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F I NA L RE P ORT

31

OCTOBER

1977

A N T H R O P O M E T R Y A N D

B I O M E C H A N I C S O F

S E L E C T E D P O P U L A T I O N S

P r e p a r e d

f o r

APPALACHIAN LABORATORY OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

P UB L I C HE A L T H S E RV I CE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH EDUC ATION AND WELFARE

9 4 4

CHESTNUT RIDGE ROAD

MORGANTOWN WEST V IR G IN IA 26 5 05

CONTRACT NO. 7 7 - 1 2 1 2 6

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Anthropometry and Biomechanics of

Se lec ted Popu la t ions

Tuhn i ca l Rcporc

Do cu rn t o t i o n

Page

8 Per fom~ng rgm~to(~o neport No.

J

7

Au t h d r )

Snyder, Richard

G

UM-HSRI-77-52

I

Rmport No.

UM-HSRI-77-52

I

9.

r km i n gOrga~xst ton r * m d Address

10

rod

Un ~ t o. (TRAIS)

I.

oremmt Acc*ss~onNo.

16.

Abstract

3.

Reopamt'r Cotolog No.

4.

To11e

and

Subtitle

Highway Sa fe ty Research Ins t i tu te

The Uni ve rs i t y of M i ch i gan

Ann Arb or, M ic hig an 48109

12. &soring Agency nmo m d A ~ ~ S S

N a ti o na l I n s t i t u t e f o r O cc up at io na l

Safety and Health

944 Chestnut Ridge-Road

Morgantown, West V ~ r g i n i a 26505

T h i s st u dy r e v ie w s t h e l i m i t e d 1 e r a t u r e and d a ta a v a i l a b l e

r e l a t i v e t o anthropometry and b iomechanica l aspects o f human fact ors ,

range o f mot ion , s t reng th ,and k inemat i cs o f the body under d i f f e re n t

w o rk i ng c o n d i t i o n s f o r s e l e ct e d U .So c i v i 1 popu la t ions .

P a r t i c u l a r

emphasis i s on the c ap ab i l i t y o f the female, pregnant women, th e handi -

capped o r d isa b led (amputee, para p leg ic , le f t -hand ed) , obese, and th e

e l d e r l y t o s a f e l y p e r f o r m o c c up a t i on a l t a s k s .

Recommendations based

upon e v a l u a ti o n o f t h e 1 t e r a t u r e a r e p ro v id e d r e l a t i v e t o f u t u r e r e se a rc h

n e e d s a n d p r i o r i t i e s .

5

Rrpo rt 01

1 1 tontrocr or

Gent NO.

77-12126

TIP* of .pert ond Per iod Coverod

F i n a l

23 June 1977-31 Oc t ,1977

14 banrering Agoney code

N IOSH

I S

Suppl.mmtay Notes

I

1

1

1

Form

DOT

F

1760.7

8-721

Rwrobctim

of

l e d

p o g e

o u d m r i x d

17.

Key

Words

Anthropometry Amputees

Ergonomics

Parapleg i cs /Quadr l eg

Hand1 capped Obese Human Fac to rs

E l d e r l y Range o f M o t i on

Disa bl ed

ef t -handed St re ngth Pregnant

C. 5

GOVERh MEh? P R I h 7 n C O F F I C E l q 7 3 2 5 - 5 0 ~ / 1 2 a

10. Oisk ib r t im Sto t nmt

cs Unl

m i

e d

19 SrcuAty Classit. (o f this

nrrt

U n c l a s s i f i e d

a or ri ty Classil . (of rhis peg4

U n c l a s s i f i e d

21. No. of Paws

22.

Price

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Assistance in compil ing the refe rence mater ia ls reviewed was provided

by Ela in e Umholtz o f the Biomedical Department and

Ann

Grimm of the HSRI

l ib r a r y s t a f f

a n d

se cr et ar ia l assi sta nc e by Beverly Creviston. The author

is particu larl y indebted t o Dr. John T . McConvil l e Webb Associates Ye1 low

Springs Ohio; Dr.

Lloyd L . Laubach Wright S ta te Unive rsity Dayton Ohio;

Dr. Howard

W S t o u d t

Michigan St a te Un ive rsi ty East Lansing; Dr. Don

Ch affin The University of Michigan; Dr.

J .S.

Ward I n s t i t u t e fo r Consumer

Ergonomics

L t d .

University of Technology Loughborough U . K . and the

numerous other colleagues

who

generously shared pertinent papers and/or

suggested further potential sources of information.

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CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CONTENTS

I

CONCLUSIONS

I OBJECTIVES

METHODS

I V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1 PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED

OR

DISABLED

a) Amputees

b ) P a ra p l e g i c s / Q u a d r i p l e g i c s

c ) The Left-handed

2 .

FEMALES

a ) E l d e r l y

b ) Pregnant

ELDERLY MALES

THE OBESE

V

FUTURE RESEARCH REQUIREMENTS AND PRIORITIES

iii

1

5

6

8

8

11

13

1 5

17

29

32

36

3

7

38

APPENDIX A. Anthropometry 3

9

Human Factors

C Range of Motion and Body Kinematics 5 3

D. S t r e n g t h 56

iii

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I

CONCLUSIONS

The ph ys ic al ly handicapped (amputees, p ara ple gic s, and th e 1ef t -handed)

th e female, e l d e r l y femal e, preg nant female, and th e e l d e r l y male, as we1 1

as th e obese male and female, rep res ent s i g n i f i c a n t sub-populat ions. Review

o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i v e t o t h e a nt hr op om et ry , s t r e n g t h , b io me ch an ic s, r an ge -

o f- mo ti o n, and human f a c t o rs of t h e se g ro up s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h a t l i t t l e a t t e n -

t i o n has been focused on them i n t he pas t , and t ha t bas i c i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e

t o t h e i r s p e c i a l i z e d r eq u ir em e nt s i n t h e oc c u pa t io n a l e nv ir on me nt i s q u i t e 1 m ed.

1. The Phy sic al y Handicapped

.Near l y one ou t o f every fo ur Amer icans has a d i s a b i l i t y of some t ype . Job

demands i n r eh ab i l a t i o n o f t he phys i ca l

l y

handicapped re qu i r e assessment o f

range o f mot ion , an thropomet ry workspace human fac to rs , s t r eng th capab i l y ,

and b iomechanics considerat ions.

.Whi le a number o f s tu die s have been addressed t o t he handicapped whee lchai r

use r, human f ac t o r s r equi r em en ts f o r t h e d i sab l ed have on l y r ece i ved l i m i t ed

a t t e n t i o n i n t h e a re as o f a cce ss t o p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s a nd mass t r a n s i t s ys te ms .

Cur r en t a i r t r a nsp o r t a i r c r a f t a r e no t equi pped no r a rr anged t o accommodate t he

handicapped; 75 o f th e non-ambulatory handicapped were unable t o reac h an e x i t

i n t i me i n a 1977 te st . Concepts for accommodation of th e handicapped and

e l de r l y i n buses have been unde r se r i ous s t udy on l y du r i ng t he pas t t wo yea r s .

S i m i l a r l y t h e d eve lo pm en t o f t ec h ni qu e s t o a ss es s t h e d r i v i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s o f

d i sab l ed pe rsons, t he eva l ua t i o n and t es t i ng o f adap t i ve devi ces , and des ign

per fo rmance and sa fe ty gu ide1 nes requ i rements a r e on l y now be ing s t ud i ed i n

an i n i t i a l f ed era l program. No work

s

be ing conducted i n an thropomet ry ,

s t r en g t h c ap ab i l i t i e s , r ange o f mo ti on , o r bi om echani cs r equ i rem en ts o f t he

d i s a b l e d d r i v e r a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e .

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.Amputee ab i 1 y t o s t ee r and b r ak e c om merc ia l v eh i c l e s was r epo r t e d i n a

1968 s tudy wh ich found tha t - lower ex t re mi ty amputees re qu i re d a lon ger t im e to

ope rate th e brakes and above- the-knee amputees were ge ne ra l l y unsuccessfu l i n

ope r a t i ng pedal s w i t h t he im pa i r ed l i m b . T h i s p i onee r i ng e f f o r t s hou l d be

expanded t o con s ider th e occupants ' workspace and con t ro l p rob lems i n cu r re n t

and f u t u r e v eh i c l es and a l s o t o c ons i de r f em a le d r i v e r s .

.An ex ce l 1en t an t h r opom e t r ic s t udy o f ma1 e pa r ap l eg i c s l qua d r i p l eg ics has

been under taken a t the Un iv er s i t y o f Me lbourne , Au s t ra l i a i n 1973-75 ,due t o

concern th a t t h e guadrap leg ic pop u la t ion c ou l d no t be emp loyed a t meaning ful

occupa t ions . Range o f mot ion as we1 1 as b iomechan ics w i t h re f e re nce t o t he

whee lc ha i r was a lso s tu d ied .

However,

i t

shou ld be dete rmined t o what e x te n t

these

data may app ly t o American males. There appears t o be complete l a ck of

i n f o r m a t i on on f em al e pa r ap l eg i c s / q uad r i p l eg i cs.

. \h i1 e no t ge ne ra l l y cons idered Handicapped , some 2 2 m i l l on l e f t - handed

i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e U.S. a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o a da pt t o v a r i o u s o c du p at i on a l

t as k s des igned f o r r igh t - handed i nd i v i du a l s .

Review o f t he 1 e r a t u r e shows t h a t

t h e 1e f t- handed i nd i v i du a l has been v i r t u a l y i gno r ed i n most human eng inee r i ng

de si gn hand books

.

2 . The Female Worker

.There has been a r ec e n t s h i f t o f m i l l i o ns o f women i n t o t he l a bo r f o r c e ,

i n c r e a s i n g b y 1 .6 m i l l i o n a l o ne i n 1976.

Women make up tw o- f i f t hs of th e e n t i r e

la bo r fo rce and

i t

i s e s t im at ed t h a t n e a r ly 50% o f th e U.S. female pop u la t ion

i s e i th e r emp loyed o r seek ing work.

However, a1 though th e f emale re pr es en ts

about 52 o f t h e c u r r en t U.S. popu l a t i on , she i s g r os s l y unde r -r epr es en t ed i n

s tud ies o f b iomechan ica l

and human fac to rs aspec ts o f t he occupa t iona l env i ron-

ment and very 1 t l e a t t e n t i o n has been gi ve n toHwomen-machine problems.

The s t r en g t h 1 e r a t u r e f o r f ema les i s no t ex t ens i v e . Where c om pa ra t iv e

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st ud ie s have been conducted, most of te n young c o ll e ge women make up t h e

female su b je c t po o l . Even i n sp e c i f i c areas where good s tu d ie s have been

conducted, such as th e gr as pi ng reac h of women, t h e su bj ec ts have been young

co l l eg e women. Such sub jec ts cannot be cons idered as rep re se nt a t iv e o f th e

g en er al f em al e po p u la t i on s , and o f t e n a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f p a r t i c u l a r

occupa t iona l requi remen ts . A 1a rg e p r o p o r t i on o f t h e p u bl sh e d s t u di e s o f

f e ma l e i n d u s t r i a l w o rk e rs has

been conducted i n fo re ig n coun t r i es . A1 though

females opera te a1 1 t ypes o f veh i c les re qu i r i n g seated peda l op era t i on , a lmost

a l l

s t u d i e s o f s ea te d f o r c es a p p l i e d t o a p ed al have u t i l i z e d ma le s u bj e c ts .

No pub l i shed da ta have been lo ca te d f o r push fo rce s f o r th e fema le s tand ing sub je c t ,

There i s a genera1

l a c k o f b i om ec ha ni ca l d a ta r e l a t i v e t o t h e f em al e, m os t s tu d i e s

havi ng been conducted w i t h ma1 e s ubj ect s.

.A1 though the re appears t o be no comparable c i v i l i a n s tudy , one s tudy o f

m l ar y women employed i n main tenance, e l ec t r on ic s , and c i v i l en g ine er in g areas

f ou nd a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f p ro bl em s r e l a t i v e t o a d a p t i n g f em al es t o t o o l s ,

equ ipment , c l o t h i ng , and workspace des igned p r i ma r i l y f o r males .

A r e v i e w o f

female anthropometry shows that wh i le there have been two recent comprehens ive

m i l i t a r y s t u d i es o f f emales, t h e most r e p r e s e n t at i v e c i v i l d a t a a v a i l a b l e i s t h e

HEW Pub l i c Hea l th Examina t ion Survey rep or t o f 1Q5. However, t h i s i nc l uded on ly

12 1 ne ar measurements and s i x a dd i t i o na l measures (compared t o th e 137-1 51 meausres

r o u t i n e l y o b t ai ne d i n m i l t a r y s ur ve y) . Thus q u i t e 1

m

ed anthropometry

on the U.S. C i v i l female i s av a i la b l e . An example o f the prob lem manufacturers have

w i t h t h e l a c k o f a de qu at e d i me n si o na l i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r o v i d e d by one c h a i n

i n th e garment ind us t r y a lone,which est imated economic losses o f 200,000 i n 1976

due t o i n c o r r e c t s i z i n g ,

3 The Elder ly Female

There have been almost no biomechan ical , range-of-m ot ion, st re ng th , o r human

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fa ct or s stu di es of the elde rly female. Most anthropological

s tudies of the e lder ly

female have been conducted ou tsi de th e U.S.,with th e H W Health Examination Survey

providin g 18 measures f o r 378 females between age 65-79. Other than the se lim ite d

data, further published anthropometry for the U S

e lder ly female i s not ava i lable .

4. The Pregnant Female

.The pregnant femal e enco unter s numerous oc cupat ion al

problems, whether she

is dr iving a car , s i t t ing a t a desk, or working a t a bench.

Recently

1 imi ted a tt en ti on has been given

t o

some of these problems, with a 1976 report

t o NIOSH by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists addressing

some he alt h and work environment qu es ti on s. Independent posture/workbench

Chaffin 1975) and li f t i n g load Garg, 1976) stu di es have als o contribu ted to

our lim ite d knowledge. No anthropometry, range

o f

motion, or biomechanics

studies of the pregnant female were found, and strength and human factors

considerations appear to be limited to the several

noted.

5. Elde rly Males

-E ld er ly males have seldom been stu d ie d as a populati on . Most male anthro-

pometry ,esp ecia l ly m 1 i ta r y s tu d ie s , has been conducted on younger age rang es.

The most g eneral ly app l icable data f or the ci vi l i an eld erly male i s t ha t taken

on 265 males from age 65 to

74, and 72 males from age 75-79, for a total

o f

only 18 measurements, in the H W Health Examination Survey of 1959-1962, a

population of 16-19 years ago. more rec en t study by the author did u t i l i z e

some male and female subjects t o age 75, for neck range of motion, strength,

and 48 anthropometry measures, b u t the se data are unpublished. Biomechanics,

range of motion, and strength studies involving the elderly are extremely

imi ted.

6. The Obese

There appears t o be no comparabl e s tu d ie s of the biomechanics anthropometry

st re ng th , range-of-motion, or human fa cto rs consid eration s of the obese, re la ti v e

t o occupational environments.

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11. O JECTIVES

The

purpose o f t h i s s tudy was t o c onduc t t he fo l l ow ing tas ks :

1 .

Review o f th e cur r en t s ta te - o f - the -a r t wh ich may be appl i c ab le

t o t h e o cc up at i on al s e t t i n g .

2 .

D et er mi ne wha t c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e d a t a a r e d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e

t o t h e oc c up a t io n al s a f e t y s e t t i n g .

3

I de n t i f y majo r res earc h gaps wh ic h must be f i l l e d by v a r i ous l e v e l s

o f

r es ea rc h e f f o r t s p e c i f i c t o t h e oc cu pa t io na l s a f e t y s e t t i n g .

4

P r i o r i t i z e the res ea rch gaps found

i

any.

5

I n c lude as an appendix t o the repo r t a c omprehensi ve l i s t o f

app l i c ab l e references.

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111. METHODS

t ho ro ug h se ar ch o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e was c on du cte d t o i d e n t i f y p e r t i n e n t

re fe rences . Th i s was i n i t i a t e d by rev i ew ing s tud ies p re v ious l y conduc ted by

H S R I wi th rega rd t o anthropometry, s t re ngt h, body k inema t ics, b iomechanics,

r an ge o f m o ti on . The a u t h o r s f i l e s , c o n s i s t i n g o f s e v e ra l t ho us an d p u b l i -

ca t i ons i n these areas , were a lso reviewed for pub l i sh ed and unpub l ished work,

as we1

1

as the ho ld i ngs o f t he U n i v e rs i t y o f M i chigan L i b ra ry S ystem.

These materials were supplemented

by

computer searches. An o f f -1 i ne

b ib l i o g ra ph i c c i t a t i o n l i s t was genera ted by a MEDLARS I 1 N a t i ona l L i b ra r y o f

Medic ine Nat iona l in tera c t i . ve re t r ie v a l serv ice . Among th e dat a bases were

B IOSIS (b io log ica l sc iences) SCI SE RCH ( b i o l o g i c a l and app l i ed sc i ence) ,

ISMEC (mech anica l e ng in ee ri ng and en gi ne er in g management) NTIS (government

research) , COMPENDEX ( e n g in e e r i n g ) , FOUNDATION GRANTS I N D E X ( g r a n t r e c o rd s ) ,

and SOCIAL SCISEARCH (s o c ia l sc ie nc es ) back t o t h e ye ar s f o r whi ch t he y came

on-1 in e i n th e computer ized systems.

I n add i t i on , t he p roceed ings o f va r i ous s oc ie t i es were revi ewed i n t he

areas of human fa ct or s and ergonomics ph ys ica l anthro pology , ph ys ica l medicin e

and rehab i l

i

at io n , b iomechan ics , b iomedic ine, b ioeng ineer ing , geronto logy ,

psycho logy , indus t r ia l and opera t ions eng ineer ing , and phys io logy .

f

p a r t i -

cu l a r per t ine nce were th e P roceed ings o f the 6 th Congress, In te rn at io na l

Ergomonics As so cia t io n (1976) and var iou s Communications, Danish Na tio na l

A s s o ci a t io n f o r I n f a n t i l e P a r a l y s i s . One document, a 1 s t o f 1 t e r a t u r e ,

Anatomy f o r Planners I ssued by t he N a t i ona l Swedish I n s t i t u t e f o r B u i l d i ng

Research

(1965), was most comp rehensive, a1 thoug h now ou tda ted .

Final ly , when

i t

became apparent t ha t t he l i t e r a t u r e i n t hese a reas as

re1ated t o the se lec ted pop u la t ions was very 1

m i

ed, personal contacts

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were made with major investigators in the various related fields and some

as yet unpublished r obscure

u t

pe rtin en t mate rials were obtained. Refer-

ences resulting from these searches are provided in Appendices A E .

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I V

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Phy s ic a l ly Handicapped o r D isab led

D i s a b i l i t y i s t h e g en er al t e rm used by

HEW

to desc r ibe any temporary o r

l o ng - te r m r e d u c t i o n o f a p er s on ' s a c t i v i t y as a r e s u l t o f an a cu t e o r c h r o n i c

cond i t io n . Phys ica l impa i rments may inc lud e v is ua l hear ing , par a ly s is ,

absence o f body segments, o r impairments o f var ious body fun ct ion s.

Data repor te d by th e HEW Heal th In t e rv ie w Survey dur i ng t he two-year per iod ,

J u l y 1959 thro ugh June 1961, showed t h a t t h er e were 28,167,000 impairm ents i n

t h e

U S

c i v i l i a n n o n i n s t i u t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n (Gleeson, 1 96 4) .

By 1971 there

were an es t imated 51.1 m i l l i o n impa i red persons i n the U.S. popu la t ion (Wi lder

and Pearson, 1973) , i nd ic a t in g t h a t 23 o r nea r l y 1 ou t o f every 4 Americans has

a d i s a b i l i t y o f some t yp e. Among the 12.5

m i l l

on impa ir ments due t o i n j u r y th e

most f r eq u e n t l y r e p o r t e d t y p e co n s i st e d o f a back i n j u r y ( 3. 1 m i l l i o n i n d i v i d -

u a l s ) , f o ll o we d b y i mp ai rm en t o f t h e l o w e r e x t r e m i t y o r h i p (2. 7 m i l l i o n ) . I n

1971 62 in d i v i du al s i n every 1000 had an impairment due t o i n j u ry .

A

number of s tu d ie s r e la te d t o the handicapped have been conducted over

th e pas t two decades by the Tes t ing and Observa t ion I n s t i t u t e o f th e Dan ish

Na t iona l Assoc ia t i on f o r I n f a n t i l e Pa r a l ys i s , l oca ted i n He1 e r up , Denmark.

Many o f t he handicapped s tud ies no ted i n th i s sec t i on a r e fr om t h i s In s t i t u t e .

For example, Pau lsen (1966) has eva lua ted jo b demands i n re ha b i l i t a t i on o f

th e ph ys ic a l ly handicapped. Among the facto rs analyzed ar e

locomot ion, work ing po si t i on s body movements, muscular forces du r i ng work,

and weight s 1 te d. Asmussen (1965) had ea r l e r assessed c or re l a t i o ns between

such var iab les as musc le s trength and other phys io log ica l funct ions by age

and sex.

An ergonomics approach t o wheelchair des ign was in ve st ig at ed i n

severa l s tud ies .

P l

a t t s a t t he Loughborough Un iv er s i ty of Techno1 ogy (England)

surveyed u ser s' needs (1974).

Engel and

H i

d eb ra nd t o f t h e I n s t i u t j u r

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arbei tphysiologi c u n d Rehabi 1 tatim sfors chu ng de r Uni ve rs i t a t Marburg/Lund

West Germany, have repo rte d e xt en si ve st u d ie s of t ec hn ic al biomechani ca l,

a n d

physiological aspe cts 1974). Additional stu di es which re1 a t e t o the human

factors design a n d biomechanics of wheelchairs for the disabled include

Hiscock 1964) MacKei t h 1974) Pe ri ze r e t a1. 1964) Roos 1964) Walker

1964) Bergstrom 1965) Bu lleti n of Pro sth eti cs Research, 1965) ; Peizer

19 65 ); Nichols e t al. 19 66 ); Lee 196 7); Kemenetz 196 9); Peiz er

a n d

Wright

1969) Lipskin 1970) and Newsom e t a1. 197 2).

Space requirements have

been co ns idered by Floyd. e t a1 1 966) pa rt ic ul ar needs of the quadriple gic

and paraple gic Edberg 1965), physiolo gical aspe cts of wheelchair operatio n

i-lildebrandt e t al. , 197 0), and as re la te d to human f ac to rs of the handicapped

wheelchair user in buildi ngs Leschly e t a1. ,1959; 1960; U.S Department of

Housi n g and Urban Development 1971 .

Ear l i e r th i s year in ves t iga to r s

a t

the Civil Aeromedical

I n s t i t u t e of t h e

Federal Aviation Adm inistration pub1 ished a study on the emergency escape of

handicapped a i r tra ve le rs Blethrow e t a1 . p . 77) .

C u r r e n t a i r t r a n s p o r t a i r -

c r a f t a r e n o t equipped or arranged

t o

effectively accommodate the seriously

handicapped occupant.

Passenger movement of 1 f t / s has been found minimal

for successful evacuation,

b u t

thr ee -qu art ers of th e non-ambul at or y handicapped

were not able t o reach an e x i t in t h a t time. This stud y recommended a number

of human f ac to rs consid erations, includin g incr easi ng a is l e width

t o

accom-

modate whee lchairs providing su pport hand1 e s , passenger inform ation cards p rin ted

i n Br a i l l e b l in d ) , aud ib le markers a t ex i t s and l ava to r ies , and s t ab i -

1 izing ropes on in fl at ed egress sl ide s. They suggested t h a t non-ambul ato ry

passengers could be most effectively seated in a

g r o u p in the cabin away from

ot he r evacuees, so t h a t the y would not impede esca pe.

Besides a description of

performance tes ts conducted, this s tudy also provides

a

l i s t i n g of c a s e

his tories of handicapped involved in aircraft incidents r accidents. The

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handicapped su bj ec ts t es te d inc lu ded one amputee, one obese i nd iv id ua l , one b l n d

i n d i v i d u a l , f i v e cases o f p ar ap le gi a, an d e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h m en ta l d e f i c i e n c i e s .

Th is s tudy was ins t rumen ta l i n de te rm in ing new a i r c a r r i e r requ l remen ts

re1 a ted t o hand icapped passengers. I n A pr i l 1977, Par ts 121 and 135 o f t he

Federal Aviat ion Regulat ions were amended ( Ai r T ranspor ta t ion o f Hand icapped

Persons who may need Evacuation Assistance

,

Federa l Reg ister , 1977).

Sea t ing

requyrements were no t imposed, bu t a d i sa bl ed passenger can no t be ref use d

tr an s po rt at io n, and a number o f allowanc es were made, such as exempting a

person who canno t s i t e r ec t f o r medica l reason f rom the requ i remen t t h a t the

back o f h i s o r h e r s e at b e u p r i g h t f o r t a k e o f f and l a n d in g .

Human fac to rs requ i remen ts fo r th e d isab led have rece i ved inc reas i ng

a lt ho ug h s t i l l l i m i t e d a t t e nt i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n areas of access t o p u b l i c

bu i ld in gs and mass t r a n s i t systems. These aspects have a d i r ec t re la t i on sh ip

to occupa t iona l requ i remen ts .

The Urban Tra nspo rta t io n Act o f 1970, th e Federal

Highway Act of 1973,

and the Na t iona l Mass T ranspor ta t ion Act o f 1974 a l l con ta ined va r iou s p rov is ion s

f o r ass i s tance t o t he e l de r l y and handicapped . I t i s of i n t e r e s t t h a t o ve r 30

s ta te s h ad en ac te d la ws re l a te d t o a c ce ss ib i l i t y p r i o r t o 1968, and many l o ca l

communi ties had p rov ided va r io us t r ans por ta t i on access requi remen ts f o r th e

handi capped. An o u t l i n e o f p e r t i n e n t l e g i s l a t i o n i s summarized i n B la ck and

Mateyka (1976).

Human fa c to r s accommodation o f th e handicapped (and e l d er l y ) was a p rim ary

des ign goa l o f the n ine advanced p r o to ty pe buses const ruc ted as pa r t o f t he

Department of Tr ans por tat ion, Urban Mass Tr ans por ta t i on Ad mi ni st ra t i on (UMTA)

transbus program.

Thre2 concepts f o r accommodating an in d i v i du a l i n a wheel-

ch a i r on a fu l l -s iz ed t r a n s i t bus have been repor ted by B lack o f Rohr In dust r ie s ,

and Mateyka of Booz, A l l e n Ap pl ie d Research (1976) . Among r e s u l t s re po rt ed was

th a t w h e e l cha i r access i s f e a s i b l e f o r a bus w i t h a w ide f r o n t d oo r and a l ow

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f l o o r , a ramp s to red under th e bus f l o o r be ing a p re fe r red dev ice . They

found tha t s tep he igh ts shou ld no t exceed 8 inches(20 cm) and step edges should

be marked i n con t ra s t i n g co lo r s ( 1 s t s t ep he i gh t on cu r r en t buses i s abou t

14

inches

3 6

cm) high).

I n re ce nt years the re has been inc reased concern w i t h th e requ i rements and

capab i l i e s o f the d isab le d dr i v er , and the re have been s tu d ies conduc ted by

the manu factu re r s, un i ve rs i t i es , and t he governmen t i n t h i s r ega rd . O ft en

human fa ct or s has been poor , as shown by the Veterans Ad min is t ra t i on f i n d i n g

i n New York t ha t on ly 3 o f 12 commercia ll y a va i l a b le systems o f hand con t ro l

o f au tomobi l es

met sa f e t y and d u r ab i l i t y s tandards (Pau l 1964) . Goodwi ll

( 19 74 ) h ad o u t l i n e d t h e s t a t u s a s o f t h a t t i m e i n t h e

U.K .

f o r d i sa b le d d r i v e r s .

A majo r a t temp t t o develop d r i v i n g a i ds and systems f o r t h e d i sab led d r i v e r

i s p resen t l y underway a t t he Un i ve rs i t y o f M i ch igan , sponsored by t he Rehab i l-

i t a t i o n Serv ic es Admi ni s t rat io n (RSA) o f th e O f f ic e of Human Development , U.S.

Depar tment o f Hea l th , Education and Wel fa re. A Re ha b i l i ta t i on Eng ineer ing Center,

funded fo r 300,000 fo r th e f i r s t year o f a f i ve-ye ar p rogram, i n coopera t ion

w i t h t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n I n s t i t u t e o f D e t r o i t , i s f o c us in g on a program o f

med ica l research concen t ra t ing on dr i v e r d i sa b i l i t i e s and assessment. Among

areas t o be inve s t i ga ted are the deve lopment of techn iques t o assess th e

d r i v i n g c ap ab i l i e s o f d i sa b l e p er so ns , t h e e v a l u a t i o n a nd t e s t i n g o f a d a p t i ve

devices, and pro vi d i ng designers wi t h per formance and sa fe ty guide1 nes (U.S.

Department o f Hea lth, Educa t ion and Welfare, 1977). Human fa ct or s stu di es

p la nn ed i n c l u d e a t t e n t i o n t o c o n t r o l

i npu t cha rac te r i s t i c s and assessmen t o f

phys i ca l d r i v i n g cap ab i l i t y . To da te no work has been i n i t i a t e d i n an th ro-

pomet ry , s t r eng th , r ange o f mo ti on , o r b iomechan ics o f t he d i sab led d r i ve r

r e l a t i v e t o t h i s program.

(a) Amputees

I n 1968 McFar l and and co l leagues a t th e Harvard School o f Pub l i c Hea l t h y

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s u pp or te d b y t h e V o c at i on a l R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n I n su r an c e I n s t i t u t e

f o r H ighway Sa fe ty and General Moto rs Corpor ta t ion eva lua ted the ab i 1i

y

of

amputees to operate highway transport equipment. A t t h a t t i me

i t

was estimated

f rom th e 1957-58 U.S. Nat iona l He al t h Survey t h a t

2 4

m i l l i o n A merica ns s u f f e r e d

f rom some form o f phy s i ca l impai rment and t h a t 13

m i l 1

o n o f them in vo l ve d some

1 m i t a t i o n o f m ot io n.

F u r t h e r o f 3 m i l i o n se r i ous ly d i sab led persons some

1 m i l l i o n d r o v e w i t h some t y p e o f s p e c i a l h and o r f o o t c o n t r o l s . However t h e

app roac h t h a t was t a k e n i n t h i s s t ud y c o n s i s t ed p r i m a r i l y o f a s u rv ey o f t h e

1 t e r a t u r e and e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e d r i v i n g ex pe ri en ce o f amputees. P a r t i c u l a r

a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o s t a t e l i c e n s i n g p r oc ed ur es f o r p h y s i c a l l y h a nd ic ap pe d

d r i v e r s a nd t h e i r a c c i d e n t ex p er i en c e s and t h e p o s s i b l e r e 1at io ns hi p between

p h y s i c a l

h an d ic ap and m o to r v e h i c l e a c c i d en t s . m a jo r c on ce rn f o r t h i s

prob lem was t h a t re1 a t i v e l y l a r g e numbers o f t h e p o t e n t i a l w o rk f or c e m i gh t

be u n f a i r l y d e p ri v e d o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment. The r u l e s o f t h e I n t e r -

s t a t e Commerce Commission d i d n o t a l l o w o p e r a t o r s w i t h a m pu ta ti on s t o d r i v e i n

i n t e r s t a t e commerce i n a ny p u b l i c con vey anc e i n l a r g e o r s m a ll t r u c k s o r

i n buses o r passenger conveyances fo r p r o f i t .

To s tudy phy s ic a l components o f s te er in g and br ak ing of commerc ia l v eh ic l es

100 sub jec ts 60 o f whom were amputees were tes t ed i n a ve hi c l e s imu lato r .

Anthro pometr ic measures were taken on these sub jec ts f o r 80 d i f f e r e n t measure-

ments r e l a t i n g t o body s i ze s t r uc tu r e and compos i t i on on each o f 30 upper

extremity amputees and

29

low er ex t re mi ty amputees. Gr ip s t r en gt h was a l so

taken.

I t

was f o u nd t h a t t h e amputee gr ou p d i d n o t g e n e r a l l y d i f f e r a n t h r o-

pomet r j ca l iy 1 though t h e sample poo l was sm al l.

Because chest c i rcumference

and l e f t c a l f c i rc u mf e re n ce w er e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r f o r t h e l o w e r amputees

i t

was s p e c u l at e d t h a t t h e cau se m i gh t b e t h e e x t r a m u sc u la r e f f o r t o r r e s p i r a t o r y

demands of wal k i ng w i th a pro th es is . The exper imenta l s t ee r i ng per formance

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tests indicated that amputees did as we1 1 or better than non-impaired, non -

commercial drivers.

The brake pedal tests indicated that the 1ower extremity

amputees required a longer time

t o

operate the brakes.

Above-the-knee amputees

were generally unsuccessful in using the impaired limb t o operate pedals.

There have been numerous studies of prothestics, b u t in such cases anthro-

pometry i s usual ly taken only r e l a ti v e

t o

individual

fit t ing requirements.

Isherwood 1976)

for example, has devised prothesis simulators consisting of

a set of compressible bags using a compressible foam

which is individually

constructed

on

the stump of the patient.

I n

most cases equipment manufacturers

tailor the handicapped aids

t o

the spe cifi c individua l. Similarly emphasis

o n strength appears

t o

be concerned with prep ara tion of th e individ ual t o

resume ambulatory and weight bearing functions.

Working conditions with different types

o f

disabi

1

i ty were examined by

McEiven 1973) in an Au stra lian study. He reported th at ind ivid ual s with

retarded impairments tended

t o

be found in jobs where noise levels and demands

fo r speed, exac tness and team work were re la ti v el y high , while ind ividua ls

with psychotic types of impairments favored jobs where these factors were low.

I t

was hypothesized that retards were better able t o cope with stress before

their performance deteriorated, due t o a lower arousal level.

b )

Parapl egi cs/Quad ripl gi cs

Quadriplegics comprise a readily identifiable sub-group

o f

the handicapped

pop ula tion . The most re ce nt published work i s an anthropometric survey

o f

quadriplegics conducted by Samuel and

Young

a t the Department

o f

Mechanical

Engineering, The University of Me1 bourne, Austral ia 1 9 7 5 ) . This study was

undertaken during 1973-75, when i t was found t ha t th e quadrip leg ic population

could n o t be employed a t any oth er than the most menial

o f

tasks, and information

on

the limitation

and

requirements

o f

quadriplegics was insufficient.

I t

pro-

bably represents the first systematic attempt t o collect anthropometric d a t a

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f o r the phy s i ca l l y handicapped ad u l t ma1 e popu l a t i on.

Both stat ic and dynamic anthropometry were taken, as wel l as biomechanics

in c l ud i ng j o i n t range o f mot ion and g rasp ing s t re ng th . Anth ropomet ry was taken

i n and abou t th e whee lchai r , bu t m igh t have app l i ca t i on t o any sea ted workspace

environment , s in ce seat , bu t toc k, and shou lder re ference po in ts were taken,

and measurements re1a te d t o th e se ra t h e r t h an from f i xe d re fe ren ce p o in t s .

S i nc e q u a d r i p l e gi c s have i n s u f f i c i e n t t r u n k s t a b i l y , m o s t o f t h e 5

ad u l t males i n th i s popu la t ion measured da ta was comp lete fo r on ly 38)

co u ld n o t s i t i n an e re c t p o s i t i o n . Thus s ta n da rd t e ch niq ue s we re

mod i f ied . A bas ic aim o f t h i s s tudy was t o compare th e an thropomet ry o f th e

d i ~ a b ld t o th e non-d isab led popu l a t io n . The authors concluded t h a t these

s u b je c t s, a t 1east, were rep res en t a t i ve o f the genera l popu l a t ion

and fo un d t o be d i s t r i b u te d n o rma l l y i n a l l m easurements. T he se f i n d in g s a r e

o f i n t e r es t t o the au tho r , who has re ce n t ly measured a se r i es o f th r ee fema le

p ar a pl e g i cs l o s s o f m o ti on o f l o w er ex t re mi t i e s ) and f i n d i n g s s ug ge st s i g n i f i -

cant anthropometr ic d i f fe re nc es unpubl ished data , Snyder 1977).

Range of mot ion dynamic anthro pomet ry) was measured f o r maximum fo rw ar d

and s id ew ays re ach f o r b o th r i g h t and l e f t arms, and fo r b o th a re s t ra i n e d

and u n re s t ra i n e d u pp er t o r so i n t h e w h e e l ch ai r ) . I n a d d i t i o n , an o b j e c t i ve

measure o f h o r i z o n ta l w ork space ca p a b i l i t i e s was a t t a i n e d w i t h t h e su b je c t

and wheelchai

r

plac ed aga ins t th e measur ing board and hor iz on ta l board , and

s in g l e arm com for tab le reach) , s in g l e arm maximum reach) two hands toget her

ro t a t in g a rc ) and s i ng le arm ro ta t io n a r c ) reach enve lopes measured .

Biomechanical a spects o f upper l i mb j o i n t movements, inc lu di ng head and

neck motibn,were al so measured i n t h i s study. Obj ect iv es were t o show how

j o i n t movement ang les a re r e l a t ed t o enve lopes of arm movement, t o determine

th e e x te n t o f im p ai rme nt o f j o i n t movement and re l a t e i t t o j o i n t movement o f

th e un impaired person, and t o determine

i f

any p o o r l y f u n c t i o n i n g j o i n t s c o u l d

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b e n e f i t f r o m m e c h a n i c a l a i d s .

The a rm movement envelope da ta were subd iv ided i n t o fo u r c l as s i f i c a t i on

sub-groups of C 4 - 5 ) (C5-C5-4) (C6-C6-7) and

C7).

The authors found that

w i t h i n t h e se con d a nd t h i r d s ub -g ro up s s t a n d ar d d e v i a t i o n s on r e a c h w e re s i m i l a r

t o those o f the un impai red p opu la t i on compared to .

Whi 1e mean head and neck

r o t a t i o n s w er e r e p o r t e d t o b e s i m i l a r t o t h e u n im p ai re d p o p ul a t i o n, d e v i a t i o n s

from the mean were found t o be s l i g h t l y g re a te r . On ly the C group o f qua dr i -

p l eg ic s had any measurabl e

fi n g e r and thumb movements. Wr is t, sh ou ld er , and

elbow m o ti on was f ou nd t o i n c r ea s e i n r e s t r i c t i o n w i t h t h e l e v e l o f i n j u r y .

Task performance o f t h i s q u a d r i p l e g i c p o p u l a t i o n was d e t e rm i ne d t o b e

c o n s i d e r a b l y b el ow t h a t o f t h e u n im p ai r ed p o p u l a t i o n .

For the two p r ima ry

sub-groups o f (C5-C5-6) and (C6-C6-7) in d i v i du al s , per formance t i me for t h e simp1 e

p i c k - u p - t r a n s p o r t t a s k r e q u i r e d a bo ut t h r e e ti m e s t h e D

M T

standard. Quad-

r i p 1e g i c s a l s o w er e f ou n d t o p e r f o rm p o o r l y w i t h p eg bo ar d l o c a t i o n t a s ks and

i t was recommended t h a t work tas ks ( o r occ upa t ion ) such as push-bu tton t e l e -

phone o r ty p i ng be avo ided. Performance was a l so found t o be af f ec te d by ro d

s i ze and f o r g rasp i ng co n t r o l s (opt imum per fo rmance) knob d iamete rs shou ld

n o t b e l e s s t h an 1 0 mm (p. 282) . The au thor s concluded t h a t th e Aus t ra -

l i a n wh ee lc ha ir s used by t h e V i c t o r i a q u a d ri p l e g ic s a r e s i m i l a r i n s i z e and

geometry t o those i n th e U.S., and suggested t h a t t he measurements ob ta i ned

would the re fo re be app l ab1 e to U So wheel -cha i

r

bound qu ad r ip le g i cs . Whi 1

e

t he Samuel and Young Aus t ra l i a n s tudy i s cons idered t o be an exc e l le n t

comprehensive s tudy i n an th ropomet ry o f th e handicapped a t t h i s p o i n t ,

i t

has

a number o f l i m i t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e l a c k o f a ny d a ta o n fem ale q u a d r i p l e g i c s .

(c) Left-handedness

Whi le 1ef t -handed persons ar e nor mal ly n o t cons id ered handicapped,

i t i s e s t i m at e d t h a t t h e r e a r e some

2 2 m i l l

o n l e ft -h an de d i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e

U.S.

S i n c e t h es e i n d i v i d u a l s c o m pr i se o n l y 10% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h e y ha ve h ad

1 5

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1 t t l e s tu d y r e l a t i v e t o a da p ti n g t o v ar io u s o c cu p at io n al t a sk s, a lm os t a l l o f

w h ich a re designed f o r r i gh t -handed i nd i v i dua l s .

L i k e ot he r handicapped groups such as t he b l i n d and hard-of-hea r ing,

t h e l ef t -h a nd e d i n d i v i d u a l has had t o l e a r n t o a d j u s t t o t h e m a j o r i t y r i g h t -

handed world . Suddon and Li nk (1959) have found, however, t h a t le ft -h an de rs

a r e b e t t e r a b l e t o p e r f o r m complex m o to r t as k s w i t h t h e r i g h t hand t ha n r i g h t -

handed i nd i v i dua l s can w i t h t h e i r l e f t hand.

The l e f t - handed i n d i v i du a l has been v i r t u a l l y i gno red i n most human

engineering design handbooks.

One o f th e most rec ent , f o r example, Van Cot t

and Kinkade (1972) does not d i r e c t l y cons ider handedness. I 1 us t r a t io ns and

da ta p rovided a re shown f o r r i gh t -handed i n d i v i du a l s on l y , except f o r t ab le s

o f maxima l s t a t i c hand fo r ces exe r ted on a ho r i zo n ta l handgr i p (a f t e r H unsi cke r ,

1 95 7) , w h ic h a r e p r o v id e d f o r b o t h t h e l e f t a nd r i g h t hand.

However,

i t

i s

no t s ta ted w he the r t hese da ta i nc l ude 1ef t -handed subjects.

Design handbooks

p resen t l y appear t o sugges t t ha t t he use r use t he sam e re l a t i onsh ips f o r e i t he r

hand un t i1 f u r t h e r e x p e r im e n ta t i on i s co nd uc te d ( M u r r e l l 1 96 5), o r p r o v i d e

a no ta t io n th a t th e data are f o r r igh t -hand ers on l y (Chapanis and Grappes,

1968). Oth er handbooks si mp ly do n o t address th e problem (McCormick, 1957).

Whi 1e Damn, Stoudt and McFarland (1967;1971) do in de x handedness,

c o n si d e ra t io n i s l i m i t e d t o t h r e e s en te nc es d e a l i n g w i t h

fac to rs in f l ue nc in g muscl e s t ren gth : Handedness I n the r igh t -handed

persons ( rou gh l y 90 pe r cen t of a l l ) , t he l e f t hand averaged abou t 10 pe r

cent weaker than th e r i g h t (Huns icker, 1955) . Schochr in (1934) found the

1e f t l e g a l s o t o be 10 p e r c e n t weaker, I n g e ne ra l , t h e p r e f e r r e d s i d e i s

t h e s t r o n g e r ( p . 2 02 ). They a l s o c o ns id e re d r i g h t v er su s l e f t s i d e i n

p r e se n t in g f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t he r an ge o f j o i n t m o ti on , r e p o r t i n g i l l l a n d s

(1921) f i n d i n g t h a t t h e re i s no r ma l l y so l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n t h a t t he two s id es

16

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can be cons idered iden t i ca l

,

and Sa l t er and Darcus (1953) conc lus i ons

t h a t i n arm r o t a t i o n g ro up di f fe r en c es between l e f t a nd r i g h t ra ng ed

f rom

0

t o 5 d eg re es (p. 1 89 ). S in ce t h i s r an ge o f j o i n t mo ti on d a t a i s

ind exe d under handedness, i t c o u l d b e m i s i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e u s e r .

Laveson and Meyer (1977) have addressed th e problem of th e le f t -h an de d

handicap by develop ing a methodology capable o f analyz ing consumer products

t o de te rm ine t he means by wh ich the y may be mod i f i e d o r adap ted t o le f t - ha nd

use.

They apply tas k an al ys is by determ in in g th e forc e- re1 ate d components

i n v o l v e d i n t h e o p e r a t io n o f t h e p r o du c t. Thus e le me nt s o f i n p u t , o u t p u t ,

and c o n t r o l a r e a na l yz e d b y c o n s i d e r a t i o n of how t h e f o r c e i s a p p l i e d ,

how t h e f o r c e i s u t i l i z e d , a nd how t h e f o r c e i s c o n t r o l l e d . The a n al ys es a r e

then compared t o determine s im i 1a r i t i es and di f ferences

A

p r o d u c t w i t h

i d e n t i c a l a n a l y s i s i s d et er mi ne d t o b e u s ab l e b y e i t h e r hand i n t h e i r s yste m.

I f th e ana1ysi.s d i f f e r s

,

t h e n p r o d u c t m o d i f i c a t i o n o r co m pl et e r e d e s i g n i s

r e q u i r e d . These a u th o rs a p pl i e d t h e i r m et ho do lo gy t o an e l e c t r i c a l l y o pe r at e d

d r i l l w i t h a h an dl e on t h e l e f t s i de , a c i r c u l a r saw, and a s e r r at e d

k i t c h e n k n i f e .

These au thors sugges t t h a t t h i s techn ique can be adap ted t o

a w i de r a ng e o f o f f i c e , b us in es s, and i n d u s t r i a l o c c u p a ti o n a l

t as ks , b u t t o

date no f u r t h e r work has been publ ished .

2 . The Female

D u r i n g t h e p a s t dec ade t h e r e h as b een a s h i f t o f m i l l i o n s o f women t o

employment outside the home. A t the same t ime there has been a t rend toward

th e expec t a t ion o f equa l employment opportunity, as well as new knowledge con-

cer n ing env i ronmenta l hea l th hazards . The re ce n t passage o f th e equa l r i g h ts

amendment t o th e Co ns t i t u t i on , i f r a t i f i e d by t he st a te s , c ou ld have s t i l l

f u r t h e r i m p ac t on i n c r e a s e s i n t h e f e ma le wo rk f o r c e .

I t has been reported

t h a t i n

7976

a l o n e t h e f e m a l e l a b o r f o r c e i n c r e a s e d b y 1 . 6 m i l l i o n

or

200%

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t h a t o f males f o r t h i s same per iod ) to a t o t a l o f 39,255,000. Women make

up a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e when i t

i s cons idered t ha t two-

f i f t h s o f t h e en t i r e wo rk f o r ce a r e women and tha t nea r l y

50

of th e female

popu la t ion i s e i th er employed o r seeking work . The m i l i t a r y has a lso inc reased

female personnel, the

A i r

Force alone increasing females by

129

i n t h e 5 -y ea r

per i od p r i o r t o 1973, wi th p lans t o increase t he 1973 number of females f rom

19,500 t o ove r 44,500 by 1978 (B ob bi tt , 1977).

An an alys is o f female workers i n i nd us tr y and by occupat ion has been

compiled by Waldmas and McEddy (1974). Th ei r f ind in gs i nd i ca t e t h a t about

60 o f a1 1 employees i n the se rv i ce i ndu st ry were women, wi th 60 i n educat ional

serv ices 75 i n the med ica l -hea l th ind us t r y , about 75 i n persona l serv ices .

A t le as t 50 of a l l employees i n the manufacture of c l o t h i ng and genera l

merchandising are women.

Desp i te these s t a t i s t i c s showing t ha t women pre sent ly make up a s i gn i f i c an t

p o r t i o n o f t h e

U.S.

t o t a l work force, and a l though the female represents about

52 o f the p resent

U.S.

popu la t ion , she i s g ross ly under represented i n s tud ies

o f biomechanical and human fa ct or s aspects of th e occupationa l environment.

There has been an inc reas ed awareness and i n t e r e s t i n female anth ro-

pometric requ i rements i n the ind us t r ia l and work envi ronments, bu t 1 t l e

such da ta e x i s t r e l a t i v e t o t h e c i v i l f em al e p o pu l at i on .

A

1965 Czechoslovakia

anthropometr ic s tudy by :mid o f 408 women i n an i nd us tr ia l p l an t po in ted out

t ha t women are now work ing i n a l l f i e l d s and occupat ions where fo rmer ly o n ly

men were employed. I n t h i s reg ar d

i t

i s i mp or ta nt t h a t t h e d i f f e r e nt

ph ysi cal and phy si ol og ic al makeups of women be taken i n t o account

i n e f f i c i e n t d u st r ia1 workspace design.

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Although ergonomics and human engineering st udie s a re concerned with

matching work t o people (Corl e t t , 1976), such studies have his to ri ca ll y

concentrated o n the man-machine problems (Prod uct Engineering, 19 60 ).

Examination o f th e l i t e r a tu re re ve al s t h a t t h i s i s l i t e r a l l y t rue . As a

result very

1

i t t l e atten tion has been given t o the woman-machine problems.

This is quite evident, n o t only in the data provided in most standard human

engineering texts when sources are revealed, b u t a lso in the i l lus t ra t ions

provided in which male figures are shown.

Female studies appear

t o

be mainly

confined

t o

sp ec ia li ze d re po rt s such as Kroemer's work in human en gineer ing of

the keyboard

1 9 7 2 ) ,

off ice seat ing

1 9 7 1

and industrial seating (1970).

An excel le n t review of the prin cip les o f industrial seating has been pro-

vided by Kroemer's 1 9 7 0 study, noting the interactions between work station

design body po sture, and task performance. Anthropometric and biomechanical

data with recommended dimensions a re provided f o r work s ea ts a n d benches,

f o o t

r e s t s , o f fi c e equipment, consol'es and machine sta nd s. However, except

fo r discussion of ty p is t requirements, the data provided appears

t o

be based

u p o n male c r i t e r i a di ff er en t sexual requirements are not indicated.

Office a n d factory seating habits

of

British adults were found

t o

be estab-

li sh ed in sch oo ls by Floyd a n d Ward (1967) in an English study.

I n general i t has been found t h a t women are

a b o u t

66% as st ro ng as men,

varying with d if fe ren t muscle groups (Damon e t a1.

,1971).

Female forearm

flexors are only about

55%

of men's strength, b u t this increases t o about 80%

for flexors and extensors of the hip, and flexors o f the lower le g . While

st ren gth of a muscle per un it cross -se ctio n may be v ir tu al ly th e same in

b o t h men and in women (H et ti nge r, 1961 correcting for body size results

in the conclusion that females have about 77% o f

t h e

strength

o f

males

(Asmussen

a n d

Heebbill -Niel son,

1 9 6 2 ) .

Hettinger

(1961

a1 so

found

tha t

muscl e tr ai ni ng prod2ces gr ea te r pro portional st re ng th inc rea ses fo r men than

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women.

New approaches have been reported on malelfemale strength stressing

by Snook 1977)

.

More recently, Laubach (1976) has conducted experiments to measure static

muscular strength characteristics in comparison with previous data available

fo r males. This study included 12 measures of s t a t i c muscular st re ng th ,

body-size measures, and somatotypes

of

31 female su bjec ts . Results in di -

cated th a t the ove ra ll to ta l body stren gth of women as compared to men i s

about 63.5%, with a range of 35 t o 86%. For the upper extremities, static

strength of women was found

t o

be 59.5% tha t of men, with a range of

44

to

79%.

When st re ng th of the lower ex trem it ies was compared, i t was found to

be 71 - 9 that of men, with a range of 57 to 86%. Female trunk strength was

63.8% th a t of males, with a range of 37 t o

70%.

Laubach also reported the

dynamic strength characteristics, including 1 ifting, lowering, pushing, and

pulling tasks,

o f

women

t o

average 68.6% th a t found fo r males, with a range

of 59

t o

84%.

Grip st re ng th da ta f o r women a re im portant in proper design of leng th

and configuration o f the moment arms of various hand tools and hand caliper

brake s. Even in such a common ac t iv i ty as ri di ng a bicycl e the fo rces requi red

t o stop by using the

h a n d

brake may be excessive for a given handlwristlfore-

arm configuration, especially for a weak female. The e f fe c t of wri st a n d

forearm position

on

gr ip str ength has been discussed by Te r r i l l and Purswell

(1976), b u t no comparison data f o r female provided. Lamphiear and Montoge

1 9 7 6 ) have studied the relationship o f arm and grip strength measurements

t o

various anthropometric measurements ( h ei g ht , biocromial diameter, arm gi rt h

and tric ep s ski nfo ld) for both sexes over a wide age range,

and

proposed

and index o f strength.

Isometric strength for 25 d i f fe r e n t muscle groups has been compared fo r

360 Danish men aged 1 5

t o

65

a n d

250 Danish women aged 15-55. Except for the

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15-20 ye ar o ld s , th e average v alue f o r a1 1 women was found t o be on ly 58-66

of t h a t of men of corresponding age. Maximum muscle s tr eng th was reached

sooner in women

b u t

decreased at an e a rl ie r age. Since a po si t iv e cor rela t ion

between

height and strength has been shown, corrections were applied

to the female subjects and women's muscular strength was found to be no more

than 70 to 80 of t h a t of men of th e same age (Asmussen and Hee bo ll-N ielsen ,

1961 ;1962 ).

Isometric muscular strength has also been measured by Rohmert and Jenik

(1971 in ten females between ages 17 and

24

years of age in various arm

reach pos iti on s. Furt her str en gt h measurements included maximum i f t i n g

strength of both arms, foot pressure exerted by the right leg from a sit t ing

position, central push and pull of the arm, and adduction pull and abduction

push of th e arm wi thin arm reach and from a sta nd ing pos it io n (1 97 3) . They

found the mean s tr eng th d i f fe rence between men and women t o be about two-

t h i r d s ,

b u t

note t ha t t he re i s

a

wide range of strength differences between

m n

and women.

Ten c o ll eg e age women were al so involved in a st ud y of f o rc es produced

by maximum vol un ta ry i so m et ri s muscle co nt ra ct io n (Will iams and Stutzman, 195 9) .

Tests were conducted on the knees, elbows, shoulders, and hips through the range

of motion.

S t a t ic muscular st re ng th of 31 female co lle ge su bj ec ts (mean age 20.7)

f o r 2 measurements, incl

u d i n g

body s i z e measures , and soma totypes, have

been reported by Laubach, and compared

t o

ma1 e capabi 1 t i es ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

The

subjects were apparently the same as used

by

Kennedy (1976) in his study

o f

reach of women.

Variables included sho ulder fle xi on , el bow fl ex io n, hip

flexion, knee extension, t runk flexion, and grip st rength.

Strength data o n

152 female Braniff International Airways, Inc., stewardesses for

4

s t rength

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t e s t s a n d 3 body measurements have been reported by Reynolds and Allgood

(1975) . St r eng th te s t s invo lv ed a two-handed push (110 cm f rom f l o o r ) , l e g

l i f t

(25 cm f rom f l o o r ) , back

l i f t

(50 cm fro m f l o o r ) , and arm l i f t (100 cm

f r o m f l o o r ) . H o we ve ry th e a u t h o r s n o t e t h a t t h e r e a r e no co mp ar ab le d a ta i n

t h e l i t e r a t u r e and t h a t i n g en er al , t h e av er ag e a i r l i n e st ew ar de ss does n o t

appear to have th e body b u i l d o f th e average Amer ican female (p .3) .

M a t ch i ng a p e rs o n' s p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s t o a j o b ' s p h y s i c a l demands

has become o f i n c r e a s i n g i mp o rt a n ce i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n

programs f o r women, th e disab led,and th e handicapped. Th is has re su l t ed i n a

need t o develo p more o b je c t i v e pre-employment s el ec t i on and employee placement

t e s t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r i mp ro ve d o c cu p at i on a l h e a l t h and s a f e t y

p rograms i n ind us t ry . Dur ing the pas t n i ne years work has been conduc ted a t

th e Human Performance and Safet y Research Lab ora tory of th e U ni v e rs i ty of

Mich igan on the development o f b iomechanical s t re ng th models and

phy s ic a l jo b eva lu at ion methodology (Chaf f in , 1974; 1975; Chaf f in and Baker ,

1970; C h a ff i n and Park 1973; Garg and Chaffi n, 1975; H e r r i n e t a1. ,1974;

He rr in e t a1. J976; Ch af f i n and He rr i n , 1976; Ma r t in and Ch af f in , 1972; Park

and Cha ff in , 1975).

Standard ized pre-employment s t r en gt h po s i t i on s (arm, 1eg or so ) were

evalua ted f o r 443 males and 99 females i n one s tudy (C ha f f in and He rr i n , 1976) .

A

l i f t i n g s t r e n g t h r a t i n g ( LSR) (maximum l o a d l i f t e d d i v i d e d b y p r e d i c t e d maximum

1 f t i n g c ap ab i l i t y ) has been deve loped by Cha f f in (1973) (Cha f fi n and Her r in , 1976),

and ev al ua te d . I n one st u dy 1 35 p e op l e i n f i v e p l a n t s o f a l a r g e e l e c t r o n i c s

manufactur ing company were se l ect ed fo r ev a lu at ion o f 38 jobs, and low-back

pa in tabu la ted .

F ind ings i nd ica te d th a t j obs w i th h igh LSR values were h igher

than expected by medical and safety personnel.

I n an extended study, 411

males and females wor kin g on 103 jo bs were evalu ate d and 25 in ci de nt s o f low-

b a c k p a i n i d e n t i f i e d .

In te re s t in g l y , fema les were found t o show a h igher

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j o b - r e l a t e d low-back p a i n i n c id e n ce r a t e a t t h e 0.5-0,8 j o b l i f t i n g s tr e n g t h

r a t i n g t ha n ma le s, a l t ho u g h s l i g h t l y l e s s a t 0.2-0.5, and s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s

a t 0-.2 r a t i n g s . T h i s work c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d i f f e r i n g p h y si c a l

1 f t i n g capab i l i t i e s be tween ma les and fema les m ust be t aken i n t o cons ide ra t i on

i n pre-employment jo b matching.

B iomechanical s t re ng th models have been reviewed by Ch af f i n (1 976).

He

n o te s t h a t among t h e u se s t h e model has been p u t t o i n i n d u s t r y i s t o i d e n t i f y

t h e s t r e n g t h r e qu ir em en ts o f v a r i o u s j ob s t o p r e d i c t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i o u s

work ing popul at io ns (young, o ld , women, handicapped, et c. ) who cou ld perfo rm

the va r i ous t asks com pr is i ng ove r 500 j obs i n one l a r ge co rpo ra t i ons p l an t s .

Ayoub e t al . (1976) has fo l l ow ed up Cha ff i n's (1969) recommendations i n

an exper im ent u t i l i z i n g f em ales as w e l l as ma les, i n c l ud in g some i nd us t r i a l

worker su b jec ts , t o e s t ab l i sh t he maximum acceptab le we ight o f 1 t f o r t hr e e

h e i g h t s o f l i f t i n g t a s ks . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e maximum a c c ep t a bl e

w ei gh ts o f 1

t

were lower f o r females, bei ng 49 t o 62 o f th e maximum accep-

t a b l e 1

i t

f o r t he m ales.

I n an exper iment w i t h 4 males and 4 females Jorgensen and Poulsen (1974)

found the maximum 1 f t i n g f requency (maximum lo ad which co uld be i f t e d f rom

f l o o r t o t a b l e ) o f f em al es t o be a p p ro x i ma t e ly 0.7 o f t h a t o f ma le s a t t h e

same r e l a t i v e burden. They conc luded th i s d i f f e r en ce was due t o d i f fe rence

i n t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e o x yg en t r a n s p o r t i n g s ys te m i n t h e t wo sexes.

Twenty-nine women t e x t i l e workers work loads were ev alua ted i n a Swiss

stud y (Nemecek, 1976) which found t h a t fa t i gu e, shoulder and w r i s t pains,

and

t o ta l w ork pe rformance seem to be re l a te d t o deg ree o f t r a i n i ng and adap ta t i on .

However the data f o r de term in ing work p u lse as a th re sho l d v a lue f o r cont inuous

work f or women have no t ye t been ade quat ely det ermin ed acc ord ing t o Nemecek.

I n 1971 Rohmert and Je ni k s tu di e d 10 German women, f i n d i n g

a n

average

for ce of mean maximal le ng th s tr en gt h o f 1010 neutons, compared t o 1510 neutons

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found i n Mu1 1e r ' s 1936 st ud y o f two German women.

Brown (1971) has made an ex te ns i ve rev iew o f t he l i t e r a t u r e and sum-

m ar iz ed bac k i n j u r y and l i f t i n g s tu d i e s as an i n d u s t r i a l h az ar d i n a p u b l i -

c a t i o n f o r t h e L ab ou r S a f e t y C o un ci l o f O n t a ri o .

S t u d i e s i n t h e U n i t e d K ingdom ha ve shown t h a t t h e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e o f

back in j u r i e s occurs i n employees between 31 and

40

ye ar s of age (Brown, 1972)

w i t h 8 .7 in vo lv in g fema les, y e t by age 41 th e inc idence inc reases t o 14 .1

and between 50-60 i s 14.4 (p.5).

s tudy by Snook and C i r i e l o (1974) inc lud ed 15 fema le in d u s t r ia l workers

and 16 housewives who performed a number o f work tasks. These inc lu de d

l ow er in g, 3 l i f t i n g , 4 p u sh i ng , 1 p u l l i n g , 1 w a l k i n g , and 6 c a r r y i n g t a s k s .

Compar ison wi th a prev ious s tudy on males showed that the average weight

h a nd le d by i n d u s t r i a l women was s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f men, b u t

s ig n i f i c a n t l y g rea te r than we igh ts hand1 ed by housewives.

Maximum power out pu t du r i ng th e per formance of a s ta ndin g broad jump o f

two f e e t f r o m a f o r c e p l a t f o r m and s t a i r c l i m b i n g has been s t u d i e d b y D a vi e s

(19 71) , who ca l cu l a t ed male mean power ou tp ut va lue s of 5.23 hp and 3.15 hp

for women.

The range o f mot ion va r ie s cons iderab l y between in d i v i du a l s depending

upon age , sex, phys ica l cond i t i on , and o t her fac to rs . J o i n t mob i l y decreases

o n l y s l g h t l y i n h e al h y p e op l e bet wee n 20 and 60 ye ar s of age. However,

b eyo nd ag e 4 5 t h e i n c i d e n c e o f a r t h r i t i s i n c r ea s e s so m a rk e dl y t h a t b o t h ma le

and f em al e e l d e r l y p o p u l a t i o n s w i l l h av e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e cr ea s ed a ve ra ge

j o i n t m o b i l i t y (Sm yth e t a1 1 95 9) . I t has been found that females exceed

m al es i n t h e r a ng e o f movement a t a l l j o i n t s b u t t h e k ne e ( He r t z b er g , 1 9 58 ).

The w ides t range o f j o i n t movement i s found i n th in ne r ma les and fema les

( B a r t e r e t a l e 1 95 7) .

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P h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e may i n c r e a s e t h e r a n ge o f m o t i o n o f a j o i n t , b u t

excess ive exerc i se can reduce mot ion i he in d iv i du a l becomes muscle

bound. The aut hor has observed these prob lems i n wei ght 1 f t e r s who have

t r i e d o u t f o r c o m p e t i t i v e s wimming.

I na de q ua te s i t t i n g and s t a n d i n g p o st u r e s ha ve been fo un d t o r e s u l t i n

pa ins i n muscl e and co nnec t i v e t i ssu es o f tendons , j o i n t capsu l es, and 1 gaments,

and can become the symptoms of chron ic d iseases at t r ibuted to rheumat ic d is -

o rders .

Grandjean e t a1. (1968) s t ud ie d female depar tment s t or e shopc lerk s and

off ice wor ker s (Grandjean and Buran dt, 1962), and have summarized or th op ed ic

p r i n c i p l e s f o r a t i 1 a b l e s ea t s h e l l a p pr o pr i at e f o r w ork n e c e s s i t at i n g

a1 te rn a t in g lea n ing fo rward and re c l n i ng sea ted pos tu res (Grand jean and

H i i n t i n g , 1 97 7) an d o f o t h e r s e a t i n g w or k p l a c e s ( 1 97 3) .

The l a c k o f b i om ec h an ic al a b i l i t i e s h as - been p o i n t e d o u t b y Da m n ( 19 7 1) ,

B iomechan ica l ab i l i i e s h av e been s t u d i e d c h i e f l y among s m a l l g ro up s o f w h i t e

males, American or European. Comparab le da ta fo r fema les , o ther rac ia l g roups ,

o r f o r s p e c i f i c ages o r o c c up a ti o ns a r e few o r n o n e x i s t en t ( p . 1 8 7 ).

A1 t ho ug h f em al es o p e r a te a l l t y pe s o f m o to r v e h i c l e s and a i r c r a f t r e q u i r -

i n g d e si g n of e f f i c i e n t s ea te d p ed al o p e r a t io n , a l mo s t a l l s t u d i e s o f se a te d

f o rc e s a p p l i e d t o a p ed al ( f i x e d o r p i v o te d ) have u t i l i z e d m al e s u bj e ct s .

Kroemer no tes (1972 , p .2 ) t h a t M i l l e r (1936) was the f i r s t and appare n t l y ,

u n t i l 1971, the on l y researcher t o pu b l i sh such s t ren g t h da ta of ( two) women

i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s c or es a c h ie v ed b y o ne man.

I n t h e ar e a o f push f o r c e s f o r s t a n d i n g s u b j e c t s , no p u b l i s h e d d a t a f o r

women has been locate d, a l th oug h th er e are many such s t ud ie s f o r push and p u l l

o f m ale s.

An e x te n s iv e re vi ew o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f f l e x i b i l i t y s t u d i e s has been

pub l i s hed by Ho l land (1968), and f o r the measurement o f j o i n t mot ion by Moore

(1949) .

5

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Female f l e x i b i l i t y i s o f t e n assessed i n t e s t s f o r p h y si ca l f i t n e s s by

t h e t o e t ou ch , on t h e a ss um pt io n t h a t f l e x i b i l i t y and mo bi l i t y o f t h e b ody

i s o f a general na tu re . However, Ha r r i s 1969) conc luded t h a t the re i s no

e vi de nc e t h a t f l e x i b i l i t y e x i s t s as a s i n g l e g en er al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e human

body. I n t h i s study 147 col lege-aged women were examined f o r 53 var i ab le s,

in cl ud in g 38 j o i n t motion, 13 composite, and 2 anth ropom etr ic measures.

The grasping reach o f women and men) i n the form o f v e r t i c a l p lanes

a t 15O in te rv a l s f rom a ve r t i c a l th rough Seat Reference Po in t has rec en t l y

been ext ens ive ly s tud ied i n a doc tor a l d i ss er ta t i on by Kennedy 1976) . Tab-

u l a r data descr ib i ng ver t i c a l p lanes a t 15O in te rv a l s f o r women are p resented

a long w i th gr aph i c data . I n t h i s s tudy , which dup l i ca ted a s tudy o f males

th e au tho r r ep or te d i n 1964, 12 ant hro pom etr ic measures were made on 30 female

col lege s tudents and A i r Force personne l. Desp i te the l i m i t e d sample tes ted ,

t h i s i s the f i r s t a t temp t to desc r i be the comp le te 3 -d imensional 5 th, 50th, and

95th percen t i le g roup ing reach enve lopes fo r the sea ted female and to descr ibe

fo r design l oca t i on f o r c r i t i c a l hand- oper ated con t r o l s i n machine and veh i c l e

operating compartments.

A

genera l rev iew

o f

in du st r i a l machine guard ing fo r th e worker has been

pub1 she d by Roozbazor 1977) and some data p er t i ne nt t o t he female ar e pro-

vided.

Rec ent ly Adams e t a1. 1976) have examined human fa ct or s i n gr ai n

harves t ing equipment des ign, S j o f l o t 1976) Norwegian farm tr ac to rs , A1 i o t h e t

a1. 1 976) work groups i n Swiss Supermarket warehouses. Fech ter 1976) has

descr ibed human facto rs research a t the Nat i onal Bureau o f Standards as

ll s t r a t e d

by

a study of cooking ranges.

~ ~ p

at io n o f ergonomics t o t he k i t ch en environment has been s tud ied

es pe ci a l ly by th e Engl ish. Concerns have ranged f rom la yo ut and ov er a l l

spec ia l requ i rements t o work ing surfaces . Whi le in tended f o r domest ic env i r -

onments, some of the f in d i ng s might a lso apply t o res tau ran t k i t chens and

ot he r work environments where a female worker must stand or s i t .

Dudgeon

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(1963) measured 56 ad u l t B r i t i s h women aged 18 t o 40 years , f o r anthropo-

m e t r i c d im en si on s r e l a t i v e t o t h e h e i g h t s a t w hi ch e ach p r e f e r r e d a w or k

s u r f a c e t o b e s e t i n p e rf o rm i ng s e l e c t e d d om es ti c k i t c h e n t as k s. S a v i l l e

( 19 67 ) m ea sure d t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r es po ns es o f t h e s u b j e c t s t o t h e t a s k s .

Ward and K i rk (1970) have fu r th e r s t ud ied the r e l a t io ns h i p between an th ro -

pomet r ic measurements and k i tc he n wor k in g he i ght s . Th ei r con c lu s io ns showed

t h a t t h e r e w er e s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een e l bow he igh t and p re fe r red

s t a n d i n g an d s e a t e d ' w o rk s u r f a c e h e i g h t s , n o t o n l y b et we en s u b j e c t s o f

d i f f e r e n t s t a t u r e , b u t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s p erformed.

The prob lems i n the Army o f ad apt ing women t o equipment , c l o t h i ng , and

workspace des igned pr im a r i l y f o r males, and necessary changes t o th e Des ign

Handbooks, has been recent ly out1 ned by

l

umm (1976 ). Another rec en t stu dy

addressed th e adequacy o f th e t oo ls and equipment fo r

ir

Force women now

em ploye d i n m ai nt en an ce , e l e c t r o n i c s , and c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g ( B o l a l e k e t a1

1975) , f i nd i ng a s i gn i f i c an t number o f i nadequac ies , wh ich undoub tab ly wou ld

a p pl y t o c i v i l i a n f em al e w or ke rs i n t he se f i e l d s as w e l l .

Ant hro pom etr ic standa rds f o r wor kin g women were proposed by Bayer and Gray

i n a 1934 s tudy o f 100 work in g women f rom 20 t o 60 years o f age o f Nor thwe st

European s tock. However ,a number o f se le ct iv e requi rements were u t i l i z e d ,

i n c l u d i n g he a l t h y s u b j e ct s a nd w e i g h t w i t h i n 15 o f p r e d i c t e d.

A rev iew o f

subsequen t U.S. c i v i l an th ropomet r i c s tud ies i s p rov id ed i n pp. 25-2Z) .*

I n an E ng l i sh s tudy 5000 c i v i l a n women aged 18 t o 70 were s tu d ied t o

p rov ide a range o f measurements f o r c lo th in g manufactu re rs and a s i z i n g

system based upon s t a t ur e, h i p g i r t h ,a nd bu st g i r t h (Kemsby, 1957) .

* Si nc e t h i s s t ud y i s c o n f i ne d t o t h e c i v i l p o p ul at io n ,a number o f e x c e l l e n t

m i l i t a r y s t u d i e s h a ve n o t b ee n i n c l u d e d b ec au se t h e y w er e c on du ct ed o n o t h e r

sp ec ia l i ze d segments o f th e popu la t ion . However , severa l

rec en t s tu d ies o f m i l i t a r y fema les have been comp le ted . A 1977 repor t on U S

Army women pro vid es dat a on 128 con ven t ion al body s i z e dimensions, 14 workspace

dimensions, and 9 s t a t i c s t re ng th measurements (Laubach e t a l. ).

A

number of

these measurements had no t been pr ev io us ly re po r t ed f o r women, e i t h e r m i

1

a r y

o r c i v i l a n. I n a d di t io n , 1 3 7 anthro pometr ic d imens ions have been rep or te d as

a re s u l t of a 1968 survey o f

A i r

For ce women (C lau se r e t al., 1970).

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comparison o f t h e segment volumes and 1 n k l e ng t hs o f 12 c o l l e g e

females was made wi th Dempsters ' (1955) male s tudy and th e most s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e s we re fo un d i n t h e c a l f , t h i g h , and h e a d- t or s o ( K j e l d s e n , 1 9 72 ) .

A

r e v i e w o f c i v i l a n a n t h r o p o me t r i c s t u d i e s c on du ct ed i n C ze c ho sl ov a ki a

du r in g the pas t th ree decades p rov ides mean he igh t , we igh t , and ches t c i r -

cumferences f o r women ov er 18 ye ar s (Prok ovec, 1969) . However, body s i z e

dat a on women fro m Czechoslovakia, England and ot he r co un tr ie s may no t be

ap pl ic ab le t o the U.S. female.

Female a i r c a r r i e r f l i g h t a t t e n d a n t s h ave been measured i n a s t u d y o f

4 2 3 women f o r 72 standa rd and fu nc t i on al anthr opo met r ic measures. (Snow

e t al., 1 97 5) . T h i s st u d y was i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e im pr ov ed c r i t e r i a f o r

workspace des ig n and emergency equipment usage f o r stewardesses, The

r e l a t i v e l y yo un g age r an g e o f t h e s e women and p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n j o b

se le c t i on , however, make t h i s a spe c ia l i ze d female popu la t ion p robab ly no t

re pr es en ta t i ve o f t he U.S. femal e as a who1 e.

A

s t u d y o f

180

c i v i l i a n males and females, aged 18-74 yea rs, chosen by sex,

age g r o up s an d s t a t u r e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e U S po pu la t i on was conducted by Snyder

e t a1. (1975) . Inc lud ed i n th i s work was head and neck an thropometry , s ag i t t a l

p lane range o f mot ion o f th e head and neck, de te rm i na t ion o f th e response o f

head and neck musc les t o low le ve ls o f acc e le ra t io n, and measurement o f vo lun ta ry

i somet r i c s t reng th o f neck f l exor and ex tensor musc les .

E lder l y fema les were

i n cl u de d i n t h i s s tu dy .

The fema le hand i s i mpor ta n t t o the p roper des ign o f co n t ro l s and

equipment i n i n d u s t r i a l and oth er work env i ronments . The female hand has been

ex t ens i ve l y s tud ied by Ga r r e t t (1971) fo r an th ropomet ry and b iomechan ica l charac -

t e r i s t i cs.

I n c l u d e d i s s t an d ar d and r e l a x e d a n th r o po m et r y o f

th

hand,

b a r e and p r es s ur e -g l ov e d p er fo rm an ce , and t h e a b i l i t y t o r e t a i n g r i p s o n

se le ct ed hand1 es under hig h dynamic l oads. Biomechanical measures i nc lu de d

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maximum r o ta t i o n ( sup ina t ion and p rona t ion ) , and a l a r ge number o f hand

c l e a r an c e and g r i p di me ns io ns . However, t h e g r e a t e s t 1 m i t a t i o n o f t h i s

e x c e l l e n t s t u d y may be i n t h e q u e s t i o n o f how r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e U S

female the young co l le ge s t udents se le cte d may be,

A number o f s t ud ie s have been d i re c t ed towards energy requi reme nts and

th e ph ys ic a l work c ap ac i t y o f women; however, these ar e cons idered t o be ou t -

s id e the scope o f t h i s study . Ward le (1977), f o r example, has found t ha t

women can work under co nd i t io ns r e q u i r i n g strenu ous (heavy) work.

(a ) E l de r l y Fema les

The e l d e r l y ( 6 5 y e a r s o f age o r o l d e r ) r e p r e se n t an i n c r e a s i n g p r o p o r t i o n

o f the U S p o p u l a t i o n .

I n 1974, 21,815,000 males and females, o r 10.3% o f th e

t o t a l

pop u la t ion were 65 o r over. By 1980 t i s p r o j e c t e d by t h e B ureau o f t h e

Census t h a t 24,523,000 Americans w i l l be 65 o r over.

I n 1974 58.9% (12,849,000)

o f t h o se o v e r 65 w er e fe ma le ; i n 1 980 t h i s i s p r o j e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e t o 5 9.6%

(14,609,000) fem al e.

The a g i n g p ro c es s g r e a t l y a f f e c t s n o t o n l y j o i n t r a ng e o f m o t io n , s t r e n g t h

and o the r b iomechan ica l fa c to rs , bu t a l s o body s i ze and human fa c t o r s cons ider -

a t i o n s. T he re i s an in cr ea se d i n ci d en c e o f a r t h r i t i s and o t h e r c r i p p l i n g

d is ea se s w hi ch r e s t r i c t j o i n t ra ng e o f m ot io n. P os tu re , r ea ch , n o t i o n ,

as we l l as per formance i n most areas i s decreased. A s l o w e r r e a c t i o n t i m e

and decrement i n h i gh ly s k i 1 e d work a1 so accompanies advanced age. A c t i v i t i e s

o r w ork r e q u i r i n g ex po su re t o f a l l s p r es e nt a c o ns i de r ab l y g r e a t e r r i s k o f

i n j u r y t h an t o yo un ge r i n d i v i d u a l s .

Severa l s tu d ie s o f th e an th ropomet ry o f e ld e r l y fema les have been conduc ted ,

b u t f o r t h e most p a r t , t h e s e ha ve been o u t s i d e t h e U S

I n 1960 , Rober ts pub l i sh ed

30 measurements on 78 women aged 56-99 yea rs t o p ro vi de dat a f o r use i n t he

d es ig n o f E n g l is h f l a t s , f i n d i n g t h a t t h i s was i nd ee d a s p e c i a l i z e d p o p u la t i o n .

Roger ts found t ha t body s i z e was sma l l e r than t ha t o f the younger ri t i s h f e m a l e

p o p u la t i o n , w i t h h e i g h t a v e r ag i ng

3

t o n ch es l e s s .

n measurements of

2

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comfor tab le reach

i t

was concluded th a t an impo rta nt var ia b l e was th e

r ed uc t io n i n re ac hi ng a b i l i t y due t o a r t h r i t i c and j o i n t r ang e l i m i t a t i o n s .

A t h i r d d i f f e r e n c e was th e re l a t i v e weakness o f m uscula r e f f o r t . The

average dynamometer g r i p s t r eng th o f the p r e f e r re d hand o f 14 kg was found

t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o we r , w i t h some i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a r t h r i t i c hands who

c o ul d e x e r t a g r i p s t r en g th o f o n l y 3 o r 4 kg (Roberts, 1960).

Th i s was fo l low ed i n 1964 by a st udy o f 100 e l d e r l y women i n t he B i rmingham

(England) area (Jones, Lawton, and Myles, 1964). Both of the se st ud ie s

were p roposed to p rov ide domest ic a rch i tec tu ra l des ign requ i remen ts .

Ward

and K i r k (1967) have compared these two popu l a t io ns r e l a t i v e t o body dimen-

sions and found them to be substant ia l ly the same.

Dur in g th e pe r i od October 1971 through June 1972 f i v e measurements ( f o r -

ward reach, e lbow he i ght , v e r t i c a l reach, sta ture , and weigh t) were taken on

7 I

7 B r i t i s h women (between t h e ages of 18 and 80 ye ar s) (Thompson, e t al.,

1972). These da ta were in tended t o update th e p rev ious su rvey of B r i t i s h

women o f t h e 1 9 40 i s, and p ro v id e i n fo rm a t i o n f e l t p a r t i c u l a r l y needed fo r t h e

des ign o f work p laces , f i t t i n g s and equ ipment i n the home (p .2 ) . Th is

s t u d y i n c luded 124 women between ages 66-80 yea rs o f age (71 66 and 70 yea rs

;

31, 71 t o 75 years; 22, 76 t o 80 year s) . However, i n ord er t o ge t a la rg e

na t ion a l sample, some 64 o rgan iza t ions coopera ted i n da ta co l l ec t i on , w i t h

th e in form at ion gathered by members o f th e org an i zat ion s and by students as

pa r t o f t h e i r teach ing and t r a i n i n g programmes.. .and th e da ta were ob ta ined

by hundreds

o f measures a l l ove r the coun t ry (p . 2 ) . Th is techn ique,

p lu s t h e t a k in g o f a1 1 measurements , i n c l u d in g w e igh t , w i t h su b je c t f u l l y

c lo t hed, makes these daTa d i f f i c u l t t o compare and in t rodu ces considerab l e

po ten t ia l fo r measuremen t e r ro r .

There a r e seve ral ma jo r s tud ies o f the an thropomet ry o f U S c i v i l i a n

women, bu t r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e da ta on the o l de r female. For examp le,

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i n th e most rece nt anthropometry s tudy o f U.S, women ( i n t he Army) on ly 3

in di v i du al s were over age 50, and onl y 12 between 45 and 50 years, o f a

t o t a l sample of 1,331 and mean age was 23.1 y ea rs

(Laubach e t a l , 1977, p. 23) .

I n co ntr as t , th e mean age o f women i n the U.S. po pu lat io n i s 28.8 y ears

(Bure au o f Census, 1976, P. 25).

For th e 7 female U.S, m i l i t a r y female an thro-

pometry st ud ie s l i s t e d by McFarland e t a1 obta in ed between 1943-1952, mean age

ranged f rom 18 t o 31 years (1971, p. 60-61), and f o r 9 U.S. c i v i l i a n female

st ud ie s between 1928-1957, mean age ranged o f 17 t o 45 ye ar s (1971 p. 60-61 .

I n 1941, O' Br ie n and She lt on de sc rib ed 50 measurements on some 15,000

c i v i l i a n women i n a U.S. Department o f Ag r i cu l t u r e WPA Pro jec t . Commerc ia l

Standa rd CS 214-58 o f th e U.S. Department o f Commerce, promu lgate d on 24 Februa ry

1958, was based upon work between January 1949 and A p r i l 1952. Th is i s

in tend ed t o pro v i de a means o f s i z i n g women's c lo th es f o r 45 measurements.

However,

i t

i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o te t h a t t he se da t a a r e now g r e a t l y o u td at ed

as ind ica ted by one major

U.S.

c l o t h i ng s t o r e ' s l oss o f ove r 200,000 a l one

du r i ng t h e pas t yea r due t o c l o th i n g re t u rns (wrong s i zes ) . ( pe rsona l communi-

ca t ion , 1977) .

The P ub l ic Hea l th Examinat ion Survey in c lu de d anthropomet r ic measure-

ments on 6,672 adu l ts o f a p r o ba b i l i t y sample o f 7,710 persons se lec ted t o

r e pr e se n t t h e 11 1 m i l i o n a d u l t s i n t h e U.S. c i v i l i a n n o n i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o p u l at i o n

aged 18 t o 79 yea rs. These dat a were taken

fro m Octob er 1959 th ro ug h December

1962, a l though no t rep or te d u n t i l 1965 (Stoudt e t al,). Th is popu l a t io n inc lude d

564 in di v i du al s (265 male and 299 females) f rom age 65 t o 74, and 142 in di v i du al s

(72 male and 79 females) from age 75 t o 79. This pro vid es t he most cu rr en t pop-

u l a t i o n sample p resen t l y ava i l a b l e f o r U.S. e l de r l y and cons i s t s o f t he

la rg es t sample o f U.S. e l de r l y females .

Twelve 1 n e a r measurements were ta ken .

These i nc l u d e d s t a t u r e , w e ig h t, s i t t i n g h e i g h t ( e r e c t ) , s i t t i n g h e i g h t (n or ma l

Knee he igh t , pop1 ea l h e ig h t , e l bow re s t he i gh t , th ig h c learance, bu t tock-knee

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1ength , bu t tock-pop1 ea l 1ength e lbow-el bow bre adt h, and se at br ead th.

S i x add i t i on a l m easurements w ere a l so t aken , i nc l u d in g r i g h t arm sk i n f o l d ,

i n f r a -s c a p u la r s k i n f o l d , r i g h t arm c h es t and w a i s t g i r t h s , and b i o c r om i a l

d iameter .

Some e f f o r t s t o p r o v i d e d es i gn i n f o r m a t i o n f o r s p e c i a l p o p u l at i o n s s uch

as t he e l de r ly (as we l l as handicapped and wheel ch a i r users ) must be care-

f u l l y e v a lu a te d , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e r e f er e nc e d oes n o t i d e n t i f y t h e s o ur ce

o r spec i f y t he techniques used. I n such cases, even though inf orma t ion pro-

v i d e d p u rp o r t s t o a p p l y t o s p e c i a l i z e d p o p u l a ti o n s ,

i t may be misleading. An

example i s t he rev iew by Fau l kner (1975) o f Humansca le 1 /2 /3, a des ign k i t ,

who recommends t h a t

i t

be burned due to t he ques t i onab le na tu r e o f t he da ta .

(b ) Pregna nt Females

There a re nea r l y 4 m i l l i o n b i r t h s each y e a r i n t h e U n i t e d S ta te s.

Dur ing th e te rm o f p regnancy the female becomes pa r t o f the m in or i t y popu l a t io n

w i th sp ec i a l p rob lems and hand icaps . Wi th th e increase i n abdominal p ro-

tuberance, preqnant females become s u sc e pt i b l e t o unusual

occupational hazards and problems.

Recogn i t ion o f the need f o r gu ide l ine s on pregnancy and po te nt ia l hazards

of var ious work env ironments was fo rm al i zed by a recent s tud y conducted f o r

NIOSH (unde r co nt ra ct no. 210-76-0159) i n 1976 by the American Co l le ge o f

O bs te t r i c i ans and G yneco log i s t s ACOG , 1976) . The p r im ary ob jec t i v e o f t h i s

work was t o p r e pa re g u i d el i n e s t o a s s i s t t h e p r a c t i c i n g o b s t e t r i c i a n i n mak in g

judgments

necessary t o adv i se p regnan t worke rs i n m a tte r s o f hea l t h . A

s ec on da ry p ur po se o f t h i s s t u d y was t o c o l l e c t a b i b l i o g r a p h y o f p e r t i n e n t

r e p o r t s r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t o f work e nv ir on me nt s on t h e h e a l t h o f t h e m ot he r

and fetus.

Some biomechanical ( ergonomi c/ ph ys ica l energy ) hazards f o r th e pr egnan t women

have been addressed t o some ex te nt 2 pages) i n t h i s o b s t e t r i c a l s tu dy ,

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A1 though ex ce l 1en t recommendations re 1a t i v e t o 1 f t i n g and 1oad car ry ing ,

sea t in g and envi ronmenta l p rob lems sp ec i f i c t o th e expectant female are

provided, the y are based upon a l i m i t e d number o f references, and only general

cons idera t ions are addressed.

I t i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e p h y si c a l e x e r t i o n t o l e r an c e o f t h e p re gn an t

woman i n l i f t i n g , c l im b i ng , o r p u l l i n g s tr e n g t h ta sk s w i l l v a r y g r e a t l y ,

depending upon va r i a t i o ns i n phys i ca l f i t ne ss and s t reng th , t he l oa d handled ,

and th e work environmen t Bu tt re y, 1977). Du ri ng pregnancy th e re may be non-

s p e c i f i c symptoms such as backache, headache, o r nausea, whi ch can be aggra-

va ted i n some w ork assignments D idd le , 1970) . The r i s k o f f a l l i n g appears

t o be gr ea te r du r i ng pregnancy, and wear ing of shoes wi t h adequate support and

lo w he el s has been recommended t o 1essen t h e s h i f t o f t h e w e i gh t b e a r i n g a n gl e

ACOG, 1976).

The ACOG r ep or t notes t h a t th e amount o f weight t o be 1 f t e d by females

has f o r t he most pa r t been d i sca rded by s ta te reg u la to r y bod ies , i n d i ca t i ng

t h a t i t i s n o t l a wf u l t o s e t a l i m i t on what a pregnant o r non-pregn ant)

woman should l i f t A l oad wh ich can be l i f t e d r ea d i l y by a woman shou ld no t

p rov ide t oo g r ea t a s t r ess w h i l e she i s p regnan t . I n some cases t he p ro t rud i ng

abdomen present i n the l a s t t r im es te r may cause an i nd iv id ua l

d i f f i c u l t y i n l i f t i n g

l o ad s i n f r o n t of h e r b od y. T h i s has a l s o been one p o i n t i n q u e s t i o n i n r e c e n t

l i t i g a t i o n and l a b o r n e g o t i a t io n s r e g a rd i n g how l o n g p re gn an t a i r c a r r i e r

f l i g h t a t t e n d an t s ca n w or k.

An i m p o r t an t p o i n t i s t h a t t h e c hange i n p o s t u re n ec es sa ry f o r t h e p r e gn a nt

women t o

l i f t

t he l o ad i n f r o n t c rea tes unusua l s t r esses on t he l umbar sp ine .

Often the loa d wh ich cou l d be l i f t e d before pregnancy must be reduced i h e

woman i s not t o be over st res sed. The amount of lo ad redu ct io n can be ca lc ul at ed

based on met ab ol i c cons ide rat ion s b ut th e amount o f energy expended to 1 f t a

lo ad shoul d be the same, be fo re and dur in g pregnancy.

l o a d t h a t was a t

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maximum level prior t o pregnancy should be reduced from 20 to

25

during late

pregnancy.

(Garg, 1976; Sei tc h i k 1967).

Further considerations relative to the biomechanics o f the pregnant

women also relate

t o

the changes in body structures, particularly the pro-

trusion of the abdomen and changes in the abdominal .musculature and pelvic

igaments. Body balance may often be affec ted .

I t becomes more awkward

fo r women t o perform certain body movements after the 20th t o 24th week

of

ge st at io n, and women a re advised t o avoid work s it uat io ns involving a st ra in ed

posture or req ui ring a good sense of balance. Climbing lad de rs becomes more

d i f f i c u l t and should be avoided . Since the abdominal musculature and ligdmen tal

attachments may be more vulnerable to unusual

load ing, twistin g, or bending

motions, or slippage on unstab le work s urf ac es , pregnant women a re a ls o advised

t o avoid working i n environments where p rote ctio n ag ain st s l i p s and fa1 1s i s

ina de quate. . (Kane e t al., 1967; A C O G 1976) .

These str u ct u ra l changes in the pregnant female a1 so requ ire p ar ti cu la r

a t tent ion

t o

adequate support

i n

the seated posture.

A

low backrest, supporting

b o t h

the lumbar and sacral area of the pelvis, is of special importance. I t

is also necessary that the seat be wide enough

t o

allow the pregnant worker's being

seated with b o t h legs in a semiabducted and supported po sit io n. Often se at

pressu re by t he se a t pan on the area above the knee may be of painful dis-

tr ac ti on and a small f oo tr es t has been recommended to a ll e v i a te such supra-

pop

i teal pressure.

Particular attention should be paid

t o

the work surface height for the

pregnant woman.

The pregnant woman should be allowed t o perform work

tasks either seated or standing.

~ r e ~ u e i thanges in pos ture may be

necessary in the l a s t tri me ste r. Chaffin (1975) has suggested th at

a

high

stool be matched t o a re la t ive ly

h i g h

workbench, t o allow

no

change in the work

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surf ace heigh t when th e pregnant woman chooses

t o

alternate seated and

standing work posi tion s. I t i s fu rth er noted, however, th at th i s type of

work place requires footrest support when in the seated position,

t o

avoid

compromise of venous blood return from the 1egs.

A C O G ,

1976).

Concern with the pregnant occupant in a i r and ground ve hicle crash impacts

(Rubovits, 1964) has resulted in a series of studies (Snyder et al., 1966; 1967;

1968; Crosby e t al., 1968; Crosby and Cost il oe , 1 9 7 1 t o determine impact effects

upon the pregnant female and fetus.

One result has been the attempt

t o

design

improved re s tr a in t pro tec tion . net-type r e s tr a in t system developed by

re se arch er s a t Wayne St a te Universi ty was shown t o protect pregnant sub-human

primates in simulated frontal barrier crashes from 15 t o 28 mph without fatal

in ju r ies

t o

either the subjects or fetuses (Van Kirk and King, 1969) . Another

study compared effectiveness of present l a p belt and combination lap-shoulder

be1 systems on pregnant baboons (.Crosby e t a1 1970 ). These researchers found

that in simulated

26 mph

frontal barrier crashes, 50% of the lap-belted mothers

lo s t t h e ir fe tu se s, compared with 8% fe ta l mor ta lit y when the mother wore

b o t h

la p be1 and sho ulder harness.

A t

t h i s level none of th e mothers susta ined

any significant injuries.

A n American Medical

Association committee in 1967,

and again i n 1972, strongly recommended t h a t pregnant women wear seat belts,

b u t noted that only 1 imited work (noted above)

on

restraint systems designed

spec i f ica l ly t o protect pregnant mothers had been conducted (JAMA, 1 9 7 2 ) .

One aspect o f the biomechanics of impact protection for pregnant females,

as well as other occupational requirements, relates t o the degree of increased

body girth.

I t

i s n o t uncommon fo r prot ec tiv e re s t r a in t be lt s t o be t o o short

t o go

around the pregnant woman, p ar t icu la r ly when she i s a ls o wearing a heavy

coat.

In addition t o the biomechanical aspects, a wide range o f human factors

problems remain t o be resolved. A recent labor dispute between air carrier

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f l i g h t a t tendan ts and the a i r l i n es r evo l ved abou t wo rk inq cond i t i ons and the

occupat iona l ca pa b i l i t i es o f a p regnant stewardess t o ca r ry on her work. A t

prese nt a s tudy o f teenage pregnant women i n underway a t t he U ni ve rs i t y of

Texas a t Aust in; how eve ~ o re su l t s a r e ye t av a i l ab le personal communica tion ,

1977).

Other problems are encountered by t he pregnant woman i n such ot her wis e

norm al o c cu pa t io n al a c t i v i t i e s such as d r i v i n g a c a r, s i t t i n g a t a desk, o r

work ing a t a bench. The range o f g i r t h dimensions, any changes i n body

.G.

o r e f fe c t s upon r ange o f mo t ion

apparently have not been studied and pub-

1 shed. Arms tr on g 1 977) r ec en tl y addressed physi cal work of th e pregnant

woman. No anthropometry o f th e pregnan t female has been pu bl is he d t o date.

I n 1977 equipment was des igned for a pre l i mi na ry anthropometr ic s tudy a t

HSRI i n con junc t i on w i th the School o f Med ic ine of t he U n iv e r s i t y o f M ichigan;

however, t h i s was n o t i n i t i a t e d due t o lac k o f fund ing .

3. El de r l y Males

W hi le a f a i r l y l a r g e 1 e r a t u r e e x i s t s r e l a t i v e t o male a nt hr op om et ry ,

most has been conducted on mi l i tary populat ions which may not be representat ive

o f the gene ra l n a t i ona l popula t ion ,

M i l

a r y p o p u l a t i o n s b y d e f i n i t i o n

co ns is t o f Young. phys i ca l 1~ i t i n d i v i d u a l s , h i g h l y s e l ec t ed .

Since

m i n i m u m

ret i rem ent age i s reached between 38 and 48 years, few o ld er in d i v i du al s are

found i n such surveys . As p rev ious ly no ted, the mos t recent U.S. c i v i l i a n

anthr opom etr ic study i s t he Pub1 c Heal th Examination Survey of 1959-1962

o f t he U S pop ula t io n o f 18-15 years ago.

I n t h i s survey 265 males from age

65 t o 74 and

72

males f rom age 75-79 were in clu ded f or a l i m i t e d number o f

measurements .

Some ma1 e anth rop om etr ic st ud ie s have been conducted on i n d i v i d u a l s

engaged i n s p e c i f i c occupations. An example i s the 23 dimensions taken on

2,993 law enforcement o f f i c e r s Ma rt in et aL, 1976). However, the mean age f o r

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t h i s g roup o f males was 30.7 years , w i th 9 9 th per ce n t i l e i n age 59.6 years .

The mos t recen t s tudy wh ich i nc lu ded e ld e r l y ma les ( t o 74 years ) was

c on du ct ed u t i l i z i n g 100 c i v i l i a n males and fe ma le s s t r uc t u r e d t o s t a t i s t i c a l y

repr ese nt th e U.S. po pu lat ion as noted prev io us l y , r leasurements were taken on

head and neck anthropometry , s a g i t t a l p lan e range of mot ion of t h e head and

neck , de t e rm ina t ion of th e response o f head and neck musc les t o low le ve ls o f

acce le r a t io n , as we1 1 as measurement o f vo lun ta ry i so me t r i c s t re ng th o f neck

f l e x o r and extens or musc les (Snyder e t al., 1975;1978 i n pre pa ra t io n) .

4. The Obese

t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e De pa rt me nt o f Commerce s t an d a rd s i s s u e d

by the Na t ion a l Bureau o f S tandards (1971) show 16 (o r over 17 m i l l i o n ) o f

th e U.S. women as be ing ou ts i de the s i z in g sys tem f o r c lo th in g . No s tudy o f

anthropometry o f th e obese segment o f th e pop ul at i on p r se has been found i n

t h e 1i e r a t u r e .

The author has taken 1 m i e d measures on one male su bj ec t who was p a r t i -

c i p a t i n g i n an o b e s i t y w e i gh t r e d u c t i o n p ro gr am co nd uc te d by t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

Michigan Medical School.

Th is sub jec t had reduced f rom 750 Ib s t o 504 Ib s

a t th e t i me o f measurement, and had an 84 inc h wa is t . One reason why a stud y has

n o t b een p r e v i o u s l y done i s t h a t s t an d ar d a nt hr op om et ry i s n o t v e r y p r a c t i c a l

On such i n d i v i d u a l s d ue t o t h e i n a b i l i t y t o l o c a t e s k e l e t a l land mark s.

T h i s i n d i v i d u a l

had worked as a professional

dr iv er , and as a teamster was

u n ab l e t o p ur su e h i s o c c u pa t io n d ue t o h i s o b e s i t y .

t i s b e l ie ve d t h a t t h er e

a r e many s uc h i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e g e ne r a l p o p u l a t i o n . However, t o t h e a u t h o r ' s

k no wl ed ge t h e s p e c i a l p ro bl em s of t h i s s egment of t h e p o p u l a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o wo rk

env i ronments has n o t been s tu d ie d.

Yet clues are known.

The ef f e c t of ob es i t y upon range of rnot ion, for

example, may be s ig n i f ic a n t .

Var ia t ions exceed ing l o i n a g ive n movement a re

common f in d i ng s between f a t and t h i n groups of bot h males and females (S ine ln ik of f

and Grigorowi ts ch 1931

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V

FUTURE RESEARCH REQUIREMENTS AND PRIORITIES

Based upon the f i n d i ng s summarized i n t he p reced ing conc lus ions i t i s

recommended th a t research a t te n t io n be g iven t o th e fo l l ow in g genera l a reas .

I n m os t ca se s no p u b l i s h e d d a t a h av e bee n fou nd o r t h a t w hi ch i s a v a i l a b l e i s

e i t h e r n o t d i r e c t l y a p p l ic a bl e o r i s o f e x t re me ly 1 m i ed va lue .

.Study o f femal e human fa ct or s and b iomechanics requi remen ts fo r var iou s

occupat ional env i ronments .

A c om pr eh en si ve s t u d y o f f em a le s t r e n g t h c a p a b i l i t i e s i n c l u d i n g s e at e d

f o r c e s a p p l i e d t o p ed al a nd s t a n d i n g p us h f o r c e s .

.Anthropometry s tud ies which can prov ide comprehens ive measurement data

r e l a t i v e t o t h e e l d e r l y o f b o t h s ex es t h e p r e g n an t fem ale t h e obe se

a n d t h e p h y s i c a l l y d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n s .

.S tud y o f t h e r eq u ir e me n ts o f t h e l e f t - h a n de d w i t h r e s p e c t t o human f a c t o r s

d e s i g n b io me ch an ic s a nd s t r e n g t h a b i l t i e s .

. In form at i on on work env ironment requi rements f or th e pregnant femal e

r e 1a t i v e t o human fac to rs range-of -mot ion s t r en g th 1 f t i n g c ap ab il i e s

and b iomechan ics fac to r s in f l ue nc in g performance and hea l th .

. St ud y o f t h e d i s a b l e d and p a r t i c u l a r l y p a r a p l e g i c s and amputees t o o b t a i n

more comprehensive data on st ren gt h human fa ct or s workspace des ign re qu ir e-

ments range-of-motion and biomechanics capabi 1

i

es.

Since some

52

o f t h e p o p u la t i o n i s r e pr e se n te d b y t h e fem ale p r i o r i t y

s h ou l d be g i v e n t o t h i s m a j o r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n g r o s s l y u n d er - re p r e-

sen ted i n p rev ious research s tud i es w i th secondary emphas is upon the d isa b led

t h e e l d e r l y 1eft-handed and th e pregna nt female.

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APPENDIX

A. ANTHROPOMETRY

A1 exand er,

M.

N.

C .

E.

C l

auser Anthropometry o f Common Working Po si ti on s

Aerospace Medical

Research Laborator ies Wr ght -Pa tte rso n AFB, Ohio.

Re po rt AMRL-TR-65-73. December 1965.

Bark la, D.

The E s t im a t i on o f B ody Measurements o f B r i t i s h P opu la t i on i n

Re la ti o n t o Seat Design Ergonomics 4: 123-1 32, 1961.

Baye r, L.M. and H. Gray Ant hro pom etr ic Standards f o r Working Women

uman

Bi ol o g y 6:472-488, 1934.

Brues , A.M. Reg iona l D i f fe rences i n th e Phys ica l Ch ar ac te r i s t i c s o f an

American ~ o p u la t i o n American Journa l o f Phys ica l Anthropo logy 4 :463-482,

1946

Bureau of th e Census S t a t i s t i c a l Ab st ra ct of the Uni te d State s, 1976. P. 25

U.S. Department o f Commerce, Washington, D . C . July 1976.

C h u r c h i l l , E T. Chu rc hi l l , J .T. McConvi l le , and R.M. White Anthropometry

o f Women i n th e U.S. Army - 1977. Re po rt No. - The B as i c B i va r i a t e

S t a t i s t i c s U.S. Army N a t i c k Research and Development Command, Nat ic k, Mass.

Re po rt NATICK/TR-77:024. June 1977.

C l auser, C. Anthropometry of A i r Fo rc e Women Aerospace Me di ca l Research Labo-

r a t o r i e s , Wri ght -Pa tte rso n AFB, Ohio. Report AMRL-TF-70.5. A p r i l 1972.

Colby, H.J. and S.M. Garn A B i b l i o g r a p h y on M i l i t a r y and I n d u s t r i a l A p p l i c a t i o n s

o f Anthropometry and Appl Physi cal Anthropology.

Fo rsy th D enta l I n f i rm ary

f o r Chi ldr en, Boston. Supple. Rept. no 11. 1952.

Col 1 ns , L.

R.

The Appl i c a t i o n o f An throp olog ical Methods Techniques and Concepts

t o t h e Human Engi neer ing of El e ct ro n ic Systems U.S. Navy El ec tr on ic s Lab ora tor y,

San D i ego', 1961.

Damon, A. H.

W.

Stoudt, and R. A.

McFarland The Human Body i n Equipment Design,

Harvard Un iv e r s i t y Press, Cambridge, 1966 (Second P r i n t i n g , 1971)

Damon, A. and J.M. Cr ic ht on

Body Disp rop ort ion s and Occupat ional Success i n

BUS-and- ruck D r i v e r s

~ rne r i can - o u r n a l f P hys i ca l A n th ropo logy 23 (1 ) : 63-68 ,

March 1965.

Damon, A. and H.W. Stoudt

The Fu nc ti on al Anthropome try o f Old Men Human

Factors, 1963.

Damon,

A .

and

H.W.

Stoudt Anthropomet ry o f 168 Fac tory Workers o f I t a l i a n

Descent (unp ubl is hed) 1958.

Damon,

A.

P hysique and Success i n M i l i t a r y j l y i n g A meri can Jou rna l o f P hys ica l

Anth ropo logy 13:217, 1955.

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Damon, A. and L.A. McFarland The Physique o f Bus and Truc k Dr iv er s: Wit h a

Review o f Occupat iona l Anthropo logy American Journa l o f Phys ica l Ant hro po l og l

13:711-742, 1955.

Damon, A., H.W. St ou dt , and R,A. McFarland The Ap p li c a t i o n of Human Body Si ze

Data t o Veh icu lar Design Soc iet y o f Automotive Engineers, Inc., New York, 1955

Davies, C.T.M. Human Output i n Exerc ise o f Short Dura t ion i n Re la t io n t o Body

S i ze and Com po sit ion Ergonomics 14 (2 ) :245-256, 1971

.

Dempster, W.T. The Ant hro pomet ry of Body A c t i o n WADD Te ch ni ca l Rept 60-18, 1960.

Dempster, W.T., W C Gabel, and W.J.L. F e l t s The Anthropome try o f t h e Manual

Work Space f o r t h e Seated Sub jec t. Wri ght -Pa tte rso n AFB, Ohio, ASD Tec hni cal

Repo rt 61-89, Ap ri 1 1961

.

D i f f r i e n t , N. A R T i l l e y , and J.C. Bardoggy Humanscale 1/2/ 3 MIT Press,

1975 ( ~e v ie w ed , ~ a u lner, T. P l as t i c ~n ih ro po me t r i c s Human Factors Soc ie ty

Bul l e t i n 18(10) :4, October 1975).

Engel , A. Os te oa r t hr i t i s and Body Nat iona l Center f o r Hea l th

S t a t i s t i c s , R oc kv i l le , Md. Rept. PHs 1000 Ser ies 11 no. 29, Ap r i l 1968.

Faul kner , T.W. P la s t i c Anthr opom etr ic s Human Fac tor s So ci et y 18(10)

1975.

Flo yd , W.F. and J.S. Ward Anthropometr i c and Phys io log ica l Cons idera t ions i n

School , O f f i ce and Fac to ry Seat ing n .d.

G a r r e t t , J

W

and

K.W.

Kennedy A Co l l at io n o f Anthropometry Aerospace Medical

Research La bo ra to ry , Wri gh t- Pa tt er so n AFB, Ohio. Rep ort AMRL-TR-68-1

2

v o l s )

March 1971

.

Ga rr et t , J The Adul

t

Human Hand:

Some Ant hro pom etr i c and Biome chan ical

Co ns id er at io ns Human Fa ct or s 13( 2) :117-131, 1971.

Garrett, J.W.

Anthropomet ry o f th e Air For ce Female Hand Aerospace Med ica l

Research Lab ora tor y, W rig ht- Pat ter son AFB, Ohio,

Re po rt AMRL-TR-69-26, 19 70-

Ga rr et t , J.W. Anthropometry o f th e Hands of Male A i r Force F l i g h t Personnel

Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,

Wr

ght-Patterson AFB, Ohio, Report

Glumm,

M.M.

The Female i n Equipment Design So ci et y of Automotive Engineers,

Inc . Repo rt no. 760078, 1976.

Hannon, J. P. J .L. Sh ei l ds, and C W Ha rr is Anthropometr ic Chanqes Asso ciate d

With High A1 t i ude Ac cl im at iz at io n i n Females Army Medical Research and

N u t r i t i o n Labora tory , Denver American Journa l o f Phys ica l Anthropology

31(1) :71:83, July 1969.

Hansen

R

and

D.Y.

Cornog Annotated B ib l og raphy o f Appl i e d P hysi ca l A n th ro-

pol ogy i n Human Enginee r ing WADC Techn. Rept. 56-30, 1958.

Harvor th ,

D.

She Siz es Up t h e B r i t i s h Housewife The Observer, England ,1973.

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Hertzber.g, H.T. D. Eng ine eri ng Ant hro pol ogy

Cha pte r 11 pp 467-584, 19

Hertzberg, H.T.E.,

I

mmanuel, and M Alexander The Anthropometry o f Working

P o s i t i o n s I A Pre l m inary S tudy.

W A D C

Tech. Rept. 54-520, 1956.

Hertz berg, H.T.E. World Di v e r s i t y i n Human Body Si ze and I t s Meaning i n American

A i d Programs Nat iona l Techn ical In fo rmat ion Serv i ces Sp r in g f ie ld , VA Report

AD7371 2.

He rt zb er g, H.T. E. Dynamic Anth ropom etry of Working P o s it i o n s Human Fa ct or s

2:147-155, 1960.

J i r ge ns

H.W.

In du st r i a l Anthropology i n Europe Proceedings, 6 th Congress

In te rn at io n al Ergonomi cs As so ci at io n pp. 362-364, 1976.

Kemsl ey, W F F Women's Measurements and Sizes

Chel tenham Press Lt d.

Chel tenham, England, 1957.

Kroemer,

K,H. E. Engineer ing Anthropometry Proceedings, 6 th Congress In t e r -

na ti on al Ergonomics Assocat o n pp. 365-367, 1976

Lange,

W

Funct ional Anthropometry , The cc Method and i t s Appl i c a t i o n

Proceedings 6t h Congress In te rn at io na l Ergonomics Ass oci at i on, 1976

Laubach, L.L. , J.T. McConvi l l e y

E.

C h u r c h i l l , a n d

R M

White

Anthropometry o f

t h e U.S. Army-1977. Rep ort no. 1-Methodology and Survey Plan

U.S.

Army

N a t ic k Research and Development Command, N a t ic k , Mass. Techn. Re po rt

N a t i ck/TR-771021

Laubach, L.L., J.T. McC on vi lle , E. C h u r c h i l l , a n d

R M

White

Anthropometry o f

t h e U.S. Army 1977, Re po rt No. 1 Meth odolo gy and Sur vey Pl an U.S. Army

N a t i c k Research and Developmen t Command, Na ti ck , Mass. Re po rt NATICKITR-771021

June 1977.

Laubach, L.

J

.T. Mc Co nv il l e, and

I

ebbe tts Anthr opom etr ic Source Book,

Volume 111, Anno tated Bi b1 og ra ph y, Webb As so ci at es , Ye1 low Sp ri ng s, Ohio.

Nat ional Aeronaut ics and Space Admin is t ra t ion, Houston (unpubl ished repor t )

September 1976

Laubach, L.L. and M.E. Marshal 1

A Computer Program

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