DATA GATHERING Dr Farhad Ramezani Badr

ها داده آوری جمع

مقدمهاهمیت شناخت متغیرها

ها داده آوری جمع های روش انواع

مشاهده مصاحبهپرسشنامه

مشاهده انواع مشاهده مستقیممشاهده فعال یا مشارکتیمشاهده میدانیمشاهده غیر مستقیممشاهده آزمایشگاهی

مزیت ها و معایب مشاهده

مصاحبه انواع

مصاحبه ساختارمندمصاحبه بدون ساختارمصاحبه نیمه ساختار

مصاحبه در مهم نکاتاستفاده از پرسش های غیر مستقیم در مورد مسائل شخصیاستفاده از واژه های آشناترتیب پرسش هااستفاده از سئواالت بازآگاهی کامل از موضوع مصاحبهPilot Studyقبل از مطالعه اصلی شباهت برخی مشخصات دموگرافیک مصاحبه گر و مصاحبه

شوندهمعرفی مصاحبه گر و موضوع مورد مطالعهمحرمانه بودن اطالعاتاختیاری بودن شرکت در مصاحبهمحل مصاحبهروش ثبت اطالعات

مزیت ها و محدودیت های مصاحبه

پرسشنامهنکات مهم برای تنظیم پرسشنامهاهداف پژوهشمتغیرهای مورد بررسینمونه های پژوهشPilot Study

پرسشنامه ساختاربخش دستورالعملاطالعات شخصیبدنه اصلی پرسشنامهترتیب سئواالت زمان پاسخدهی به سئواالتمحتوای سئواالت

ها پرسش انواع

پرسش های بازپرسش های چند گزینه ای

مزیت ها و محدودیت های پرسش نامه

روایی ابزار گردآوری داده هاروایی محتواروایی صوری یا ظاهریروایی پیش بینی کنندهروایی همزمانروایی سازه یا ساختار

پایایی ابزار گردآوری داده هاروش آزمون- بازآزمون روش دو نیمه کردنآزمون معادل

سپاس

DATA- COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

The three basic data- collection techniques are:

1. Observation- where the researcher observes what is going on and records what they observe.

2. Interviewing- where researchers ask people questions and record their responses.

3. Examining records and documents.

The two major steps involved in variable measurement are:

1. Choosing an appropriate measuring devise.

2. Choosing units of measurement.

USING OBSERVATION TO MEASURE VARIABLES Data collection using observation to

measure variables includes:

1. Creating data summarization forms.2. Deciding what kinds of questions that need to

be sorted out prior to undertaking research using observation as data collection strategy.

The difference between casual and scientific observation is that:

Scientific observation is clearly guided by a clearly stated question.

The researchers systematically measure and record their observations to enable accountability.

CATEGORICAL VARIABLE

A categorical variable is:

For example, a person is either male or female. Stated in a dichotomous way. What are two critical issues to consider for

interviews.

Six points to remember about data collection through observation are:

1. Clarification and narrowing your hypothesis or research objective, identifying the key concepts.

2. Determining what variables are to be studied.3. Determining how would each variable be

measured.

4. Devising an observation checklist or a systematic recording of observation.

5. Practicing using a checklist.

6. Determining what units will the results be reported in.

USING INTERVIEW SCHEDULES IN QUESTIONNAIRES TO MEASURE VARIABLES

Words and phrases that summarize thirteen useful things to remember in collecting factual information using a questionnaire are:

1. Clarify what exactly you want to know.2. Be direct and simple in asking questions.3. For background information also refer to ‘face

sheet’ questions (demographic information).4. Ensure that each question is clear and elicits a

simple response.

5. Address questions to the right person.6. Discourage the respondent from giving vague

answers.7. Avoid asking deeply personal or offensively

worded questions.8. Avoid informal terms, informal titles and

abbreviations.9. Avoid asking questions that raise more than

one issue (double barrel).

10. Avoid using colorful or remorseful language when writing questions (response set).

11. Avoid asking hypothetical questions.12. Examine your questions for assumptions that

may be wrong.13. Pre-test the questionnaire or interview

schedule.

LIKERT SCALE

Attitude scale is also known as a Likert scale. It is a device to measure variation in an

attitude. Its values range between two points and all respondents can be placed on that scale according to their responses to the questionnaire.

An example of attitude measured in a Likert scale is: Where each respondent is presented with an attitude

statement and then ask to place himself on a continuum running from strongly agree to strongly disagree as shown in the example below: A man should run the family and make the big decisions

around the house. (Check one)[ ] Strongly agree [ ] Agree[ ] Uncertain [ ] Disagree[ ] Strongly disagree

A summary of the five basic rules for designing attitude scales are:

1. Begin with many items, but gradually narrow down to twenty and fifty. Student projects should not exceed fifteen items.

2. Each item should state one issue clearly (e.g. men are generally happier than women).

3. Each group of items constitute a scale that must be related to a single theme.

4. The range of response categories must be designed carefully (e.g. the Likert scale).

5. The more specific the response categories, the more accurate and precise information should be provided.

For example: Fiji should send troupes to Iraq and use this to earn foreign exchange.

[ ]Agree [ ]Maybe [ ]Perhaps [ ] Not sure [ ] Possibly not

A SCALE

A scale: Is a set of values among which respondents can

be positioned on the basis of the response to items on a questionnaire or interview schedule.

Is a device for measuring variations in a person’s commitment to an attitude.

EXAMINING RECORDS AND PUBLICATIONS TO MEASURE VARIABLES

Some problems in using records as data- gathering technique include: Gaining access to the documents can be a

problem. Records often do not contain the information you

require.

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content analysis is: Something like an observation study in that you

have to prepare a checklist to record frequency of certain ideas, words, phrases, or images.

What is observed is a text, film or television program.

Seven steps involved in preparing a content analysis of a popular show include:

1. Clarifying or narrowing a research objective or hypothesis and which variables are involved.

2. Identifying variables related to the concepts.3. Devising ways to measure the variables.4. Developing a checklist to record the frequency

of things or variables that you want to observe.

5. Deciding what programs to examine- whether the unit of analysis is time.

6. Devising a data summarisation sheet.

7. Summarising the results in the data summarisation sheet.

Some steps involved in the content analysis of the published material include:

1. Clarifying your hypothesis or research objective (including determining the variables that are needed to measure the concepts).

2. Determining how to measure and record variations in variables.

3. Deciding on the units of measure in which to report findings.

Four items you might have in the content analysis are:

Concept VariableMeasuringInstrument

Units of Measure

VALIDITY Some of the problems associated with

validity are that:1. In measuring a person’s beliefs, values, and

attitudes in this context, you might note that the question of validity rises when variables do not reflect the attributes of the concept.

2. Questions of validity refer to the appropriateness of the measuring devise.

3. This issue needs to be discussed in the limitation section of the research.

RELIABILITY

Some of the problems associated with reliability are:

1. Whether the same researchers using the same measuring devise will get the same result.

2. Whether the measurement device gets the same results when repeated (test- retest reliability).

3. The reliability of the observation techniques are often questioned- will a group of observers report the same observation?

4. Reliability problems due to the accuracy of the measuring device.

5. This issue needs to be discussed in the limitation section of the research.