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Planning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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the article. (discuss). (December 2012)

Computer consultants give up on automated scheduling and resort to an old-fashioned plan-board

to agree on who does what when.

Planning (also called forethought) is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities

required to achieve a desired goal.

Planning involves the creation and maintenance of a plan. As such, planning is a fundamental

property of intelligent behavior. This thought process is essential to the creation and refinement of a

plan, or integration of it with other plans; that is, it combines forecasting of developments with the

preparation of scenarios of how to react to them.

An important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds with forecasting.

Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future will look like, whereas planning predicts

what the future should look like.[1] The counterpart to planning is spontaneous order.

Contents [hide]

1 Planning topics

1.1 Psychological aspects

1.2 Neuropsychological tests

1.3 Planning in public policy

2 Planning process

3 Types of planning

4 See also

5 References

6 Further reading

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Planning topics[edit]

Psychological aspects[edit]

The Striatum; part of the basal ganglia; neural pathways between the striatum and the frontal lobe

have been implicated in planning function.

Planning is one of the executive functions of the brain, encompassing the neurological processes

involved in the formulation, evaluation and selection of a sequence of thoughts and actions to

achieve a desired goal. Various studies utilizing a combination of neuropsychological,

neuropharmacological and functional neuroimaging approaches have suggested there is a positive

relationship between impaired planning ability and damage to the frontal lobe.

A specific area within the mid-dorsolateral frontal cortex located in the frontal lobe has been

implicated as playing an intrinsic role in both cognitive planning and associated executive traits such

as working memory.

Disruption of the neural pathways, via various mechanisms such as traumatic brain injury, or the

effects of neurodegenerative diseases between this area of the frontal cortex and the basal ganglia

specifically the striatum (cortico-striatal pathway), may disrupt the processes required for normal

planning function.[2]

Individuals who were born Very Low Birth Weight (

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Only one disk may be moved at a time.

Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another rod, on

top of the other disks that may already be present on that rod.

No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.[5][6]

Screenshot of the PEBL psychology software running the Tower of London test

Tower of London (TOL) is another test that was developed in 1992 (Shallice 1992) specifically to

detect deficits in planning as may occur with damage to the frontal lobe. Test participants with

damage to the left anterior frontal lobe demonstrated planning deficits (i.e., greater number of

moves required for solution).

In test participants with damage to the right anterior, and left or right posterior areas of the frontallobes showed no impairment. The results implicating the left anterior frontal lobes involvement in

solving the TOL were supported in concomitant neuroimaging studies which also showed a reduction

in regional cerebral blood flow to the left pre-frontal lobe. For the number of moves, a significant

negative correlation was observed for the left prefrontal area: i.e. subjects that took more time

planning their moves showed greater activation in the left prefrontal area.[7]

Planning in public policy[edit]

Public policy planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban and spatial planning. In

many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as"planning" and the professionals which operate the system are known as "planners".

It is a conscious as well as sub-conscious activity. It is "an anticipatory decision making process" that

helps in coping with complexities. It is deciding future course of action from amongst alternatives. It

is a process that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions. It is selection of

missions, objectives and "translation of knowledge into action." A planned performance brings

better results compared to an unplanned one. A manager's job is planning, monitoring and

controlling. Planning and goal setting are important traits of an organization. It is done at all levels of

the organization. Planning includes the plan, the thought process, action, andimplementation.Planning gives more power over the future. Planning is deciding in advance what to

do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. This bridges the gap from where the

organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and

arranging them in logical order.

Planning process[edit]

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Example of planning process framework.

Patrick Montana and Bruce Charnov outline a three-step result-oriented process for planning:[8]

Choosing a destination

Evaluating alternative routes, and

Deciding the specific course of your plan.

In organizations, planning is a management process, concerned with defining goals for company's

future direction and determining on the missions and resources to achieve those targets. To meet

the goals, managers may develop plans such as a business plan or a marketing plan. Planning always

has a purpose. The purpose may be achievement of certain goals or targets.

Main characteristics of planning in organizations are:

Planning increases the efficiency of an organization. It reduces the risks involved in modern business

activities. It facilitates proper coordination within an organization. It aids in organizing all available

resources. It gives right direction to the organization. It is important to maintain a good control. It

helps to achieve objectives of the organization. It motivates the personnel of an organization. It

encourages managers' creativity and innovation. It also helps in decision making. The planning helps

to achieve these goals or target by using the available time and resources. The concept of planning isto identify what the organization wants to do by using the four questions which are "where are we

today in terms of our business or strategy planning? Where are we going? Where do we want to go?

How are we going to get there?.