheme only occurring by itself

affix 接語 a morpheme that attached to a lemma to form a new word (a type of bound morpheme)

prefix 接頭語 a morpheme added to the start of a word to form a derivative

suffix 接尾語 a morpheme added to the end of a word to form a derivative

lexeme 語彙素 a unit of a language consisting of one to several words; applied to a family of words related by morphology or semantics

root word 語幹 the primary lexical unit of a word that carries the semanticcontent and cannot be reduced into smaller elements (lexical root)

lemma 補助定理 the dictionary form (headword) of a lexeme (inflectional root; stem)

lexicon 語彙 the vocabulary of a language

vocabulary 単語 the body of words used in a language

word 言葉 a single, distinct meaningful element of speech or writing

phrase 語句 a small group of words existent together as a conceptual unit

allomorph 異形態語 morphemes that differ in pronunciation but are semantically identical (ex. the “plural “s”” being read as “s”, “z”, or “iz”)

clitic 接語 a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word but depends phonologically on another word or phrase (ex. ‘s)

Semantics Related (Specific) - 意味関係 (特定)

context 文脈 the parts of something written or spoken that immediately precede and follow a word or passage and clarify its meaning

definition 定義 a statement of the exact meaning of a word

description 叙述 a spoken or written representation

modifier 修飾語 a word that restricts or adds to the sense of a word

appositive 同格語 a noun phrase that renames a noun right beside itanaphora 照応 when the meaning of a word (ex. pronoun) is dependent on

another referential element

antecedent 先行詞 a noun phrase or clause to which an anaphor (ex. pronoun) refers to

acronym 略語 a word formed from the initial letters of other words; an abbreviation

synonym 同義語 a word that has a similar meaning to another word

antonym 対義語 a word that has an opposite meaning to another word

homonym 同音異義語 a word that is spelled the same as another word, but has a different meaning

homophone 同音語 a word that is pronounced the same as another word, but has a different meaning

onomatope 擬音語 a word formed from an associated sound

mimetic word 擬態語 a word formed evoking an impression of certain sensations or sensory perceptions; an ideophone (ex. bang)

loanword 外来語 a word adopted from another language with little to no modification

Phonology Related (Specific) - 音韻論関係 (特定)

phoneme 音素 a distinct unit of sound in a language

vowel 母音 a / e / i / o / u

consonant 子音 all letters other than a / e / i / o / u

syllable 音節 a phoneme that has one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants

diphthong 複母音 a sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable

consonant cluster 子音郡 a sound formed by the combination of two consonants with no intervening vowels

pronunciation 発音 the way words are pronounced

accent 訛音 a mode of pronunciation of a language, usually associated with a

particular nation, locality, or social class

dialect 方言 a form of language that is particular to a specific region or a social group

intonation 抑揚 the rise or fall of the voice in speaking to indicate meaning

tone 語気 the use of pitch in language to distinguish grammatical or lexicalmeaning

pitch 音高 the degree of lowness or highness of a tone

rhythm 調子 the arrangement of sounds according to duration and stress

duration 存続期間 the emphasis laid on timing to indicate meaning

stress 強調 the emphasis laid on words to indicate meaning

fluency 滑らかさ the ability to express oneself easily, articulately, and accurately

back-channeling 相槌 sounds given during a conversation to indicate comprehension

Syntax Related (Clauses) - 構文関係 (文節)

independent clause 独立節 a clause containing a subject and a predicate that can act as a sentence

subordinate clause 従属節 a clause, generally containing a subordinate conjunction, that is dependent on the main (independent) clause

relative clause 関連節 a clause containing a relative pronoun

restrictive clause 制限節 a clause adding essential information to what it modifies (ex. that)

non-restrictive clause 非制限節 a clause adding non-essential information to what it modifies (a parenthetical expression offset by commas) (ex. which)

Syntax Related (Sentences) - 構文関係 (文章)

Types - 種類declarative sentence 平叙文 a sentence that makes a statement; ends with a period

interrogative sentence 疑問文 a sentence that asks a question; ends with a question mark

exclamatory sentence 感嘆文 a sentence that conveys emotion; ends with an exclamation mark

imperative sentence 命令文 a sentence that gives a command or makes a request; ends with a period or an exclamation mark

Forms - 形式 affirmative sentence 肯定文 a positive sentence

negative sentence 否定文 a negative sentence

double negative sentence 二重否定文 a sentence that contains two negatives (making it positive)question sentence 疑問文 a question sentence

indirect question sentence 関節疑問文 a question in reported speech

negative question sentence 否定疑問文 a question sentence beginning with a negative

Complexity - 複雑性simple sentence 単文 a sentence consisting of an independent clause

compound sentence 重文 a sentence consisting of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction

complex sentence 複文 a sentence consisting of an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses

compound-complex sentence 混文 a sentence consisting of two or more independent and dependent clauses

Composition - 構成subject 主語 the noun phrase of the sentence (a word or group of words that

functions in a sentence as the subject, object, or prepositional object)

predicate 述語 the verb phrase of the sentence (a finite verb with its dependent(s))

complement 補語 a noun phrase that has the same reference as either the subject or the object

object 目的語 a noun phrase dependent on a finite verb

direct object 直接目的語 a noun phrase that is the recipient of the action of a transitive verb (ex. I gave a present.)

indirect object 間接目的語 a noun phrase that refers to someone or something that is the recipient of the action of a transitive verb, but is not the direct object (ex. I gave him a present.)

Sentence Patterns - 文型There are five basic sentence patterns in English SV - I exploded.

SVC - I am smart.SVO - I do my homework.SVOC - I keep my room clean.SVOO - I gave my friend a gift.

Syntax Related (Punctuation) - 構文関係 (句読点)

Basic Symbols - 基本記号symbol; sign 記号 a mark or character used as a conventional representation of an

object, function, or process

mark; sign 符号 a symbol used in writing or printing

glyph グリフ a pictograph

letter 文字 a character representation of the sounds used in speech

majuscule letters 大文字 upper-case; capital letters

minuscule letters 小文字 lower-case; small letters

initials 頭文字 the first letter of a name or word

number 番号 an arithmetical value, expressed by a word or symbol

numeral 数字 a symbol denoting a number

blank space 空白・スペース an empty space

kerning space カーニング the space left between letters ・ 文字間隔の調整

tittle 小点 the dot placed about the “i” and “j” (ex. [ ˑ ])

Fonts - 字体font 字体 a set of type of particular face and size

print 活字体 a writing format with non-joined characters

cursive 筆記体 a writing format with joined characters

bold 太字体・太字 a writing format with thick characters

italics 斜字体・斜体 a writing format with slanted characters

underline 下線字体 a writing format with underlined characters

Diacritic Marks - 発音記号diacritic 発音記号・ダイアクリティック a glyph added to a letter to denote pronunciation

acute accent プライム符号 [ ´ ] (vowel is pronounced; vowel is stressed)

breve ブレーヴィアクセント [ ˘ ] (vowel is shortened)

caron; háček カロンアクセント [ ˇ ] (“c”, “r”, “s”, and “z” are pronounced “ch”, “sh”, “rzh”, and “zh”, respectively)

cedilla セディーユアクセント [ ç ] (“c” pronounced is “s” rather than “k”)

circumflex サーカムフレックスアクセント [ ˆ ] (indicates an omitted “s”)

diereses; umlaut ダイエレッス・ウムライト [ ¨ ] (vowel is pronounced separately)

grave accent グラーブアクセント [ ` ] (vowel is pronounced; vowel is stressed)

macron 長音符号・マクロン [ ˉ ] (vowel is lengthened; “m” or “n” is omitted)

tilde 波ダッシュ・チルダ [ ~ ] (“n” is palatalized)

Everyday Symbols - 日常記号ampersand アンパサンド・アンドマーク [ & ]

angle brackets 山括弧 [ < ] ; [ > ]

apostrophe 省略符号・アポストロフィ [ ’ ]

arrow mark 矢印 [ → ]

asterisk 星印・アスタリスク [ * ]

commercial at; at symbol 単価記号・アットマーク [ @ ]

backslash 逆斜線・バックスラッシュ [ / ]

brace 波括弧・ブレース [ { ] ; [ } ]

bracket 角括弧・ブラケット [ [ ] ; [ ] ]

caret 脱字記号・キャレット [ ^ ]

colon 重点・コロン [ : ]

comma 読点・コンマ [ , ]

ellipsis points 省略符号 [ … ]

em dash M ダッシュ　 [ — ]en dash N ダッシュ [ - ]

exclamation mark 感嘆符・エクスクラメーション [ ! ]

hyphen 連字符・ハイフン [ - ]

number, pound, or hash sign 番号記号・井げた・ナンバー [ # ]

parenthesis 丸括弧・括弧・パーレン [ ( ] ; [ ) ]

percent sign パーセント記号 [ % ]

period; full stop 終止符・句点・ピリオド [ . ]

question mark 疑問符・クエスチョンマーク [ ? ]

quotation mark 引用符・コーテーションマーク [ “ ] ; [ ” ]

semicolon セミコロン [ ; ]

solidus; slash 斜線・スラッシュ [ / ]

underscore 下線・アンダースコア [ _ ]

Uncommon Symbols - 偶々記号Cent sign セント記号 [ ¢ ]

Centigrade symbol 摂氏記号・セ氏記号 [ °C ]

copyright mark 著作権マーク [ © ]

dagger ダガー [ † ]

Dollar sign ドル記号 [ $ ]

double dagger ダブルダガー [ ‡ ]

Fahrenheit symbol 華氏記号・カ氏記号 [ °F ]

feminine symbol 雌記号 [ ♀ ]

flat フラット [ ♭ ]

masculine symbol 雄記号 [ ♂ ]

minutes, feet 分 [ ’ ]

music note 音符 [ ♪ ]

paragraph symbol 段落記号 [ ¶ ]seconds, inches 秒 [ ” ]

sectional mark 節記号・章標・セクション [ § ]

sharp シャープ [ ♯ ]

vertical line 縦線・縦棒 [ | ]

Mathematic and Logic Symbols - 数学記号・論理記号addition (plus) sign 加算記号・正号・プラス [ + ]

angle 角・アングル [ ]∠

approximate sign おおよそ [ ≈ ] ; [ ]≒

decimal point 小数点 [ . ]

degree sign 度 [ ° ]

division sign 除算機構・徐号 [ ÷ ]

equal sign 等号・等しい・イコール [ = ]

greater-than sign 大なり・より大きい [ > ]

greater-than-or-equal-to sign 以上・より大きい又は等しい [ ≥ ]

inequality sign 不等号 [ ] ; [≤ ] ; [ < ] ; [ ≠ ] ; [ ≈ ] ; [ ] ; [ ≥ ] ; [ > ] ;≪ ≒ [ ]≫

integral sign 積分記号・インテグラル [ ∫ ]

is parallel to 平行 [ ∥ ]

is perpendicular to 垂直 [ ]⊥

lemniscate; infinity sign 連珠記号・無限大 [ ∞ ]

less-than sign 小なり・より小さい [ < ]

less-than-or-equal-to sign 以下・より小さい又は等しい [ ≤ ]

much-greater-than sign 非常に大きい [ ]≫

much-less-than sign 非常に小さい [ ]≪

multiplication sign 乗算記号・乗号・バツ [ × ]

negative sign 負号 [ - ]

not-equal-to sign 等号否定号・ノットイコール [ ≠ ]

pi パイ [ π ]

plus-or-minus sign 加減算記号・プラスマイナス [ ± ]

root symbol 根号・ルート [ √ ]

subtraction (minus) sign 減算記号・減(負符)号・マイナス [ - ]

* * * * *

because なぜならば [ ]∵

congruence 合同・常に等しい [ ≡ ]

for all 普通限定子・すべての [ ]∀

if and only if (iff) 同値 [ ⇔ ]

if… then… 含意・ならば [ ]⇒

is proportional to 比例 [ ]∝

is similar to 相似 [ ]∽

there exists 存在限定子 　 [ ]∃

therefore 故に [ ]∴

Parts of Speech - 品詞分類 the categories to which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions

Noun - 名詞a word or words (other than a pronoun) identifying people, places, things, and ideas,

or naming a particular one of them

common noun 普通名詞 a noun used for a class of objects or a concept

proper noun 固有名詞 a noun used for an individual person, place, or thing; requires a capital letter

concrete noun 具象名詞 a noun that denotes something material or tangible

abstract noun 抽象名詞 a noun that denotes some concept or something intangible

compound noun 複合名詞 a noun that consists of more than one lemma

collective noun 集合名詞 a countable noun that denotes a group

countable noun 不可算名詞 a common noun that can be modified by a numeral, occurs in both singular and plural forms, and accepts articles and other determiners

non-countable noun 不可算名詞 a common noun that can’t be modified by a numeral, doesn’t occur in singular and plural forms, and doesn’t accept articles or other determiners

singular noun 単数名詞 a noun in its singular form

plural noun 複数名詞 a noun in its plural form

Pronoun - 代名詞a word or form substituted for a noun or a noun phrase

personal pronouns 人称代名詞 pronouns associated with a grammatical person (1st, 2nd, 3rd form)

1st person form 一人称 the speaker

2nd person form 二人称 the addressee

3rd person form 三人称 a third party

nominative case pronouns 主格 the category of pronouns that serve as the grammatical subject (I)

oblique case pronouns 斜格・目的格 the category of pronouns that serve as the grammatical object (a combination of the accusative case (object of a transitive verb) and the dative case (object of an intransitive verb; giving) ) (me)

reflexive case pronouns 再帰格 the category of pronouns that are preceded by their antecedents within the same clause (myself)

possessive determiners 所有格 the category of determiners that modify nouns by attributing possession (my)

possessive pronouns 所有代名詞 the category of pronouns that indicate possession (mine)

demonstrative pronouns 指示代名詞 the category of pronouns that point out a referent (this, that, these, those)

expletive pronouns 形式代名詞 the category of pronouns that function in a syntactic context, rather than a semantic one (ex. It is sunny today. ; There is a desk.)

interrogative pronouns 疑問代名詞 the category of pronouns that ask which referent is meant (what, which, who, whom, whose)

relative pronouns 関係代名詞 the category of pronouns that refer back to a previously mentioned referent (that, which, who, whom, whose)

indefinite pronouns 否定代名詞 the category of pronouns that refer to a general referent (ex. no one, everyone, someone, anyone, one)

Verb - 動詞a word or phrase describing an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the predicate of a

sentence; denotes gender, person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and voice

finite verb 定動詞 an inflected verb

non-finite verb 非定動詞 a non-inflected verb

full infinitive verb 不定詞 the infinite form of a verb with “to”

bare infinitive verb 原形不定詞 the infinite form of a verb without “to”

lexical verb 動詞 all verbs except for auxiliary verbs

auxiliary verb 助動詞 a verb that is used in forming and expressing the tenses, aspects,

modalities, moods, and voices of other lexical verbs (the most important for tense are: be, do, and have)

transitive verb 他動詞 a verb that requires an object

intransitive verb 自動詞 a verb that does not require an object

dynamic verb 動態動詞 a verb that asserts that one of its arguments shows progressiveaction; they have defined duration (ex. go, play, eat, etc.)

stative verb 状態動詞 a verb that asserts that one of its arguments has a particular property; they have undefined duration (ex. be, know, feel, etc.)

regular verb 規則動詞 a verb whose conjugation follows typical grammatical inflections

irregular verb 不規則動詞 a verb whose conjugation doesn’t follow typical grammatical inflections

copula verb 連結詞 a word (verb) used to link the subject of a sentence with its predicate

phrasal verb 句動詞 a verb consisting of another element, usually an adverb or preposition (ex. break down, cut up, go out, etc.)

base form 原形 1st verb form; the uninflected form of the verb

past simple tense 過去形 2nd verb form; the past simple inflected form of the verb

past participle 過去分詞 3rd verb form; the form of a verb that used in forming the perfect and passive tenses and sometimes as an adjective

present participle 現在分詞 4th verb form; the form of a verb used in forming thecontinuous tenses and sometimes as an adjective

3rd person singular present 三人称単数現在 when one adds an “s” to the end of the verb in the 3rd person singular present tense

conjugate 活用する to inflect a verb

contraction 短縮形 the contracted form of two or more words

gerund 動名詞 a derived form of a verb that functions as a noun

Adjective - 形容詞a word or phrase naming an attribute and used to modify or describe a noun

(order by: size, age, color, material)

* adjectives come before a noun; multiple coordinate (equal) adjectives require separation by commas

* if an adjective list ends with a coordinate conjunction it diverts focus from the adjective to the modified element

coordinate adjective 同級形容詞 adjectives that modify the same noun (are of equal rank)

cumulative adjective 累積形容詞 adjectives that appear together, but modify different elements (are of unequal rank)

base degree 原級 the uninflected form of the adjective

comparative degree 比較級 a syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison between entities or groups of quality, quantity, or degree (if more than two syllables add “less / more”)

superlative degree 最上級 a syntactic construction that serves to express a degree that is greater than any other possible degree of the given descriptor(if more than three syllables add “least / most”)

Determiner - 限定詞a word or phrase determining the kind of reference a noun phrase has

* determiners are a relatively new part of speech; overlap exists between determiners, pronouns, and adjectives

* some countable nouns can be treated as non-countable, taking a preposition instead of an article

indefinite article 不定冠詞 an article that introduces a noun phrase and implies that the reference is nonspecific; used only with singular, countable nouns (a, an)

definite article 定冠詞 an article that introduces a noun phrase and implies that the reference has already been mentioned, is about to be defined, is unique, or is common knowledge (the)

zero article 無冠詞 the absence of an article in a noun phrase and implies that the reference is general, indefinite, or proper (ex. Coffee ispopular. ; I like cats. ; I am John.)

quantifier 数量詞 a determiner that quantifies a noun phrase (ex. some, little / few, much / many, a lot of, etc.)

Adverb - 副詞a word or phrase naming an attribute and used to modify or describe a verb, adjective, adverb, or phrase

(main types: manner, place, time, degree, frequency, attitude / comment, linking, viewpoint, restrictive / additive) (order by: place, manner, time)

* most adverbs are generally placed after the object of a transitive verb or immediately after an intransitive verb

* adverbs of frequency are placed between the subject and the verb, or between the auxiliary verb and the finite verb

base degree 原級 the uninflected form of the adverb

comparative degree 比較級 a syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison between entities or groups of quality, quantity, or degree (if more than two syllables add “less / more”)

superlative degree 最上級 a syntactic construction that serves to express a degree that is greater than any other possible degree of the given descriptor(if more than three syllables add “least / most”)

Preposition - 前置詞a word or words forming a complement with a noun phrase and expressing a relation to another element in the clause

adposition 接置詞 a general term for prepositions, postpositions, etc.

preposition 前置詞 a word or morpheme placed before the noun phrase it governs

postposition 後置詞 a word or morpheme placed after the noun phrase it governs

particle 助詞 a catch-all term for non-inflectable lexemes that encode grammar

Conjunction - 感嘆詞a word or words connecting sentences or clauses and coordinating words in the same clause

coordinating conjunction 等位接続詞 a conjunction placed between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank (and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet)

correlative conjunction 相関接続詞 a conjunction, similar to a coordinating conjunction, where an additional element appears before the first of the items being linked (both…and, not…but, either…or, neither…nor)

subordinate conjunction 従属接続詞 a conjunction relating clauses; they make the clause in which they appear into a dependent (subordinate) clause (ex. after, before, since, until, because, in order for, although, though, whereas, if, even if, that, where, when, why, how, whether, etc.)

Interjection - 感嘆詞a word or phrase making an exclamation

Um… Cheers!

Functions of English - 英語の機能

Tense - 時制the grammar of time

past 過去形 the concept of beforepresent 現在形 the concept of nowfuture 未来形 the concept of after

Aspect - 様相the movement of time

indefinite (simple) 無期相 (形) discrete timeprogressive (continuous) 進行相 (形) on-going discrete timeperfect 完了相 (形) action spanning tenses, duration, and course; and facts and results perfect progressive 完了進行相 (形) on-going, perfect aspecthabitual (imperfect) 半過去相 (形) actions done regularly (English does not have this aspect)

Modality - 叙法性the attitude of the speaker

auxiliary verbs 助動詞 can / could; shall / should; will / would; may / might; must / mote; be able to, about to

causative verbs 使役動詞 get, have, let, makehabitual 常習 keep, used to, wouldintensive 強調 doinversion 倒置法 benecessity 必要性 get to, have to, had better, need to, ought to volitional 意志 let, dare - etc. (等)

Mood - 用法the expression of modality

indicative 直説法 normal timeconditional 条件法 “if” statementssubjunctive 仮定法 counterfactuals, desires, dreams, doubts, hypotheses, necessity,

purpose, similar ideas, suggestion, and wishesimperative 命令法 commandsinfinitive 不定法 verb lemma

Voice - 態the relationship between the subject and action

* the passive voice always requires the past participle of the finite verb

active 能動態 the subject undertakes the action I see him.passive 受動態 the action is being received by the subject He is seen (by me).

English Verb Conjugations - 英語の動詞活用the 24 “basic” tenses (depending on the definition of tense), plus the conditional mood and the subjunctive mood

The Past Tense - 過去形4 Conjugations

past simple 過去 I spoke.

used for: asking about time, past actions with a given time, definite past actions without a given time

past perfect (pluperfect) 過去完了・大過去 I had spoken.

used for: past actions that occurred before other actions in the past; “the past in the past”

past progressive 過去進行 I was speaking.

used for: describing the past, past actions in progress, past developing situations, interrupted past actions

past perfect progressive 過去完了進行 I had been speaking.

used for: describing longer actions or situations in the past that had been going on continuously up to the past reference time (may or may not have continued)

The Present Tense - 現在形4 Conjugations

present simple 現在 I speak.

used for: commentaries, directions / instructions, facts, habits, present stories

present perfect 現在完了 I have spoken.

used for: general experiences (経験用法), completed past actions carried out in an unfinished time period at

utterance (完了用法), describing something that began in the past and is still true at utterance (may or may not continue) (結果用法), describing past actions with present results (結果用法) (“for” for periods, “since” for points of time) (“been” implies finished, “gone” implies unfinished)

present progressive 現在進行 I am speaking.

used for: actions in progress at utterance, developing situations, frequent or regular actions, temporary actions

present perfect progressive 現在完了進行 I have been speaking.

* with the present perfect progressive, the emphasis is on the action or activity, not the result or completed action

used for: describing an incomplete and ongoing activity (likely to continue), describing a recently completed and uninterrupted activity with present results

ex:* I’ve eaten three cakes today. (present progressive)

* I’ve been eating cakes today. (present perfect progressive)The Future I Tense - 未来形 I

4 Conjugations

* other modal verbs such as “shall” or “may” can be used in place of “will”, changing the meaning slightly

future I simple 未来 I I will speak.

used for: future facts and certainties, spontaneous decisions at utterance, assumptions or speculations, promises, predictions not based on evidence, threats

future I perfect 未来完了 I I will have spoken.

used for: actions that will have been done, completed, or achieved at some point in the future; “the past in the future”

future I progressive 未来進行 I I will be speaking.

used for: future actions that will be in progress, predicting the present, polite inquiries (non-influencing), referring to future events that are fixed or decided

future perfect I progressive 未来完了進行 I I will have been speaking.

used for: describing how long something will have been continuing by a certain time (usually uses “by”)

The Future II Tense - 未来形 II 4 Conjugations

* the large difference between “will” and “be going to” is one of intention; “be going to” is used to express fore-thought or intention, decisions made before utterance, and predictions based on evidence

future II simple 未来 II I am going to speak.

future II perfect 未来完了 II I am going to have spoken.

future II progressive 未来進行 II I am going to be speaking.

future II perfect progressive 未来完了進行 II I am going to have been speaking.

* the present simple tense and the present progressive tense can also be used to express future tense

ex.* I leave tomorrow. (present simple) used for: formal situations, impersonal tone,

timetables and schedules

* I’m leaving tomorrow. (present progressive) used for: definite arrangements, decisions without a time frame

The Past-Future I & II - 過去未来形 I & II 8 Conjugations

* other modal verbs such as “should” or “might” can be used in place of “would”, changing the meaning slightly

* the usages of the past-future tenses mirror those written above for the future I and future II tenses; the difference between “would” and “was / were going to” mirrors the difference between “will” and “be going to”

past-future I simple 過去未来 I I would speak.

past-future I perfect 過去未来完了 I I would have spoken.

past-future I progressive 過去未来進行 I I would be speaking.

past-future I perfect progressive 過去未来完了進行 I I would have been speaking.

* * * * *

past-future II simple 過去未来 II I was going to speak.

past-future II perfect 過去未来完了 II I was going to have spoken.

past-future II progressive 過去未来進行 II I was going to be speaking.

past-future II perfect progressive 過去未来完了進行 III was going to have been speaking.

used for: expressing the idea that, from a past perspective, something would happen in the future; “the future in the past”

The Conditional Mood - 条件法Terminology - 術語protasis 条件節・前提 a clause containing the condition in the

conditional mood (a type of dependent clause)

apodosis 後件節・帰結 a clause containing the consequence in theconditional mood (a type of independent clause)

implicative sentence 含蓄文章 a factual conditional sentence (realis / 事実仮想)

predictive sentence 予言文章 a hypothetical, but possible, conditional sentence (仮定仮想)

speculative sentence 推測文章 a counterfactual conditional sentence (irrealis / 反実仮想)

Sentence Patterns - 文型* other modal verbs can be used in place of “will” and “would”

zero conditional if/when + present tense, present tense If I eat, I die. ; When I eat, I die.

used for: actions and facts that are irrefutable; “if” and “when” can be used interchangeably (other mixes are possible, though less common; ex. “If the alarm activated, a fire burned somewhere.” )

first conditional if + present tense, will + [ ~ ] If I eat, I will die.

used for: situations in the present and future that are possible, certain, or probable, once the condition has been satisfied

second conditional if + past simple, would + [ ~ ] If I ate, I would die.

used for: present or future “un-reals” (counterfactuals / hypotheticals) that are presently not true and unlikely ever to be true (often the subjunctive mood is used to express this sentiment)

third conditional if + past perfect, would + past perfect If I had eaten, I would have died.

used for: hypothetical past actions or non-actions and their hypothetical past consequences or results (often the subjunctive mood is used to express this sentiment)

mixed conditional (3rd / 2nd ) if + past perfect, would + [ ~ ] If I had eaten, I would die

used for: hypothetical past actions or non-actions and their hypothetical present consequences or results (often the subjunctive mood is used to express this sentiment) (other mixes are possible, though lesscommon)

* modals are generally not found in the protasis, but this is possible; generally they would act in a modal-based, rather than tense-based, context

ex.* If the aspirins will cure it, I’ll take a couple tonight. (first conditional, will as the future I tense)

* If you will excuse me, I must be leaving now. (first conditional, will as function of volition)The Subjunctive Mood - 仮定法

* The subjunctive is generally used in the aforementioned second, third, and mixed conditionals in formal (written), archaic, proverbial, etc., contexts; multiple tenses and aspects are possible

* The subjunctive can often undergo inversion when, in other moods, inversion would otherwise be grammatically impermissible

ex.

I recommend that they not enter. (present simple, negative, 1st person)

It is important that he have completed it. (present perfect, affirmative, 3rd person)

God save the queen. (present simple, affirmative, 3rd person imperative)

Be they friend or foe… (present simple, affirmative, 3rd person inversion)

If I were rich, I would be happy. (‘past’ simple, affirmative, 1st person)

Were I rich, I would be happy. (‘past’ simple, affirmative, 1st person inversion)

If I had sung a song, I would have been happy. (‘past’ perfect, affirmative, 1st person)

Had I sung a song, I would have been happy. (‘past’ perfect, affirmative, 1st person inversion)

If it should be sunny later, I would be happy. (future simple, affirmative, 3rd person)

Timeline of Perfect Tense Usage - 英語の「完了形」利用仕方タイムライン表

* Think of the row as some “point in time” - some reference. Is the story happening in the present, past, or future?

* Think of the column as some “event” - relative to the “point in time.” Is the event happening at the point in time, before the point in time, or after the point in time?

Simple Tenses - 無期形past reference time

(過去参照時刻)present reference time

(現在参照時刻)future reference time

(未来参照時刻)

event before reference time

(過去参照事象)

(anterior / より前)

I had spoken. I have spoken.I will have spoken.

I am going to have spoken.

event at reference time

(現在参照事象)

(simultaneous / 同時)

I spoke. I speak.I will speak.

I am going to speak.

event after reference time

(未来参照事象)

(posterior / より後)

I would have spoken.

I was going to have spoken.

I would speak.

I was going to speak.

I will speak.

I am going to speak.

I will speak.

I am going to speak.

Progressive Tenses - 進行形past reference time

(過去参照時刻)present reference time

(現在参照時刻)future reference time

(未来参照時刻)

event before reference time

(過去参照事象)

(anterior / より前)

I had been speaking. I have been speaking.I will have been speaking.

I am going to have been speaking.

event at reference time

(現在参照事象)

(simultaneous / 同時)

I was speaking. I am speaking.I will be speaking.

I am going to be speaking.

event after reference time

(未来参照事象)

(posterior / より後)

I would have been speaking.

I was going to have been speaking.

I would be speaking.

I was going to be speaking.

I will be speaking.

I am going to be speaking.

I will be speaking.

I am going to be speaking.

Speech - 弁舌

direct speech 直接話法 the reporting of speech by repeating the actual words of the speaker (ex. He said, “I’m going.”)

indirect speech 間接話法 the reporting of speech without explicitly repeating the actual words of the speaker (ex. He said that he was going.)

subject-verb agreement 主語と動詞の一致 consistency in a clause between the subject and finite verb of the predicate according to gender, person, number, and tense

backshifting バックシフト the changing of the tense of a verb (one tense back) in reportedspeech (in addition, “here” becomes “there”, “this” becomes “that”, and “these” becomes “those”; time expressions also undergo backshifting (ex. “today” becomes “that day”)

Indirect Statement - 間接平叙文A) “Are you going?” (original sentence, present progressive)

B) He asked, “Are you going?” (direct speech, present progressive)

C1) He asked if he was going. (indirect speech, present progressive)

C2) He asked whether he was going. (indirect speech, present progressive)

* indirect statements undergo backshifting and require the inclusion of ‘”if” or “whether”; the subject and verb must agree

Indirect Question - 間接疑問文A) “How are you going?” (original sentence, present progressive)

B) He asked, “How are you going?” (direct speech, present progressive)

C) He asked how he was going. (indirect speech, present progressive)

* indirect questions undergo backshifting and retain their interrogative word; the subject and verb must agree

Backshifting Table - バックシフト一覧past simple ⇒ past perfect

past perfect ⇒ past perfect

past progressive ⇒ past perfect progressive

past perfect progressive ⇒ past perfect progressive

* * * * *

present simple ⇒ past simple

present perfect ⇒ past perfect

present progressive ⇒ past progressive

present perfect progressive ⇒ past perfect progressive

* * * * *future I simple ⇒ past-future I simple

future I perfect ⇒ past-future I perfect

future I progressive ⇒ past-future I progressive

future I perfect progressive ⇒ past-future I progressive

* * * * *

future II simple ⇒ past-future II simple

future II perfect ⇒ past-future II perfect

future II progressive ⇒ past-future II progressive

future II perfect progressive ⇒ past-future II progressive

* * * * *

past-future I simple ⇒ past-future I perfect

past-future I perfect ⇒ past-future I perfect

past-future I progressive ⇒ past-future I perfect progressive

past-future I perfect progressive ⇒ past-future I progressive

* * * * *

past-future II simple ⇒ past-future II perfect

past-future II perfect ⇒ past-future II perfect

past-future II progressive ⇒ past-future II perfect progressive

past-future II perfect progressive ⇒ past-future II progressive