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The Psychophysiology of FreedomAuthor(s): Jos M. R. DelgadoSource: Political Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun., 1983), pp. 355-374Published by: International Society of Political PsychologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3790945 .

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Political Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1983

The ForumThe Psychophysiology of FreedomJose M. R. Delgado1Presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the International Society of Political Psychology,University of Mannheim, Mannheim, WestGermany, June 24-27, 1981

Personal freedom is not inherited nor is it a gift of Nature. It is a mentalfunction which must be acquired through training and learning. Since thehuman brain is very immature at birth, lacking the anatomical andphysiological elements prerequisite for mentalfunctions, the mind does notyet exist at the moment of birth. Freedom is an aspect of mental activityrequiring reception of information, internalprocessing of data, and outputof behavioral manifestations. Thus, freedom may be curtailed by (I)privation or distortion of information, (2) alteration of intracerebralprocessing, or (3) inhibition of expression due to environmental factorssuch as coercion and punishment. Freedom involves learning of intellectualskills. The degree of freedom attained will be directly related to the amountof effective training-or behavioral control-provided by those in charge ofeducation. Freedom may be considered a general purpose cerebralmechanism which increases the number and quality of available behavioraloptions. Human dignity, self-realization, happiness, and personal freedomare products of mental activity which should have priority in presenteducational systems.KEYWORDS: reedom;politicalbehavior;peaceandwar;aggressive ehavior;neurologicalmechanisms.

'DepartamentoeInvestigaci6n,Centro"Ram6n Cajal,"Madrid 4, Spain.355

0162-895X/83/0600-0355$03.00/1 ? 1983 InternationalSociety of Political Psychology

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INTRODUCTIONFreedomhas been theemotional lagof manybattlesandis oneof the

most cherishedprivilegesof man. Definitionsof freedomand pathsto itsrealizationare controversial,however,and socialconsequencesand limitsare also continuouslydebated.Economic, ideological, and ethical issuesmay be interpretedn differentways, and some essentialelementsarenotgivenadequateattention.Understandingof the many theoretical and practical aspects offreedom could be clarifiedby studyingtheir relatedpsychophysiologicalmechanisms,and this is the purposeof the presentpaper.Human behaviormay be consideredas observablephenomenapro-ducedbyan"unknown lackbox,"a brain,orpreferablywemaytryto cor-relate behavioralmanifestationswith specific neurologicalmechanisms.There are already importanttrends in this directionand, for example,Davies(1976)hasdiscussed hechemistry f thebrain n relationwithpossi-ble explanations or politicalbehavior.As Tinbergen 1969)predicted,"Ascientificunderstandingf ourbehavior, eading o its control,maywellbethe most urgent ask that facesmankind oday."The study of neurologicalmechanismsof aggressivebehavior inanimalsand man has implications or the understanding f war andpeacein human societies (N.A.T.O. Conference, 1980). At present onlyabout 5% of the population s involvedin solvingthe problemsof ourcivilization,and they usuallytalk to each other.Science s responsible orthe socialproductionof knowledge.Politicianmust workwithscientists oorganize,support,and disseminate nformation o the generalpublic.Recentadvances n psychophysiologymodifythe traditional onceptsof personal reedomandresponsibility.The individualdoesnot controlhis

own genes, liver functions,or the synaptic inkagesof his neurons. Mostessentialaspectsof ourbiologyarebeyondpersonalawareness nd control.At the same time, proceduresare being developedwhich allow surgical,chemical, electrical,and psychologicalmodificationsof the brain. Manybenefits,as wellas risks,derivefromthese facts. Theimplicationsof scien-tific advances must be discussedopenly, and as proposedin this paper,democratization f psychologicalknowledgewillgiveeach individuala bet-terunderstandingf hisownpersonality, erebralmechanisms,basicneeds,andattitudes.As statedby Roe (1959),"Youcannotbe easily manipulatedif you know more aboutyourself than the would-bemanipulatordoes."We are immersedn a new scientificage of microelectronics, tomicpower,outerspaceexploration,and an informationexplosionwhich haverevolutionizedpresentcivilization.Unfortunatelywe have acquiredhugeamountsof powerbutnot thewisdom o useit intelligently,and we are suf-feringcrisesof values and technologywhich are threatening he environ-mentand the veryexistenceof the human race.

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ThePsychophysiologyf FreedomA biological understandingof reality should diminishtoday's con-flicts. Studyof the brain,whichis the humanpowercenter,may providenew solutions n agreementwithman's imitationsandoptionsfor develop-

ment.The mainpsychologicalssue is not to discoverdormantpotentialsofour neuronsbut to developanduse existingcerebralqualities.Thegoal offuture civilizationshould be balance betweenmaterialprogressand per-sonalhappiness,proposingnewalternativesor the biologicalmeaningandpurposeof human ife. This orientationdoes not ignorethe importanceofeconomic,political, philosophical,andotheraspectsof life, butmay clarifythe neurologicalmechanismswhich are not taken into considerationbyotherdisciplines.Bloodchemistrys similar n individuals romdifferentcountries.An-tibiotics are used effectivelyby most people. The brain has comparablepotentialsin healthyhuman babies from white, black, and yellow races,poorandrichfamilies,andeverycornerof theworldregardlessf climateorpolitical deology.Darwin's urvivalof the fittest,Marx'classstruggle,andFreud'sprevalenceof the unconsciousarenot unavoidabledeterminationsof humanbehavior,because heycan be decisivelymodifiedby appropriatementalstructuring.ConfrontationsbetweenEast and West, MarxismandLiberalism,Arabs and Jews have historicalreasonsbutno biologicalbases.Theseantagonismshave been createdbythe humanbrainandcouldbesolv-ed by the wiser brainsof futureman.Establishment f individualand socialpurposesdependson learningsets of values. These values must be createdby the collective mindof thespecies.Theymustbe flexibleenoughto encompassculturaldiversityandmultiplicityof personal options with a minimumof individualand socialconflicts. Thegradualhumanization f futurepsychocivilizedman must bedirectedby intelligentchoiceswith plansand purposes hancan be sharedby all mankind,becauseall sharesimilarbasicneurologicalmechanisms.Humanbeings may be consideredas temporalcentersof transactionandreorganization f matter,energy,andinformationprovidedby the en-vironment.Thereciprocal elationsof individuals, hehumanrace,and thecosmoscomprisea unidirectional rocess n continual,dynamicevolution.Each person is physiological dependenton a constant influx of sensorystimuli:we cannotfunctionin sensory solation.Personalobjectivesmust, therefore,be integratedwiththe objectivesof society.Possibleantagonismsbetween ndividualand socialgoalsrequiresolutions ntegratingbothcomponentsas complementary spectsof mentalactivity. Individualexistencemay be evaluatedin terms of the dynamiccharacteristicsf themindwhichare not isolatedbut forman evolutivecon-tinuum withmanyotherminds.Thus,one of the purposesof life maybe the integrationof individualand social evolution.The productsof mentalactivities ranscendpersonallife, contributingo a lesserorgreaterdegree o the transferof information

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from the past to the future. Mortalitytakes on new significance f in-dividuals onsider hemselvesas torchbearersf culture o betransmittedoother generations.Personal materialcarriersof flesh, bones, and brainshave a limiteddurationof usually ess than 100years,whilesymbols, deas,and creationsmaybe individualcontributionso futuremankind.

THE MEANING OF FREEDOMWebster'sdictionary 1960)definesfreedom as "thestatusof the will

as an uncausedcauseof humanactions,"equatedwith self-determinationand spiritualself-fulfillment;"liberation rom slavery, imprisonmentorrestraint."Thisdefinition s unsatisfactory s it is doubtfulthatanyhumanaction could exist "uncaused," nd the will is considereda mysteriousandindependent ntity.A more satisfactorydefinition is that of Schroderet al. (1971),whoregard reedomas "theabilityof a personto producehis own conceptions,to generatealternativeand conflicting conceptions, to think and valuein terms of multiple perspectives,and to define one's identity and hisrelation to others on the basis of these self-generatingconceptions ofthe world." Definitionsby other authorsalso stress freedomof thought,the importance of the "Self," and "determinism from within ... bythe combinedeffectsof his ownthoughts,his own reasoning,his own feel-ings, his own beliefs, idealsandhopes"(Sperry,1965).In generalthe existenceof an independentSelf is acceptedwithoutquestioningts origin,elements,or mechanisms.We may supposethat theadultmindhasa personal dentitycapableof thought,decisionmaking,andself-determination. hisidentity,however,doesnotemergeby spontaneousgenerationnor is it preestablishedn the fecundatedovum. The Self is acontinuously evolving dynamic entity, the product of many geneticpossibilitiesmost of them unfulfilled and only a smallnumberdevelopedunderthe influenceof environmental ircumstances.The adultmay enjoy"freedomof speech,"but his rangeof verbalexpressionwilldependon ex-perience on whatlanguagehe hasbeentaughtand whatvocabularyhehasassimilated.A man'sconcepts and reactivityare also shapedin part bylanguage,andby studyinghis accentand choiceof words,expertscaniden-tify the precisegeographicalocation where the speakergrewup, just asothers can identifythe vineyardswheredifferentwinesoriginated.Thisin-itial imprintingmay be modified laterwith propertraining,and one mayovercomeone'soriginalaccentand learnotherlanguages.

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The Psychophysiology of FreedomINTRINSICOR ACQUIREDFREEDOM

The differentconceptsof man, his potential, dignity,and individualworth are reflectedin the two basic kinds of governmentswhichcontrolhim in the modernworld.As statedby the United StatesPresidentialCommitteeon CivilRights(1947),the central hemeof the Americanheritage s the importanceof theindividual.Everyhumanbeinghas an essentialdignityandintegritywhichmust be respectedand safeguarded.The welfare of the individual is thefinal goal of group life. The basic moral principleis that "all men arecreatedequal as well as free." Freedommeans "the right of a man tomanage his own affairs as he sees fit. . ." without interfering with similarrightsof others.In contrastto democraticphilosophy,totalitarian heory grantsnot"rights"but "privileges"o the individual n the interestof the welfareofsociety as "state"(fascism), "race"(national socialism), or "proletarianclass"(Russiancommunism).Liberalsvalue freedom n the interestof theindividual, while totalitarians allow freedom in the interest of society.The recognitionof human rights has an increasing political-andpractical-importance, being acceptedin theory by all civilizednations,althoughwith widelyvaryingdifferences n interpretation nd realization.Generally accepted principles include legal equality, elimination ofreligious, racial, sexual and other types of discrimination,equal oppor-tunities, and the individualright to freedom of thought and behavior.These commendableprinciplesrequire, however, an understandingoftheir biological bases and limitations in order to establish a realisticapproach ortheiraccomplishment.In a considerationof personalfreedomwe mayaskif it is an intrinsicpropertyof humannaturewhichin normalcircumstanceswill appearanddevelopspontaneously,or to thecontrary, f it is an optionwhich is not in-born, a possibilitywhichto be attainedrequires uitable raining.Thetwopositionsmay be summarized s follows:

IndividualsAre BornFreeand EqualThis statementassumesthe existenceat birthof an individualentityable to choose,capableof makingdecisions,withfreedomof behavioral x-pression.Form the beginningthere is a personalidentitywhich must berespected.The freemindmustnot beviolatedor interferedwithbyexternalpressures.In practical terms, noninterventionby parents or by societymeans refraining from influencing or distorting spontaneous self-

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expression.In the extreme,this positionleadsto totally permissive duca-tion: let the child express his "true"feelings, desires, and personality,avoiding the impositions of adults, protecting the individual frommassification ndallowinghim to be spontaneous, aturalandfree. Accord-ingto Marcuse1964),nner reedomdesignatesheprivate pace nwhichmanmay become and remain "himself."This private space is invaded andwhittleddown by technologicalreality.As discussedelsewhere Delgado,1969),many philosophers ncludingTeilhardde Chardin 1959)andOrtegay Gasset(1961)accepttheideaof a quasimythical,nviolableSelf, an entitysomehow identifiedwiththe individualmind, ego, or personalitywhich isrelated o the environment ut hasa rather ndependent xistence,a qualitywhichis givenat birth, like a soul.

To Be Free Requires Training and LearningThis position recognizes he "right o be free"as a desirableculturalagreementbut, based on recent neurophysiologicaland psychologicalstudies,deniesthathumanbeingsarebornfreeorequalandrejects he ideathat freedomwill appearspontaneouslyn the normalprocessof cerebraldevelopment.Theimportanceof thisposition s that wishfulthinkingorer-roneousbiologicalassumptionsmaybe detrimentalor the acquisitionanddevelopmentof freedom, while acceptanceof the need for trainingandlearningwillleadto effectiveeducationalmethods o facilitateheappearanceand elaborationof an option-free behavior-which is desirablefor theadult but nonexistentat birth.Freedom has traditionallybeen considereda spontaneousneed, anessentialpartof humanbeings.However,modernprocesspsychology An-drewsandKarlins,1971)doesnot treat freedomas a "given" bility"butasa skillwhichmayor maynot developdependingon the social conditions nwhich the individual s raised."Freedom s a variableand underthe sameconditions"onepersoncan be moreor less freethan another."Geneticdeterminationndfetaldevelopment ndowthe brainwith thecapacityto receivesensory inputs and to acquireexperience,but in theabsenceof inputsthe individualwill not learn.Behaviorwill be limitedtoautomatismsandthe personwill not developthe mentalfunctions o think

and act freely.At birththereis no capacityto think, to understand,or toselectenvironmentalensory nputs.Parentsand educatorsmust makeallthe initialchoiceswhich, in turn, will conditionthe establishment f per-sonal framesof referenceand adult individualreactivity.The brain andmind areshapedby early imprintingwhich will structurehe anatomyandphysiology of the neurons. Symbols, emotions, knowledge, skills, and

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ThePsychophysiologyf Freedommanyotheraspectsof mental functionsareacquiredor decisively nfluenc-ed by sensory nputs.This position leads logicallyto an authoritarian ducation: he childdoes not knowwhat is good or bad for him;he lacks the capacityand in-telligence o structurehis ownneurologicalmechanisms nd thereforemustbe directedfromthe outside. This direction, however,may havedifferentaims and may emphasizeobedience, shapingthe child to conform to apreconceived ole, or maystimulateand nurturehis own potentialfor self-expressionandpersonal reedom.Impositionof a setof rules o produceanobedientchildwhowillperformsettasks involvesbasic rewardandpunish-menttechniques,whileteachingof freedom nvolves"indepth"guidance nthe utilization of complex thought and projection of alternativesandevaluationof consequences.Thistypeof trainings muchmoredifficult,in-tricate, and time consuming,and representsa deeperintervention n in-dividualstructuring.Thus freedom involveslearningof intellectualskillsand the degreeof freedomattainedwill be directlyrelated o theamountofeffectivetraining-or behavioralcontrol-provided by those in chargeofeducation.An alternativeo the authoritarian ositionis to evaderesponsibility.Parentsmaydoubt theirabilityto make the bestchoices andmay prefer olet chanceimposeintellectualand behavioralsystemson the child. In thissituation,he will learnmainlyfrom friendsand fromthe social milieu. Inmodernsociety,a largepercentage f the educational xperiences not pro-videdby the familybut by state-or group-controlled ducationand massmediainformationand entertainment.

THESTRUCTURING FMENTALFUNCTIONSDuringfetal life, there is an anticipatorymorphologicalmaturationandimportant unctionsaredeveloped n orderto start as soon as needed.Whenthe babyis born, its heart s alreadybeatingandvital functionssuchas respiration,gastrointestinal ctivities,kidneyfiltration,mouthsuction,vasomotility, and temperatureregulationare triggeredimmediately.Inevery normalbaby these functionsare performedautomaticallywithoutprevious earning.The necessarymechanisms re prewiredn the brain and

in the organism.No comparable eady-to-triggerunctionsexist in the mentalsphere.The newborn s incapableof understanding ymbols,directingpurposefulmotorperformance,or producingspeech. It has no ideas, words,or con-cepts, no significantsensoryexperience,no culture.The 1-day-oldbaby isunableto comprehend he loving phrasesof his parents.

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Thushumanbeingsareborn withveryimmaturebrains Conel, 1947;Flechsig,1896;Jakob, 1943).Thehippocampus ndcerebellar ortexhaveonly 10 to 20% of theirpotentialneuronsand the restwill appear,undernormalconditions,after birth(Altman,1967).Experienceprovidedby sen-soryinputsfromthe environmentwill influencethe numberas well as thestructuralconnectionsof these postnatalcells. The microneuronsof thecerebellumalso develop after birth under the influence of the infant'sbehavioralactivities(Ramony Cajal, 1909-1911).Sensorystimulation sessential orneurochemical ndneuroanatomicalevelopment f thebrain.Thecorresponding euronsof animalsdeprivedof sightor hearingwill belike emptybags, impoverishedn both RNA and proteins(Hyden, 1961).Newbornratskept in information-deprivednvironmentshave diminishedcerebral ortexweight,lessenzymatic holinesterase ctivity,anddecreasedthicknessandvascularization f thecerebral ortex(Anderson t al., 1958).To be bornwith a veryimmaturebrainis a greatinitialhandicapre-quiringexternalhelpfor survivalandgrowth.At the sametime,the lackofmaturity ignificantlyncreases he numberof possibleoptionsfor learninganddevelopment ecausegrowthwillbeshapedbythe culturereceived. n afew yearsin an enrichedenvironment,a child may acquireconceptsandskills whichmankindformerlyneededcenturies o develop.Thispotentialfor learningrepresents potentialfor freedom.During infancy, there is a slow structuringof mental functionsdependingon thefollowingelements:1. The collectionof hereditary haracteristics ivento the individualby chance,withouthis knowledgeor consentand thereforewithouthis freechoice. Parental desires cannot intervene in selecting the geneticcharacteristics f ovum and spermatozoa,becausefertilization s an eventwhich escapescontrol. Even in artificialinsemination,we are providingmanythousandsof germinal ells, ignoring hegeneticcharacteristicsf theone whichwill be successful n fecundating he waitingovum.2. Nutrientsmust be providedby parentsor guardians,and a baby'sonly possiblereactionsare to rejecta very hot or cold liquid or to stopswallowingwhensatisfied.Withthe passageof time-weeks or months-signs of mental activity will slowly emerge and then food preferencesmaybe shown,whichto a greatextentwillbe determinedby the postnatalexperiencewhichinfluenced ndividual aste before any act of "free"willcould be expressed. Duringthis period, preferencesand capricesmay beshaped by associating positive or negative reinforcementwith specificfoods.3. Sensoryexperiences-optic, acoustic, tactile, and others-will bereceived,evokingresponses n the retina,ear, musclespindles,and otherreceptors.Lying n hiscrib,thebaby mayreactby closinghiseyesagainsta

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ThePsychophysiologyf Freedomstrong light or cryingin discomfort,but he cannotescapeor alter his cir-cumstances-he is helpless. Later on, he will graduallylearn to movearoundandto producearticulate peech,andthisprocessof humanizationwill excite his parentswho can watchthe developmentof their child as hegainsa normalrepertoire f behavior.The amountandqualitiesof a baby'sreactivitywill dependlargelyon earlyexperiencesgiven him by parentalcare and environmental hance.Thepotential o developabilitiesshouldnotbe confusedwith theirac-tual existence.Computershavetremendouspossibilitiesandmayreceivealargevarietyof informationand instructionsn orderto performcomplexoperations, but in the absence of suitable programming,the powerfulmachinewill remaindormant.The infantmay learnto process nformationandto select behavioralresponsesbut theseskills,like other mentalactivities,will not appearspon-taneouslyand must be taughtas partof the generalprocessof education.Behavioral reedomrequiresnormalityof mental functionsableto receivesensory nputsfrom the environment,o processand understandhe infor-mation,to evaluate t in comparisonwithpreviously toredexperiences, ndto choose a behavioral response among different recognized options.Withoutawareness,without he possibilityo decidebetweendifferentalter-natives,there is no freedom.We know very little about the supporting neurophysiologicalmechanisms,but somehow freedom is relatedto the normalityof con-sciousnessandtherefore o normalhypothalamic nd reticular unctions.Italso dependson memory storagein limbic structuresand preservationofforesightandresponsibilityn the frontallobes. On the otherhand,lesionsof thepyramidal ndextrapyramidalystemmaydisturbmotilitywithlittleor no accompanying nhibitionof thought processes,and destructive e-sions in the occipitalcortexmay induce blindnesswhileincurringminimalalterationsof manyaspectsof free behavior.Freedomcannotbe localizedin any specificbrain structurebecause the cerebralactivities nvolvedaremultipleand interrelated,but neuronalgroups may be classified are in-volvedorunrelated o behavioral reedom.Neuronal activities, which are essential elements in all behavioralphenomena, have known limitations depending on their physiologicalcharacteristics.Mentalfunctions aresupportedby nonspecificphenomenaof oxygenconsumption,electricaldischarges, nergy iberation,releaseanduptake of neurotransmitters,and many other complex activities. Thethinking process follows inescapable biological laws. The sequentialspatiotemporalcharacteristicsof thought and behavior are importantlimitations.Neuronaltraffic of signals occupies specific pathwaysstruc-tured to carryonly a few lines of communication,makinginstantcom-

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municationimpossible. A conversation must proceed with grammaticalcombinationof nouns, verbs, adjectives,and other elementsto expresschainsof ideas.Excessive peedordisorderntheflow of wordsorthoughtswill produceconfusion.For the performance f a task, manymuscleswillbe activated with determinedstrength, suitable coordination, and ap-propriatefeedbacks.Motor acts consume time and effort. Disorganizedcontractionsmay be observed, for example, in aimless epileptic fits.It should be emphasizedthat in a conversationwe seldom choosewordsandgrammaticalonstruction. deasflowthrougha seriesof phraseslinkedtogetherautomaticallyunder the commandof the subconsciousac-cording o previousexperience.Wemayuse the same stockphrases o covera multitudeof situations,dependingon the limitationsof ourvocabulary.Consciousfreedom s a trigger, ike an enzyme startingand speedingup automaticreactionsandcombinations. n the absenceof elements o becombined,withoutsuitableestablishedmechanisms, n the vacuumof thenewborn- or the unlearned- brain, freedom cannot be detected.Availablephysiologicaldatareject heprincipleof inviolability. n thefirstdaysafterbirth,mentalfunctionshave not yet appearedand thereforewecannot nvadeorviolatea nonexistent ntity.Theprinciple f inviolabili-ty should be rephrased,statingthat the innerspace of the brain is con-tinuouslybeing invadedthroughthe naturalportals of entry of sensoryreceptors.This incomingstreamof information s essentialfor the initialstructuring f thebrainandalso for its normal unctioning hroughout ife.In reality,whateverhappensor doesn'thappenwill influencecerebraldevelopment:undernourishment,verfeeding,neglect,or smotheringwithaffection.The elementsnecessary or cerebralorganizationmust be provid-ed by some source:(1) parentalorientatiori;2) social norms;or (3) purechance,which has no humanpurposeand is indifferent o individualsuc-cessor failure.Shelteringhe individual romexternal nfluenceswouldre-quiresensory solation which would be disastrous or neuronaland mentaldevelopment.

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL SUPPORT OF FREEDOMAs previously ndicated,freedom s an aspectof mental activitiesre-

quiring 1)receptionof information, 2) processingof the receivednforma-tion, and(3) outputof manifestations,ncludingperceptive,visceral,emo-tionaland behavioral esponses.Freedom s thereforenescapably elated othe cerebral eceptionandprocessingof informationandto behavioralex-pression.The organof freedom s not the heartor liver but the brain,andnormalityof its functions s an essentialrequirementor the existenceof a

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The Psychophysiology of Freedomfree mind.Theanencephalicbaby,comatosepatient,and anesthetizedper-son have limitedbrainfunctionsprecluding onsciousnessand choice.Thisnormalityrequiresphysiological upportof neuroanatomy, lec-trophysiology, and chemistry. Minor or drastic disturbancesof freebehavior may be related to anatomical and functional alterations ofcerebral structures.Neurological determinants,with their ethiological,diagnostic,and therapeuticproblems,deservemuchgreaterattentionthanthey presentlyreceive.In additionto a normalbrain,freedomrequiresadequatesensory n-puts. In the absenceof information hereareno possiblebehavioralalter-natives.Forexample,a person deprivedof news about the historyandpre-sentpoliticalsituationof Polandcannotform anopinionortakepart n anyaction related o thatcountry.Massmediasuppression nddistortionof in-formation are well-knownproceduresused to restrictfreedom of thoughtand behavior.Intracerebralrocessingof receiveddata is an essentialelementof themind: this is where the intrinsic neuronalmechanismsof freedom areestablished. The spatiotemporalassociation of inputs gives interrelatedmeaning o theenvironmentaleality.Thismeaning s not geneticallydeter-mined and does not exist"perse."It must be acquiredwithineach brainbypersonal experience. For example, repeated associations of the word"Mama"withtheopticalimageof a womanwillcreatea link in the infantilemind between hese acousticandoptic inputs,reinforcedbyotherinputsoffood, warmth, care, and affection. The relatedsensationsof pleasureaddemotionaltonesto theassociation.Inthisway, fast andautomaticprocess-ing of information s builtup inside the brain,and the sightof the motheris processedas rewarding,triggeringbehavioraloutputs of a smile andapproachingmovements.It is importanto emphasizehatthesephenomenadid not existbeforebirth, could not exist without direct individualexperience,and will belinkedto each otherby learningand conditioning,shapingautomaticandmostlyunconsciousresponses.This original mprintingmay be slightlyordrasticallymodified later on by associatedpositive or negative inputs;sometimesconflicts are createdbetweenestablishedmeaningandnewlyac-quiredexperiences uch as punishmentresultingfrom disagreementswiththemother.Thousandsof dailyinputswillprogressively e imprintedn themind, forming the frames of reference which allow each individualtounderstand, valuate,and reactto his environment.Throughexperience,neuronalmechanismsare shaped n preferentialwaysandfromthemanybehavioraloptions,onlya fewwillbe established.In this waythe brainmaybe structured or automaticobedienceor, alter-natively,for inquisitiveanalysisof data. Some clarificationsare in order:

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(1) As the individual deciding "Self' is formed by externalcultural elements,free choice is personal while its mental structuringis social. (2) The exerciseof free choice occupies brain pathways and involves cerebral chemistry,time, and mental effort. To facilitate human efficiency and productivity,we gradually learn to perform most activities automatically. In this way,decision making is liberated for use only in resolving important issues.After the intracerebralmechanism of freedom have been established,their expression may be modified or inhibited by environmental cir-cumstances including technology, economy, and social structure. For exam-ple, we may have dissident opinions which may be repressed for fear ofpunishment, or we may want to travel abroad but be prevented by lack ofmoney, transport, permission to emigrate, or other problems.The intracerebral mechanisms underlying thinking, feeling, andmotivation must be distinguished from the expression of free willmanifested in speech and action. The structure, mechanisms, and conse-quences are different in the two cases: one refers to the internal world ofthe mind while the other refers to interactions of the individual withhis environment.

FREEDOM AND AUTOMATISMS (THE BIOLOGICALLIMITS OF FREEDOM)Automatic mechanisms respond to preestablished roles. A thermostatwill switch on or off when the set temperature is reached. An airplane mayland without visibility, processing received information about altitude,velocity, and location, sending a variety of messages to regulate the thrustof the motors and position of the wings. A computer may receive, store,and process a huge amount of information, and provide a multitude ofresponses from mechanical actions to mathematical, ideological, and ar-tistic creations.The options of response in automatic mechanisms depend on (1)characteristics, number and quality of sensors; (2) speed and complexity ofinformation processing; and (3) number, location, and function of effec-tors. In the case of the thermostat, the mechanism is very simple: there isonly one sensor able to detect changes in temperature and only one

response: the closing of a contact. No processing of information is requiredand there are no options. Instrumental landing of an airplane requires pro-cessing of a tremendous quantity of information and the sending of a varie-ty of orders with fast feedbacks, adjusting the response to the changingsituation at every second. The final aim has, however, considerable rigidity:the plane is supposed to land at a precise location on the airstrip at a deter-mined speed, at known horizontal and vertical coordinates, and with aspecified angular position with respect to the ground.

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The Psychophysiology of FreedomMost visceral unctionsareregulatedby automaticmechanismswhichescape consciousness and voluntarycontrol. Blood pressure,heart rate,gastrointestinal ecretions,metabolicactivities,and manyother functions

are underthe influenceof the so-calledautonomic,vegetative,or involun-tarynervoussystem.We arenot awareof how our kidneysand liverwork,and cannotmodifyvoluntarilyour consumptionof oxygenor secretionofsex hormones.All theseprocesseshavecomplicated egulatorymechanismswhichproceedwith total automatism.In contrast,behavioralmanifestationsare consideredvoluntary; en-sationsareconsciouslyperceivedandwe maydemonstrateour freewillbystartingor stoppinga movementor conversation.Theseactions, however,should be analyzed n orderto understand heir free and automaticcom-ponents.So-calledwillful, free,or spontaneousbehaviordepends o a greatextenton preestablishedmechanisms, ome of them inborn and others ac-quired hrough earning.When a child takes his firststepsor whenan adultlearns a new skill like tennis, the initialmotor behavior s clumsyand re-quiresconsiderableattentionand effort in everydetail. Coordinationpro-gressively improves, unnecessary muscular tension diminishes, andmovements proceed with speed, economy, and elegance, withoutawareness.Acquisitionof a skill involvesthe automationof patternsof responseand the establishment f spatialand temporalsequencesof behavior.Thevoluntaryaspects of willful activity are the selection and purposeof aspecificact. Mostdetailsof complexmovementsandadaptation o chang-ingcircumstances reperformedautomatically.Wemay saythat theroleofthe will is mainly to triggerpreviously established mechanisms. Obviouslythe will is not responsible or the chemistryof muscularcontraction,theelectricalprocessesof neuraltransmission, r the intimateorganization f

responses.Thesephenomenadependon spindle discharges,cerebellarac-tivation, synaptic junctions, reciprocal inhibitions, and many othermechanisms,which arenot onlybeyondconsciousnessbut also beyondourpresentcomprehension.Theuniquenessof voluntarybehavior ies in its in-itial dependenceon the integrationof a vast numberof personalpast ex-periencesand presentreceptions.Volition is related to specific neuronal activity. It may be askedwhetherappropriate ensoryperceptionsor artificialelectricalstimulationcouldinduce heneuronalpools involved n decisionmakingand behavioralresponsesto dischargein a like manner. On the basis of experimentalfindings, it appearsthat voluntaryand electricaltriggeringcan activatecerebralmechanismsin a similar way. If spontaneousand electricallyevokedbehaviornvolveparticipation f the same set of cerebralareas,thenboth typesof behaviorshouldbe ableto interactby modifyingeachothers'inhibitoryand excitatory nfluences. This possibilityhas been provedex-perimentally.

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A clear example of algebraic summation of voluntary and evokedmotility was observed in one of our cats with electrodes implanted in the lefthidden motor cortex (Delgado, 1952). Electrical stimulation induced raisingof the right forepaw with proper postural adaptation. Offering of fish to theanimal resulted in a similar extension and raising of the limb in order toseize the food. Simultaneous presentation of the fish and stimulation of thecortex produced an augmented motor response: the cat miscalculated andovershot its target. It was unable to catch the food until it made a series ofcorrective adjustments, and then the fish was successfully caught and eaten.In addition to demonstrating the interrelation between evoked and spon-taneous responses, this experiment also proved that the animal was aware ofan artificial disturbance, and after a brief period of trial and error was ableto modify its performance accordingly.Reflexes are predictable responses, rigidly patterned, and blindly per-formed. Similarly, electrical excitation of a peripheral motor nerve in-duces a stereotyped movement with little adaptation to external cir-cumstances. In contrast, willful activity generally has a purpose, and its per-formance is adapted to attain a determined aim, requiring continuous pro-cessing of proprioceptive and exteroceptive sensory information, the use offeedback mechanisms, instantaneous readjustment of the central commandto adapt to changes in the environment, and prediction of the future whichinvolves spatiotemporal calculation of speed, direction, and strategies ofmoving targets. Depending on the location of cerebral stimulation,responses obtained by brain stimulation may be similar to a blind reflex ormay have all the above-mentioned characteristics of voluntary activity.Stimulation of some points in the motor cortex and motor pathways inthe cat, monkey, and other animals may produce simple movements, suchas flexion of a limb, which are completely stereotyped and lack adaptation.These effects may be interpreted as the activation of efferent structureswhere the pattern of response has already been decided. At this level,the neuronal functions are of conduction rather than of integration andorganization, and only minor variations are possible in the circulatingimpulses, regardless of whether their origin was spontaneous or artificial.There is ample evidence, however, that many other effects evoked by brainstimulation are oriented toward the accomplishment of a specific aim withadaptation of the motor performance to unexpected changes in theenvironment.This adaptability has been clearly demonstrated by evoked aggressionin monkeys, who directed their attacks selectively against their naturalenemies in the group with tactics of chasing and fighting which continuous-ly changed according to the targets' unpredictable strategies. Brain stimula-tion evidently evoked not a predetermined motor effect but an emotional

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The Psychophysiology of Freedomstate of increased aggressiveness that was expressed by preestablished motorbehavior directed according to the history of previous social relations(Delgado, 1964).Experimental evidence indicates that brain stimulation can activateand influence cerebral mechanisms involved in willful behavior, and futurestudies should clarify the neuronal bases of controversial subjects such asfreedom, individuality, and spontaneity in factual terms rather than inelusive semantic discussions.

OWNERSHIP OF THE MINDPersonal ownership of our body is usually taken for granted. We feelour skin, use our senses, and command our muscles. In a similar way, weassume proprietorship of our ideas, emotions, and experiences. Personalidentity is based on the possession throughout life of a determined set ofphysical and mental characteristics. These ideas should, however, bediscussed in light of recent biological findings.The concept of possession of the air in our lungs may be valid for a

brief period of time because the gas within our chest is not shared withanyone else and is separated momentarily from the environment. Most ofthe air we breathe flows in and out of our lungs. A percentage of oxygenpenetrates the blood to be combined with the hemoglobin and transportedto the capillaries of muscles, liver, and various organs where oxidative pro-cesses occur. Some of this oxygen is transformed into carbon dioxide andtransported through the veins back to the lungs from where it is expelled tothe environment. The possession of air, therefore, is of rather limited dura-tion. The water we drink passes to the stomach and intestines, is absorbed,transported by circulation, retained in small amounts, and mostlyeliminated by the lungs, kidneys, and perspiration. We "own" much of ourbody water for only a short period.Property rights are also debatable for the content of the intestines, forclipped nails and hair, or for our own blood which is in a continuous pro-cess of renovation. Modern biology shows that most of the materialsubstratum of the body is constantly being transformed. The bones of achild change in structure, strength, shape, and chemical compositionaccording to the amount and direction of mechanical forces. Musculature ismodified in relation to its use and disuse. The human central nervoussystem consumes 10 times more oxygen than most other tissues, due to itsvery active metabolism which includes a rapid rate of protein synthesis.Neurons do not regenerate like other less differentiated cells, but their sub-

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microscopic content and structure are in a process of continuous changeand renovation involving the release and uptake of different chemicals. Thetraditional concept of neuronal stability should consequently bereevaluated.Learning in rats is known to be related to an increase of protein S 100in the nerve cells of the hippocampus (Hyden and Lange, 1970). Apparent-ly, short-terminformation is stored near the synapses at which signals arriveand are read out, while lasting memory traces involve RNA-dependentmechanisms of the nucleus. Neuronal membranes involved in these pro-cesses are morphologically, biochemically, and functionally differentmosaics. Structuralchanges in the synaptic membranes occur under the in-fluence of different types of transmitters. Synaptic regions are modifiedthrough the influence of pre- and postsynaptic areas; altered uptake,availability, and release of several transmitters; variations in the number,size, and sensitivity of the receptor sites; structuralchanges in the synapticcleft; and modifications in the diffusion rate and extent of the neuraltransmitters (von Baumgarten, 1970). The presence and characteristics ofglycolipids and glycoproteins of neuronal surfaces may play an essentialrole in specific interneuronal recognition.The dynamic complexity of neuronal activities is under the continuousinfluence of genetic determinants, inducer gradients, reactive tendencies,metabolic and humoral factors, electrophysiological phenomena, receivedinputs, and many other elements which shape the composition, structure,and functions of the neuronal units and responses of neuronal pools. Mostof these processes depend on genetically established mechanisms, onautomatic reactivity, and on the flow of information reaching the brainfrom the environment. Pacemaking of the respiratory center, electricalcoding of sensory inputs, and complex neuronal activity do not depend onpersonal preferences; moreover, many of their mechanisms are similar incats and in humans. We do not personally "own"these mechanisms whichare given to all mammals. We do not "own" the material and functionalelements of the brain or the information flowing in and out of the brain.Ownership of these materials, mechanisms, and information is ofcourse a matter of interpretation. Air and water, like sensory inputs, areelements which originate outside the organism and penetrate it for a limitedtime. Each organism could be considered either the center of these transac-tions and the proprietor of elements circulating within it or a miniscule,short-lived unit involved in these transactions.More important than ownership is the study of the origin, properties,timing, and evolution of the different elements which form each human be-ing. What is preservedand what is altered from birth to death? Fingerprintsare a permanent individual characteristic; personal experiences stored in

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The Psychophysiology of Freedommemoryareuniquealthoughusuallymodifiedby time;skillsmaybe learn-ed, modified, and forgotten;taste may be educated and changed;ethicsmaybe influencedby socialfactors;beautymayfade. Is a personthe sameat 50 yearsof age as at 15 or when he or she was born?Many of these factors can be investigated with the aid ofneurobiological echnology.If personal dentity s determinedby elementswhich can be known and selected, should we let naturalchance be thedecisivepowerin structuring ach individualbrain, or shouldwe use ourfreedomandintelligencen order o encouragehedevelopment f neuronaland behavioralqualitieschosenwith a humanpurpose?What should thispurposebe? From now on, we must assumeresponsibility or our evolu-tion; we must be the directorsof our future.

THE PURPOSEOF FREEDOMThreedifferentaspectsof freedommaybe considered:1) theestablish-mentof its intracerebral echanisms;2) the exerciseof behavioraloptions;and(3)thepurposeof theselectedresponses.Freedom s a generalpurpose,cerebralmechanismwhichmay be ap-plied in manydifferentways. It is a technologyto deal with braininputs,throughputs,and outputs, increasing he numberand flexibilityof optionsto accept, reject, combine, and modify the flow of information andresponses.It may be compared o a languagewhichmust be learned andestablishedn the brain,withricheror poorerelements, o be usedlaterformanydifferentpurposes.When a personlearnsnot to acceptinformationblindlybut to con-sider ts causality,significance,andconsequences, hisinternalprocesswillinfluenceall personal hinking,and, onceestablished, t willbe difficulttoblockor erase n spiteof externalpressures. ntelligentprocessingof data isa skill whichshouldhave a reason,a purpose.Givena free mindwemayask"What or? How shouldfreedombe used?Whypossessa brilliantmind ifits capacitiesare dormantor misused?"The exerciseof freedommust be at the serviceof suitableaims andafree mind should start by careful selection of the purpose of its ownfreedom. Here we are facing the basic contradiction in the

psychophysiology f freedom: he individualmindis structuredwithout tsown choicebyelementsoriginatingn its materialandculturalenvironmentwhich subsequentlywill determineindividualityand personal choices.Where henis the freedomof the mind?Thepartialanswer s that,althoughshapedby outsideforces,eachmindis uniqueand its particular xperiencesandfeedbackcapacitywill influence ts own functioningdecisively, ollow-

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ing personalchoices. This is a possibilitywhichmay be cultivatedand in-creased o reinforcepersonal dentityand originality.One of the purposesof freedommaybe to increasepersonalfreedom.A varietyof purposesmaybe suggested o increaseavailableoptionsin the exerciseof freedom.Prominentamongthem is the educationof allsocial and intellectual trataof futuregenerationso increaseawarenessoftheirown mentalstructureandbehavioralreactivity hrougha programofPsychogenesis Delgado, 1969).Democratization f availablepsychologicalknowledge,especially hefundamentalsand technologyof mass manipulation,will providethe in-dividualwithintellectual warenesso diminish he outsidemanipulation fhis own self. At present, politicalopinions, personalneeds,ethicalissues,social structures,and manyotheraspectsof humanactivitiesareskillfullydirectedby advertisements, ropaganda,and persuaderswhich flood oursensory nputs,shapingourneuronsandestablishingpatternsof response.Themass mediapowershould be counteracted y an educationalprogram.Sciencemust be placedat the serviceof the masses n order o increaseper-sonal freedomthroughbetterknowledgeof its cerebralmechanisms.Toprotect the individualfrom intellectualand emotional manipulation,hemustbe instructedaboutmechanisms, echnologies,and options.Humandignity,self realization,personalhappiness,andfreedomareproductsof mentalactivitieswhichshouldhavea highpriority n the pre-sent systemsof education.

SUMMARY AND WORKING HYPOTHESES1. Personal freedom s not inheritednor is it a gift of Nature.It willnot unfoldautomaticallyhroughbrainmaturation. t is a mentalfunctionwhichmust be acquired hroughtrainingand learning.2. Thehumanbrain s veryimmatureat birth,lacking he anatomicalandphysiological lementsprerequisiteor mentalfunctions.Therefore heminddoes not yet exist at the moment of birth.Manis not born freebutsubserviento genes and education.Sensory nputs, carrying nformationfromtheenvironment,aretotally necessary or the normaldevelopment fthebrain,fortheappearance f mentalactivities,andforthe structuring f

the Self.3. Freedom s anaspectof mentalactivityrequiring eceptionof infor-mation, internalprocessingof data, and outputof behavioralmanifesta-tions. Freedom hereforemaybe curtailedby (1) privationor distortionofinformation,(2) alterationof intracerebral rocessing,or (3) inhibitionofexpressiondueto environmentalactors such as coercionandpunishment.

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The Psychophysiology of Freedom4. Free choice is individualbut its mentaldeterminants re social.5. As decisionmakingoccupiesbrainpathways, ime,andrequires f-fort,mostbehavioralesponsesmust be relegated o automaticmechanisms,liberatingreechoice forconsideration f complex ssues.6. The main role of free will is to trigger previouslyestablishedautomaticmechanisms.7. Freedom nvolveslearningof intellectualskills, and the degreeoffreedom attainedwill be directlyrelatedto the amount of effectivetrain-ing- or behavioralcontrol-provided by those in chargeof education.8. We "own" he air in our lungsand the waterin our body for onlyshortperiodsof time;similarly,we "own"only transitorilyhe information

providedby culture.9. Freedommaybe considereda generalpurposecerebralmechanismwhich increasesthe number and qualityof availablebehavioraloptions.10. A democratization f psychologicalknowledgewill diminishthepowerof mass media and the manipulationof individuals.11. Humandignity,self-realization,happiness,andpersonal reedomareproductsof mentalactivitywhichshouldhavepriority n presenteduca-tional systems.12. Humanbeingsmaybe considered emporalcentersof transactionsof matter,energy,andinformationwhichareprovidedbytheenvironment,transcendingndividualexistence.In this way, mortalityassumes a morebiological,realistic,and optimisticsignificance.

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