و للعلوم السودان جامعةالتكنولوجيا

Sudan University of science and Technology (SUST)الزراعية الدراسات كلية

College of Agricultural Studies (CAS)

ABSTRACTS

العضوية للزراعة العالمي المؤتمر- الخرطوم, السودان الصداقة قاعة

2010 ابريل 6-7

International Conference on Organic Farming (ICOF)Friendship Hall, Khartoum, Sudan

6 – 7 April 2010

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1. ORGANIC AGRICULTUAL POLICIES

Sudan within the Global View of Organic Farming

Saifeldin M. El-AminCollege of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology

Abstract:Organic farming is boosting fast worldwide due to the growing consumers awareness to safe food, being environment friendly and paying higher economic returns compared to conventional products. The potential contribution of organic farming to feeding the world maybe far higher than many had expected. Reported data for 2007 showed that 32.2 million hectares are certified, according to organic standards. Oceania has the biggest share in land under organic management (37%), followed by Europe (24%), Latin America (20%), Asia (9%) then North America (6%) and the smallest share, if any, for Africa (3%) which had the highest number of organic producers (44%)followed in descending order by Asia (19%), Latin America (18%), Europe (17%), North America (1%) and Oceania (1%). With its vast grazing lands, Australia continues to account for the largest certified organic surface area, (12.02) million ha, followed by Argentina (2.78), Brazil (1.77), USA (1.64), China (1.55), Italy (1.15) and India (1.03) million ha. The countries with the highest increase of organic land in 2007 were India, Argentina, Mexico, Spain, Poland, UK, Uganda, Germany, Tanzania and Dominican Republic. Uganda came on top of the ten countries with the highest number of organic producers (206803) in 2007 followed by India, Ethiopia, Mexico, Tanzania, Italy, Peru, Greece, Zambia and Austria. Available evidence suggests that organic practices are delivering sharp increases in yields, improvements in the soil and a boost in the income of Africa's small farmers who remain among the most impoverished people on earth. Globally, Africa scored the highest rate of increase in organically managed land development. Within 7 years, organically managed land increased from 52 601 ha in 2000 to 875 370 ha in 2007. Countries like, Uganda, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zambia started to show within the top ten countries of the world on data of many aspects of organic farming. For Sudan, traditional farming is the dominant form of agricultural production and most products are from the rain fed sector where use of chemicals is uncommon. Organic farming using manures was historically the conventional practice. The fertile land in river basins made available by recurrent floods viz Toker and Gash deltas could be recommended as organic areas. According to (IFOAM, 2007 ), Sudan has 56324 ha of organically managed land of which 55324 ha is fully converted to organic.

Key words : organic farming, organic producers, countries, Africa, Sudan.

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Organic Agriculture in Sudan

Elhag Makki Awouda

National Committee of Organic Agriculture

Abstract:

The paper will discuss role and achievements of the National Committee of Organic Agriculture. The potentials and current situation of organic agriculture in Sudan are reviewed and the running organic farming projects in different States are highlighted. The main directives in the Sudanese Standard of Organic Agriculture are pointed out. The complete lack or gabs in legislations for organic production in Sudan, besides the absence of national or international offices of inspection and certification bodies are focused.

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Legislations to Promote and Regulate Organic Agricultural Production in Sudan

Saeed M. Suliman

Sudanese Agricultural Council

ABSTRACT

Interest in organic agriculture and its products has widely grown in the world, mainly because of the increasing environmental and health hazards associated with the intensive use of chemicals in agriculture. Sudan, in spite of its high potential of organic agricultural production along the banks of the Nile, rivers, and the seasonal streams, has not been able to export organic agricultural products. Inability to export organic agricultural products is mainly due to lack of legislations to promote and regulate organic agricultural production and hence, the absence of the authority to issue approval certificates for such exports. It is high time to issue such legislations to promote and regulate production and export of organic products from Sudan. The suggested legislations will be a good addition to the previously issued laws in the field of agriculture. The suggested legislations are to promote and regulate organic agricultural production in Sudan by reserving certain suitable areas where the use of chemicals is to be prohibited. The legislations are to allow certain independent organization to issue certificates for export of organic products and set up a committee to execute the legislations. The proposed document is to be revised and approved by the relevant authorities.

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Towards a National Organic Agriculture Program in the Sudan

Kamal E-Siddig & Abdelmagid Elmubarak

Agricultural Research Corporation

Abstract

The formal organic sector in the Sudan remains relatively underdeveloped and statistics concerning its status are often difficult to find. However, the traditional agricultural subsector, which is a de facto low external input system, offers a huge potential for the development of organic agriculture. Serious steps towards the adoption of organic agriculture began in 2001 with the inception of the Organic Agriculture Program (OAP), funded by the Arab Authority for Agriculture Investment and Development (AAAID) and implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MOAF). The Sudanese Society for Organic Agriculture (SSOF) organized a series of workshops between 2004-2006 to create awareness about organic farming among producers, consumers and policy makers. The Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) supports a project to promote the exports of organic bananas from Sudan and Ethiopia to the Middle East and Europe. The Sudanese Standards and Meteorology Organization (SSMO) have also been instrumental in pursuing some organic agriculture-related activities. In spite of all these initiatives, the country still lacks national policies and regulatory frameworks for organic agriculture. The government, through the Agricultural Revival Program (ARP), is committed to promoting organic farming in the country. However, the instruments are inadequate and not well integrated. Inadequate research, extension services and manpower especially on production and marketing information and input supply have hindered promotion. Organic product legislation, standardization, certification and infrastructure are also major issues of policy concerns. A policy in the form of a National Framework is a necessity for the organic sector to flourish and realize its potentials. The Framework is to outline key approaches and strategies to promote organic farming in the country. Formulation of National Standards of Organic Agriculture Production and Processing will be an important step to help organic producers, promoters and certifiers to contribute to organic production and processing. The Framework is to advocate establishing organic famers’ groups and pilot activities in areas of high potentials. Development of organic markets, both internal and external, should be seen as crucial to promotion of organic farming.

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Assessment of Potentialities of Organic Agriculture in Sudan Within The last Five years

Saada N. A. ELmahi 1and Saifeldin, M. El-Amin2

1Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Institute (MAPRI), National Centre for Research.2College of Agricultural studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology.

Abstract: Over the last five years, a common understanding on organic agriculture as a sustainable mode of production has strongly grown among the Sudanese community. Furthermore, the importance of this type of production is progressively enhanced amongst researchers and academicians. In July 2005 a study on the potentialities of Sudan in organic agriculture was conducted, to assess the situation and acceptance of the concept amongst stakeholders, individuals and institutes. The study indicated that the concept of organic agriculture is fully accepted by the targeted groups The importance of organic agriculture in achieving self sufficiency, rural development and its contribution to the reduction of cost of production were ascertained. Most of the organizations (71.4%), are dealing with the definition of organic agriculture under the name of sustainable agriculture, and 46.7% were adopting and supporting or promoting traditional agriculture as a non-certified organic agriculture system. Some of them adopted the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) methods. The study also showed that no regulations were in vogue in Sudan, and the existing agricultural legislations had no effect on organic production especially in the storage, processing and the transfer stages. But, 75% of the available legislations supported the marketing of agricultural organic products. The lack of a strategic plan to develop organic agriculture in the Sudan was also apparent. One of the constraints was the absence of an authorized body to register and certify the Sudanese organic products, albeit that most of the products are produced traditionally and naturally using no or low synthetic inputs. It was revealed that 72% of the productive institutions employed organic fertilizers, 36% used herbicides and 57% adopted the IPM methods, while 25.8% were using organic substances and the same percent using chemicals. Main constraints facing the adoption of organic production in Sudan are defined as, lack of awareness and know–how, weakness of agricultural extension and lack of coordination between the relevant agricultural institutions. Currently, assessment of the situation is reassessed within same institutions using the same questionnaire samples with few modifications. This paper aims at studying the progression in the organic agriculture movement in Sudan and the development occurring during the last five years. This will be achieved by surveying targets from academic and research institutes. The results are be compared by the one achieved five years ago.

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2. SOILS and NUTRITION

Updated knowledge on organic matter dynamic in soil

Fabrizio Adani and Gabriella Papa

Gruppo RICICLA – Dipartimento di Produzione Vegetale –Università degli Studi di Milano – Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano

Development of soil organic matter (SOM) depends on several factors which have to operate over a long period of time. Transformation of plant detritus and the selective preservation of recalcitrant organic compounds into recalcitrant humid substances that would then form the slow carbon pool have been regarded as an important mechanism for SOM stabilization. Nevertheless, authors clearly demonstrated that the conventional SOM fractionation into humic acid (HA), fulvic acid and humin does not offer explanation in terms of the residence time of carbon in soil nor dose it elucidate the carbon turnover rates. Recent findings indicated that the mechanisms contributing to stabilization of SOM against microbial degradation include selective preservation of recalcitrant compounds, physical and/or chemical interactions with soil minerals and metal ions, spatial inaccessibility due to occlusion of OM into clay micro-aggregates and formation of hydrophobic surfaces. However long term stabilization of organic carbon may imply not yet understood complex mechanisms involving chemical association and physical sequestration with the mineral components of soil. Our recent experimental results showed that OM stabilization in soils begins with photosynthesis, in which CO2 is fixed in plant organic compounds that are successively returned to soil as plant residues or ammendants which are preserved in soil at least in part, because of their chemical and physical characteristics. Ascertaining the existence and identity of bio-macromolecules that are intrinsically resistant to biodegradation are of paramount importance to evaluate how inherent recalcitrance play significant roles in the stabilization of organic matter in soil. The term ‘recalcitrance’ is used to describe the phenomenon by which plant tissues exhibit the natural resistance against microbial and enzymatic deconstruction, and mechanism for resisting this assault are comprised of both chemical and structural elements. In this paper recent findings on C preservation in soil and the mechanisms involved are discussed.

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Evaluation of Maturing and Nutrient Content of Farmyard Manure Composted with Chicken Manure

Elamin A. Elamin; Niemat E. Hamed

Department of Soil and Environment Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shambat, University of Khartoum – Sudan

Abstract:

The stage of maturity and nutrient contents of farmyard manure (FYM) composted with 1 and 0.05% chicken manure (CHM) were investigated during the summer seasons of 2005-2006. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with three replicates. Samples were collected and chemically analyzed. The analysis included crude fiber, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, copper, iron, manganese contents and pH at an interval of 15 days for a period of four months. The stage of maturity of FYM was measured by the biodegradation of crude fiber contents and the odor, which decreased significantly after four months. Moreover, total viable count of bacteria and the kind of bacteria at different stages were observed. Results showed that nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, copper, iron, manganese and sodium contents increased significantly in treated FYM. A significant increase in nitrogen in the composted material was noticed in the 2nd week in FYM treated with 0.1% CHM. Phosphorus content increased significantly up to the 8th week in the FYM treated with CHM compared to the control. The P content decreased significantly up to the 12th and the 14th week. The significant increase in calcium content was noticed in the 8th week. Magnesium content increased up to the 9th week and significantly declined after the 10th week. Potassium content in treated FYM significantly decreased with time compared to the control. Copper content increased significantly up to the 10th week in FYM treated with 0.1% CHM compared to other treatments. The iron and manganese content increased significantly up to the 8th week in treated FYM. The pH of the compost decreased slowly, then after 10 weeks increased due to ammonia accumulation. The highest total viable count of bacteria was observed in the 2nd week in the FYM treated with 0.1% CHM compared to other treatments. Different bacterial isolates viz Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Micrococcus, Proteus and Streptococcus spp were obtained at mesophilic, thermophlic and cooling down stages. It was observed that the compost opening time was best after three months when its volume decreased, its colour turned black and it became crumbly with earthy smell and yielded drops of water when tightly squeezed

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Residual and Cumulative Effect of Filter Mud Applications on Sugarcane Production and on Soil Chemical Properties

Elsayed, T.M. 1 , Babiker, H.M.2 , Abdelmalik, E.M.2 , Mukhtar, N.O.3& Montange, D.4

1Industrial Research, R&D section, Kenana Sugar Company, PO 2632, Sudan2Dept. of Soil and Water Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Gezira, Sudan

3Gezira Research Station, ARC, Sudan4CIRAD PERSYST Department, TA B78/01, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France

Abstract: Filter mud (FM), a thick mud-like finely pulverized organic material, is an

agro-industrial waste of sugarcane mills that consists of the precipitated impurities

contained in the juice cane and is removed by filtration during the sugarcane processing.

It is a rich source of plant nutrients thus is used as a fertilizer in several countries in the

world. To investigate the residual and cumulative effect of filter mud applications on

sugarcane yield and quality and on soil chemical properties, a field experiment was

established in the year 2005 at the Kenana Research Farm for three consecutive seasons.

Five treatments i.e. 0, 10, 30, 100 dry tons FM ha-1 and the standard chemical

fertilization dose were included in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with

three replications. Sugarcane variety CO6806 was used. Results showed that, in the first

season the addition of 30 and 100 tons FMha-1 resulted in cane yields comparable to

those obtained from plots receiving the standard chemical fertilization dose (165 kgNha-

1+ 55kgPha-1) In the second season, the highest yield was obtained from treatment

residual 100 tons FMha-1. In the third season despite there was no significant difference

in cane yield between the filter mud treatments, but there was an increase in the cane

yield with the increase of FM dose. In all seasons high sugar quality was obtained and

chemical analysis of soil showed a concurrent increase in organic carbon, total N, total

and available P with the increase of FM concentrations.

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Effects of Chicken Manure as a Component of Organic Production on Nutrients Contents of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) fruits

Mohamed A. Abbas 1 , Saifeldin M. El-Amin 2and Elamin A. Elamin3

1Faculty of Agriculture, University of Upper Nile2Dept. of Hort., College of Agric. Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology3Dept. of Soil and Env. Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum

Abstract:

The experiment was conducted at the College of Agricultural Studies Sudan University of Sciences and Technology farm Shambat during the growing seasons 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008. Different levels of chicken manure (10 m3, 15 m3 20 m3 Fedd-1.) chicken manure compared with urea (? Kgfedd-1) plus super phosphate (125-62.5 Kg), respectively. Egg plant black beauty cultivar was used. Tissue analysis showed that fruits from plots treated with chicken manure had higher levels of total N%, NH4-N%, P, K, Ca, Mg and less NO3-N% and Na.

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Potential Production and Application of Biofertilizers in Sudan

Gadalla A. Elhassan 1 , Migdam E. Abdelgani2, Awad G. Osman 2,

Somaya S. Mohamed 2 and Belgees, S. Abdelgadir 2

1College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology 2National Research Center, Khartoum, Sudan

Abstract: This paper reviewed the research efforts made in Sudan by different institutes

and researchers on biofertilization, namely symbiotic and free living nitrogen fixating,

phosphate solubilizing microorganisms, mycorrhiza and composting of agricultural and

animal residues. It also discussed the techniques and methods of production of Rhizobium

inoculants, non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, P-solubilizing bacteria, and compost.

The paper showed field results of the biofertilizers treatments in different crops and in

different parts of Sudan. Commercialization of Rhizobium inoculants was discussed. The

paper concluded that there are great potentials for production, commercialization and

application of biofertilizers in Sudan. The paper also delineated prospects of future

research on biofertilizers in Sudan.

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3. PRODUCTION

Field Management during the Conversion from ConventionalTo Organic Agriculture

Mohammad Yousri HashemDept. of Economic Entomology and Pesticides. Fac. Of Agriculture, Cairo University

Center of Organic Agriculture in Egypt (COAE)

ABSTRACT

Organic farming wants to follow the laws of nature. Does it mean that organic farms must be as close to natural systems as possible? Within the organic movement one will find farmers who focus on natural farming, and others who take a purely commercial approach. The majority of organic farmers probably is somewhere in between these two extremes. Most farmers will expect to get sufficient production from the farm to make a living. For them the challenge is to follow the principles of nature as defined in the different standards to achieve a high productivity.The conversion from a conventionally managed farm to organic farming should not only improve the farm ecosystem, but also assure the economic survival of the farm. Therefore, the adjustments which are required on the farms for a conversion and the related risk assessment have to be analysed carefully.Step by step conversion is possible as long as the different production units are clearly distinct and organic products cannot get mingled with conventional ones. Products can be certified after the farm has finished a conversion period, during which all the relevant standard requirements must have been met from the beginning. For certification of annual crops, the standards ought to be met at least for 24 months prior to the start of the production cycle, i.e. before planting or sowing the crop. For perennial plants at least 36 months of fully organic management are required before the first harvest. The changes in the conversion period concern technical aspects:Production techniques: New farming methods need to be introduced and applied. These concern soil management, nutrient management, weed management, pest and disease control, animal husbandry, fodder cultivation etc. In order to be successful, the necessary know-how has to be acquired. The farmer will need to exchange information with experienced organic farmers, attend trainings, test methods and observe their effect, read publications etc.In order to improve the conversion process and to overcome the possible obstacles, the present situation of the farm should be analysed carefully.

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Organic Rice Standards and Experiment of Duck and Rice Farming in Jiangsu Province, China

Ronggang Li

Agricultural Expert of China Administration of Planning and Agriculture Economy Ministry of Agricultural and Forestry, Sudan Agricultural Committee of Jiangsu, China.

Principal agronomist

Abstract:

In this paper, local organic rice standard of Jiangsu province, China are introduced. Standard, requirements of production environment of and technical rules for production including production techniques, processing, packaging, transportation and storage, fertilizer management and pest, disease and weed control are described. One of the best ways of organic rice production is rice and duck farming. In order to popularize this good farming system, a field experiment with a total area of 6666.7 m2 was conducted in Northern Jiangsu province, in 2002. Ducks’ roles in weed, pest and disease control and in soil fertility were assessed. Economic benefits of rice and duck farming, rice and crab mixed farming, and conventional rice farming were analyzed and compared. Results showed that weeds, especially broad-leaved, were adequately controlled by ducks. Ducks displayed good control of insect pests, such as rice plant hoppers, rice leaf roller; yellow rice borer and striped rice stem borers. Economic benefits of the duck-rice mixed farming depends on sale price. Compared with rice and crab mixed farming, rice and duck mixed farming had lower economic returns. For extensive popularization, more detailed experiments including rice variety selection, duck population density, mixed farming with rice, duck and fish, biological pest and disease control methods should be conducted.

Key words: organic rice standard, rice and duck mixed farming, fertilizer, pest and disease control.

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Organic Agriculture in Tunisia Achievements and Promises

Mohamed Hedi Kahouli

Organic farming Consultant

Organic agriculture has been introduced in Tunisia by private initiatives since the 90ties. Official interest to organic agriculture has been expressed by decreeing the first law on organic agriculture in 1999. Since then this official step has been followed by the implementation of an integrated institutional and legal frame in order to ensure a harmonious development of the organic sector.

The promotion and development of the organic agriculture has been considered as an main component of a global development policy which contributes to the improvement of the national commercial balance and the social conditions of the farmers, and ensure the sustainability of the natural resources.

The area of organic agriculture has grown from 300 ha in 1977 to 58000 ha in 2004. The leading organic products are olive oil, dates and product of natural plants as per the exported quantities and returns

The Presidential objective to double the area of organic agriculture has been the leitmotiv to enhance the organic achievements during the period 2004-2009 at level of production and exports. These achievements backed by presidential support have shaped the public commitment and became the backbone of a national strategy for the period 2010-2014.

The main pillars of this strategy are:

1. Extending the organic agriculture area to up 500000 ha and diversify the productions by 2014.

2. Ensuring the permanent presence of Tunisian organic products in local and international markets,

3. Doubling the organic productions in the horizon of 2016,4. Supporting the research programs and supervision of the organic sector.

In conclusion, Tunisia is one of the rare countries recognized by EU as one from which European importer does not need administrative authorization to import from.

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Legume Crops as Potential Food and Feed Bio-Products: A Review on Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Alkaline Clay Soils.

S. A. M. Hamid

Department of Agronomy, Sudan University of Science and Technology

Legumes are regarded as highly plastic crops. They are grown traditionally in the Sudan; with relatively low inputs and without using agrochemicals, to produce food and feed bio-products with high economic values. In the last two decades; following the ever–increasing demand, legumes crop production was extended towards the Central Clay Plain of the Sudan. Legumes are known to be nitrogen demanding crops, since their end products are very rich in protein. As they belong to the Family Fabaceae they are capable of biological N2–fixation. The biologically fixed nitrogen is the main source to meet the high nitrogen demand, and to achieve high yields. However studies conducted at the Department of Agronomy, Sudan University of Science and Technology on faba bean, harricot bean, chichtpea, fungrek, pea, and clusterbean demonstrated poor degree of nodulation. The poor nodulation was mainly attributed to poor aeration, of the heavy–textured Shambat clay soil. While the alkaline pH of the soil hindered the synthesis of the enzyme nitrogenase which plays a key role in the process. Heat – treated compost was tried to improve the physical and chemical properties of soil, but the results were not encouraging. To improve the efficiency of biological N2–fixation, application of properly treated organic material to the alkaline heavy–textured soils is strongly recommended. Properly treated organic material is to improve soil aeration and neutralize the alkaline pH. Moreover, it will enhance mobilizations of the soil nutrients.

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Organic Certification of Local Products: Gum Arabic Company's Experience inCertificating and Documenting Crop of Gum Arabic

Hassan. I. Ali 1 ; H. H. Elrayah1; M. M. Osman2 and M. I. Abdelkareem3

1Marketing Department, the Gum Arabic Co., Ltd., Khartoum, Sudan.2Sudan University of Science and Technology.3Food Processing Research Centre, Shambat. Khartoum North.

Abstract: Organic agriculture is an integrated system to maintain a sustainable environment by preventing the use of fertilizers and chemical pesticides. Sudan produces about 80% of the world gum Arabic production as a natural, chemical and GMO free. However, it can not be considered as an organic product till a certain procedure to be followed under the supervision of third party.Certification of Sudanese products as organic started at the beginning of this millennium, and already have been applied for some products e.g. sesame, hibiscus sabdarrifa and Gum Arabic, according to organic laws and legislations of Europe for the products imported from third world countries. Therefore, this paper is trying to highlight the efforts taken by the Gum Arabic Company (GAC), Sudan for certifying an amount of 5.5 thousands metric tones of both varieties of Acacia Senegal (Hashab) and A. seyal (Talha) as 100% organic according to European laws and American Standard for organic agriculture. Steps and all requirements to be followed in order to acquire the grand certificates are shown.

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4. PROTECTION

Effective Microorganisms in Agriculture

Yoshitaka Fukugauchi

EM Research Organization, Inc., Okinawa, JAPAN

Effective Microorganisms (EM) is a collection of microorganisms that do the work of revival. It has been shown to be perfectly safe for people and the environment. We can say that EM is another indication of hado technology. This important breakthrough in sustainable technologies is resolving a broad variety of environmental problems. EM was recently used by all countries impacted by the Tsunami Wave Disaster in curbing the spread of pathogen diseases. The World Health Organization’s prediction that more deaths would occur from the spread of these diseases than from the disaster itself never materialized. EM was also recently used in cleaning up the polluted inland seas of China and Japan, where marine life and vegetation have significantly returned. EM Technologies are quietly making history around the world. Effective Microorganisms has been used in agricultural applications since 1982. Farmers have documented the benefits on 6 continents, demonstrating that EM Microbial Inoculants can work in all soil types, all farming systems, and all climates on Earth. Today, EM is used in over 120 countries in all sorts of farming systems from row crops to orchards to composting to solid and liquid waste management. Whether conventional, organic, or sustainable, any farm can benefit from using EM to improve the efficiency of their operation. EM is approved for use without restrictions on Certified Organic operations.

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Integrated Weed Management Tactics in Organic Farming

Babiker, A.G.T.

College of Agricultural Studies, Dept. of Plant Protection, Shambat Khartoum North

Global concern about the impact of conventional farming practices on environmental quality; human health and farming sustainability have been translated into changes in public policy, research priorities and market opportunities. Low in-puts and organic farming systems are favoured. Areas under organic farming are on the increase in many of the developed countries where demands for organic crops and livestock products has gown by over 20%. Weed management is a focal point in all farming systems, but is of prime concern in organic farming. Exclusion of herbicides could lead to situations where weed interference with crops rises to unacceptable levels unless intensive mechanical and hand labour are made available. Reliance on mechanical and hand labour is undesirable. Frequent cultivation reduces soil quality and crop health. Furthermore, soil disturbance brings new weed seeds to the surface and may enhance soil nitrogen mineralization, a condition conducive to weed germination and emergence. Hand labour, on the other hand, has high opportunity costs. To minimize requirements for cultivation multifaceted weed management strategies that are site specific and adopt a holistic approach aiming to optimize the whole cropping system are to be developed. Information on weed abundance, community composition and ecological characteristics in conjunction with agro-ecosystem analysis create the basic knowledge for selection and evaluation of tactical options. Adoption of tactics that can be directed at seed, vegetative and generative phases of weeds life cycles, ensures long-term regulation of weeds populations. However, diversity of the ecophysiological, morphological and phonological characteristics of the dominant weed species necessitates employment and integration of different management tactics to minimize future weed problems. Conventional methods of weed management can be used to reduce the soil seed-bank before initiation of the transition from conventional to organic farming. Fields with low initial seed-banks densities at the start of the transition period are more suitable for transition than those with high initial weeds seed-bank densities. Traditional tactics, in vogue, in organic agriculture for weed management, beside mechanical cultivation, thermal techniques and hand labour include crop rotation and cover crops. New innovate methods based on improvement in farm equipment and computer based information technologies are under evaluation in the developed countries. Cultivator guidance systems that use electronic sensors and computers to adjust the location of cultivation tools may give rise to new generations of machines that can operate at high speeds close to crop rows with minimal chance of crop damage. The combination of electronic sensors and computers with new weed cutting-technologies may lead to development of machines that tackle weeds within crop rows.

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Keywords;- Organic farming, Weeds, Weed control tactics, Eco-system, viability

The Decisive Role of IPM in Organic Production

Asim Ali Abdelrahman

College of Agricultural studies, Sudan University of Science and technology

ABSTRACT

The main application of chemicals in agricultural production is in the from of pesticides and fertilizers. Productions without fertilizers usually lower the yield and probably the quality to variable degrees. Pesticides, in addition to lowering both yield and quality, could lead, sometimes, to a complete failure of the crop. IPM is the only available solution, organic production is to be pursued. Many examples of successful production without using pesticides have been recorded in Sudan during the last century. Successful programmers of adapting one or more of the IPM components are cited. The potentialities of cultural control, biological control and host-plant resistance are discussed.

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Influence of Argel (Solenostemma argel Del. Hayne) Soil Applications on Flowering and Yield of Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.).

Tagelsir I.M.Idris 1 , Asma M.A.Ibrahim1 Elfatih M.Mahdi2 and Awad K. Taha3

1Department of Horticulture, Sudan University of Science and Technology. 2Department of Horticulture, University of Khartoum.3Department of Plant Protection, Sudan University of Science and Technology.

Abstract

This study was conducted in two successive seasons in the Northern State to investigate the influence of soil applications of argel (Solenostemma argel) dry leaves on flowering and yield of the dry date Barakawi cultivar. Treatments were arranged in a complete randomized block design with 5 replications. Argel treatments were 0, 37.5 g once (1X1), 37.5 g twice (1X2), 37.5 g thrice (1X3), 75 g once (2X1) and 112.5 g once (3X1). Argel treatments enhanced flowering and yield parameters of date palm and improved the physical characteristics of the fruits. The significance of the results is discussed.

Keywords: Argel (Solenostemma argel Del. Hayne), Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), Flowering, Yield.

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Is an “Organic Product” Necessarily Safe?

Abdelgadir. A. Osman

College of Agricultural studies, Sudan University of Science and technology

Abstract:

Pesticide hazards to human health as well as environment can not be overemphasized. In fact, pesticides are perceived by many people as the most dangerous class of chemicals and have been pointed at as “bad” as opposed to any “organic” product which is natural and therefore inherently safe. Is this conclusion accurate? Is “organic” or natural necessarily mean safe? Contrary to what most people believe, "organic" does not necessarily mean "pesticide-free" or "chemical-free". In fact, under the laws of most States in the United States, organic farmers are allowed to use a wide variety of natural chemical sprays and powders on their crops. Until recently, nobody looked into these claims because natural chemicals (such as organic pesticides), were assumed to pose little risk to man. However, when the studies were conducted, the results were somewhat surprising. It was found that many of the natural chemicals studied are carcinogenic. Nicotine, an organic natural product from Nocotina spp., that has been used as a commercial insecticide for over 80 years, is a neurotoxin and is readily absorbed through the skin and can also be absorbed through the respiratory tract and the alimentary canal. It seems that consumers, farmers and researchers made the same, dangerous mistake by assuming that all "natural" chemicals were automatically better and safer than synthetic ones. However, the notion was proven to be wrong. In fact, many naturally occurring compounds are found to be equally or more dangerous than synthetically produced chemicals. It is therefore critical that we become more cautious in our acceptance of "natural" products as being safe and harmless.

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5. Food Technology

Organic Food Processing in Sudan; Funny Concept, Yet Feasible

Abdel Halim R.Ahmed

Ex. Director, Food Processing Research Centre, Khartoum North, Sudan

Abstract:To use the term organic on a food product, the ingredients of such product should

comply with standards specified for any activity involved in the chain of this product (e.g. farming, preparation and /or processing handling, packing …etc). Food processors may add an organic line to their existing non-organic operations as long as they stick to what is known as "Split operation". The question that stretches its tongue to Sudanese food processors is that do they guarantee organic crop chain to allow them go into production of processed organic products for regional or international markets. Chains of crops such as mangoes, tomatoes, potatoes, sesame, karkadeh, mint, coriander, fennel, gum arabic and some other ones may gain momentum if an appropriate organic farming is introduced to make them available for organic processing. The latter can then be easily monitored for organic food processing certification. This paper highlights some of this subject.

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Effect of Spearmint Oil on Storing Ability and Processing Quality of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Tubers

Hind A. ELbashir, Abdul Halim. R. Ahmed, Kahil S.Yousif* & Saifeldin M. El_Amin**

Food Processing Research Center, Khartoum North , Shambat, Sudan*Faculty of Agriculture, Elzaeem Elazhari University **College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and technology.

Abstract: This study was conducted to assess the effect of organic volatile spearmint oil on the storage and processing qualities of potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum L.), compared to the widely used chemical sprout inhibitor, isopropyl–N 3-chlorophenyl carbamate (CIPC). In this study; sound, well cured and disease free tubers of the processing potato varieties, Diamant and Sinora, were packed in jute sacks and stored at 10±1°C and (73-78% RH). Spearmint oil was applied to a 10 cm filter-paper disk attached to the lid of the potato container, repeatedly, every 45 days during the six months storage period. The CIPC was applied manually at the rate of 2 kg per ton of potato. Potato tubers were tested for culinary quality, sprouts initiation and emergence percentage, length of sprouts, fresh weight loss, dry matter content, specific gravity, reducing sugars, chips yield, and the acceptability of chips and French fries. The results showed that spearmint oil vapor was comparably effective as CIPC in checking the break of dormancy, fast sprout growth and high fresh weight loss. Spearmint treatments resulted in acceptable potato products without adverse effect on reducing sugars, dry matter, specific gravity and chips yield of the tubers. After six months storage, potatoes were found still suitable for French fries with reducing sugars of <0.5% for both varieties. Sinora tubers treated with spearmint oil and Diamant tubers treated with CIPC were found to be quite suitable for preparation of potato chips. In the consumers preference test for chips, the first choice was for Sinora tubers treated with spearmint oil in cold store, followed by Diamant tubers treated with CIPC. With respect to French fries, first preference was given to Diamant tubers treated with spearmint oil.Spearmint oil inhibited sprouting of potato tubers without killing the eye buds as caused by CIPC. Accordingly, potato tubers treated with spearmint oil could be used for planting as seed tubers if not needed for processing.

Key words: Spearmint, Processing quality, Sprout inhibiting, Potato.

22

Do phytochemicals produced from Annona squamosa and Catunaregam nilotica considered an organic food?

Sara ElKheir1,2, Abdalbasit Adam Mariod 2 , and Yousif Mohamed Ahmed2

2Food Science & Technology Department, College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science & Technology, P.O Box 71 Khartoum North, Sudan.

1Omdurman Islamic University, Faculty of Science and Technology Department of Nutrition and Food Technology.

Abstract

Annona squamosa Catunaregam nilotica are considered an important source for wild fruits in Sudan. The fruits are used mainly for domestic consumption in many states. The oil and protein contents of Annona squamosa and Catunaregam nilotica were 26.8%, 17.5% and 40.0%, 22.2%, respectively. The oils were extracted using cold extraction and Soxhlet extraction methods. Fatty acids and tocopherols were determined by GC-MS and HPLC, respectively. The major fatty acids in A. squamosa oil were oleic 49.2% linoleic 22.3% palmitic 15.6% and stearic 10.6%. While the major fatty acids in Catunaregam nilotica oil were oleic 10.5, linoleic 63.1%, palmitic 9.7%and stearic 5.1%. The tocopherol content of the extracted A. squamosa oil amounted to 16.6 and 15.5 and that of C. nilotica amounted to 110.5 and 107.7mg/100g, respectively, with delta-tocopherol as the predominant tocopherol in A. squamosa oil, and beta-tocopherol in C. nilotica oil. Total amount of amino acids was found to be 7.266 and 14.202 g /100g protein, in A. squamosa and C. nilotica, respectively.

The antioxidant potential of phenolic extracts from leaves, bark, roots and seedcakes of Annona squamosa and Catunaregam nilotica was evaluated the antioxidant activity were strongly potent. The predominant phenolic compounds were identified using advance method of HPLC-DAD.

23

Antibiotic Residues in Beef and Mutton in Khartoum State

Nazik E. M. Mustafa and Mohammed Sariy Eldin

Department of Food Hygiene and Safety, Faculty of Public and Environmental Health, University of Khartoum P.O. Box 205 Post code 11111 Email:nmmustafa@uofk.edu

The improper use of antibiotics in food producing animals could result in unsafe meat residues. Development of bacterial resistance and allergic reactions in humans are the major risks. Monitoring antibiotic residues is considered important to avoid the occurrence of unsafe levels. The objectives of this study were to observe the incidence of antibiotic residues in beef and mutton in Khartoum State, to know the types of antibiotic encountered and to measure their levels in meat samples.

A total of 74 beef and 78 mutton kidney samples were collected from Omdurman Central Abattoir for monitoring antibiotic residues using a one-plate microbiological method in which agar plates were seeded with Bacillus subtilis BGA spores as a test organism. A questionnaire to investigate the use of antibiotics in food animals and the attitude of livestock owners towards treated animals was distributed among veterinarians in 25 animal health units. The tests showed inhibition activities in 14.90 per cent of the bovine samples and 17.95 per cent of the ovine samples tested. According to the sites in kidney tissue samples, the inhibition diameters were interpreted with pervious prepared control discs containing known concentrations of different antibiotics to quantify the concentrations of residues in meat samples. The study highlights the antibiotic risks that may occur from consumption of beef and mutton in Khartoum State. It is therefore recommended that more attention should be give to such residues by those concerned in the Ministry of Health and Ministries of agriculture and animal resources.

Key words: Antibiotic, residues, meat, Khartoum State.

24

Organic Agriculture and GM Crop Production Systems:Can they become Mutually Supportive?

Ahmed S. El Wakeel Ecologist and Forage Agronomist, ARC, Ex-National Biodiversity Coordinator

Organic agriculture is the oldest form of agriculture on earth. Organic farming refers to agricultural production systems used to produce food and fiber. The principles of organic agriculture are established by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). Certified organic production means production by approved organic methods. However, crops and livestock production are often disassociated from each other, and manures must be imported. Organic food is as safe to consume as any other kind of food. Farmers worldwide managed 32.2 million hectares of agricultural land organically in 2007, nearly 5 percent more than in 2006 and a 118-percent increase since 2000. 2.2 million hectares are certified according to organic standards.  Over the past decade, sales of organic products have shown an annual increase of at least 20%, the fastest growing sector of agriculture. On the other hand, Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) constitute synthetic inputs. In 1998, participants at IFOAM's 12th Scientific Conference issued the Mar del Plata Declaration, where more than 600 delegates from over 60 countries voted unanimously to exclude the use of GMOs in food production and agriculture. Nevertheless, cultivation of GM plants continues to increase worldwide. In 2008, GM crops rose by 9.4 per cent to occupy 125 million hectares. GM plants are utilized in 25 countries, of which Bolivia, Burkina Faso and Egypt are the newest. GMOs are very helpful for particular challenges like pests, bad soil, or droughts. Organic growers criminate GM contamination to have cost them valuable markets. Genetic pollution is also blamed for threatening organic production as a whole. A 2005/2006 FiBL survey showed that organic agriculture in Sudan occupies 200,000 hectares (650 farms) making 0.15% share of the total agricultural area. The evolution of organic agriculture in Sudan began in the late 1990s. Many products can be classified as fully organic but are not certified and are therefore exported under conventional marketing systems. A formal body and policy are needed to organize and certify these products but before that several constraints must be overcome. Developed countries moved toward organic farming as a lifestyle choice for communities with surplus food and against agricultural technology in general and GM in particular. Effective co-existence between GM crops, conventional and organic agriculture is imperative and has to be dealt with in existing legislation on agriculture, environment, and health and consumer protection and will require additional legislation at the community level and in national laws and regulations.

25

6. ECONOMICS +

Actual and Recommended Quantities of Chemicals Used on Vegetable Production in Khartoum State: A Cost Comparison

Fayga Hussien Ballal and Mutasim Mekki Mahmoud Elrasheed

Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology, P. O. Box 71 Shambat Sudan.

Abstract: This study was conducted on the northern part of Khartoum State (Elshihainab and Wad Ramely villages – Khartoum North) in season 2007, to compare the actual quantities of chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) used in vegetable production with the recommended packages, besides, determining their impact on the cost of production. Surveying and descriptive statistics methods were used to reach to the stated objectives. Both primary and secondary data sources were used. Non probability sampling technique (snow ball) was used to collect data from (10%) of the total population of each of the two villages. Secondary data were collect from the related institutions, books and periodicals. Results revealed that, all farmers in the study area used chemical fertilizers and pesticides in their farming. About 24% and 40%of them used fertilizers and foliage fertilizer (chemical) more than the recommended packages, respectively. The study also showed that, the quantity of chemical fertilizers used in potato production exceeded the recommended one by 28 kg/feddan (66.7/ha), adding up about 233.3 SDG/feddan (555.5 SDG/ha) to the total costs. But for both onion and tomato production the chemical fertilizers were less than the recommended by 25kg/feddan and 50 kg/feddan, respectively. Further, farmers in Khartoum state do usually use foliage fertilizers which are not recommended for that area. On the other hand, while all farmers in the study area used quantities of (Malathion and silveen) pesticides greatly exceed the recommended one, about 26% of them used the (marshal) pesticides more than the required amount. The over all effects of using chemical fertilizers and pesticides inappropriately is additional costs incurred by farmers in vegetable production, reduction of his production and hence his income, negative effect on consumers and producers health and the environment. The study recommends the use of environmental friendly (organic) pesticides and fertilizers, in agriculture production, beside, extensive extension methods should used to enlighten the producers in the study area about the importance and profit gained from organic farming.

Keywords: Fertilizers and pesticides, recommended packages of fertilizers and pesticides, cost of production.

26

Potentiality of Organic Perennial Crops Farms in the River Nile State, SUDAN

Elgailany A. Ahmed 1 , Hamid H. M. Faki2, Hashim A. Elobeid3

1, 2 Ministry of Science and Technology, Agricultural Economics Research and Policy Center, 3University of Khartoum, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics,

Abstract

A dominant conception is that organic agriculture does not mean turning back the clock to a primitive mode of farming, but it does build on traditional knowledge and practices, what it offers a modern, ecologically intensive farming system that can perform successfully without any synthetic fertilizers or pesticides to meet food security needs and poverty alleviation. In Sudan organic farming was carried out by the Arab Authority for Agricultural Development (2001) to produce food commodities free of agricultural pollutants, mainly for export. The certified organic lands in Sudan was estimated as 200,000 hectare and 650 farms, involving different crops such as tropical fruits, nuts, but also cotton, herbs/spices, etc (TWN, 2010). Since organic farming system is feasible for agricultural sub-sector, the aims should be when disseminating the organic farms over the country and maximizing organic production. The paper undertook River Nile State (RNS) of Sudan as a case study. The RNS is considered as one of the main supplier of perennial crops to the country. The production of these crops in the State are faced by numerous constraints namely low level of productivity, high cost of production and inefficiency of resources use. In RNS perennial crops are regarded as essential food and cash crops within the prevailed crop, also they play an important role in sustaining production of farming systems through conserving and investing for cultivable area. The paper aims to investigate the potentiality and feasibility of organic perennial crops in RNS. It was on this basis that a paper was prepared out in RNS. Primary data was collected by using structured questionnaires for (50) randomly selected respondents from area of the study beside secondary data. A partial budget was used to assess and compare the profitability organic and non-organic perennial crops. The results revealed that tenants would get numerous benefits from organic perennial crops compared with non-organic perennial crops. The RNS tenants should therefore, be encouraged to establish organic perennial farms instead of investing on the traditional perennial crop farms and to be guided on how to grow organic products that give production and yield advantages, earn high returns and contributed significantly to farm sustainability and alleviates malnutrition in RNS.

Key words: organic farming

27

Education to Improve Organic Farming

Kwakib M. E. Elnour

College of Agricultural studies, Sudan University of Science and technology

Education in organic farming as in other sections of agriculture, means education to adopt better practices .knowledge dose not necessarily lead to change in behavior, it requires motive and intension to make a change in basic pattern of living.

We may have a lot of scientific information on organic farming or may know well the risks of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in agricultural production and their environmental deterioration, but without being able to apply this knowledge in practice.

There fore, before starting any agricultural development program in the field of organic farming, we must know how we can transfer the required information to users.

This paper is meant to convey a general idea about methods and aids used to help in education for both producer and consumers in the field of organic farming.

Data will be collected through structured questionnaire designed to obtain objectives of the study .The sample studied will cover all teaching assistants and technicians in the College of Agricultural Studies in Sudan University of Science &Technology the data will be entered and analyzed using statistical package for social science (spss) version 11 , then results will be discussed and recommendations drawn to focus on ways for improving organic farming by using suitable and applicable methods and aids .

28

Optimization of Choosing and Using Farm Machinery for Organic and Conventional Farming Systems by Compromise Programming

Technique

Hassan I. Mohammed 1 , Haithum R. K. El ramlawi2 and Omran M. Abbass1

1-Department of Agricultural Engineering, College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum-Sudan2- Centre of Dry land Farming Research and Studies, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Gadaref, Sudan.

Abstract

Selection and using of optimal machinery set for crop production is constraint by the high initial and operating costs of these machines and by the nature of farming system. It is essential if organic farming is to be economically competitive to examine, in economic terms, how the capacity of an optimal field machinery system is affected when a farm converts to organic production. Machinery index and calculation of timeliness factors are integral tools for comparison exercise. A case study was made for a typical arable farm in the central clay plains of Gedarief rain fed areas of East Sudan.To keep the scope manageable, the focus was on Sorghum crop grown on the most important two farming systems: the organic farming system using culti-planter as of Samsam research station and the high chemical input zero- Machinery costs consist of three parts: direct machine costs, labour costs and timeliness costs. For optimization of farm machinery systems, a method based on compromise programming was used. The optimal size of peak machinery demand, machine index, timeliness costs and energy requirements were used as indicators of evaluation. The main differences in timeliness costs between organic and conventional farming can be attributed to two counteracting facts: the lower yields and the higher product prices in organic farming. Timeliness cost per kg cereal produced was higher in organic production.

Keywords: Organic farming; Conventional farming; Machinery costs; Timeliness; Optimization; Compromise programming.

29

Organic Farming - What is it? Experiences in Australia & Japan

Douglas GrahamHead of Projects (UN World Food Programme) Khartoum – Sudan

Abstract: Why do people become Organic Farmers? Douglas was born in Australia and grew up on organic dairy farm in Tasmania, Australia. He married a farm girl whose family had been forced to become organic farmers because they couldn’t afford to buy chemical fertilisers after a severe drought. Douglas and his wife bought two farms in the arid area of New South Wales (west of Sydney) and converted and certified both farms as “Organic” (Biological Farmers Association – BFA Australia). They also learnt about bio-dynamic farming (Demeter). Douglas also had a full-time job as an irrigation engineer and played a major role in rebuilding the Government-owned Murrumbidgee Irrigation Scheme (MIA), similar to the Gezira scheme in Sudan. He helped conduct a scientific study on the synergistic effects of mixed pesticide and herbicides found in irrigation drainage water, which becomes up to 20 times more toxic than the individual chemicals; helped establish a native tree planting program (200,000 trees) to reduce water logging and salinity in the irrigation area; helped establish a co-operative of 15 local organic farmers which turned 15 farms and farming families around from being almost broke and bankrupt, into more contented and happy families with profitable farms, with no debts, and they, in turn, helped other farmers and their families to do the same thing. Generally speaking, all farmers in the co-operative started organic farming because they wanted to produce healthy food for themselves and the community, even if they didn’t make a profit. All wanted to serve humanity and protect the environment in some way. Profit was not their motive. However, if they didn’t make a profit and all went broke, how could the increasing volume of contaminated food in all corners of the world, the gradual destruction of our environment and the final suffocation of the planet be reversed? The 15 farmers had reached a deadlock and needed to find out why they were going broke, how they go about fixing the problems, become profitable, work together in a self-supporting and family-supporting way and produce more organic food at an affordable price. Over the years, many people have voiced their concerns about the detrimental effects of so-called modern agriculture involving the use of artificial chemicals – the toxic influence of agro-chemicals on human beings, animals, plants and all kinds of creatures, including micro-organisms in the soil; the soil deterioration and loss of fertility from chemical fertilisers; the control of agricultural materials (even seeds) by a small number of multinational corporations; the uncertainty and risks of genetically modified plants – to name a few.The key in the fact, Douglas found, was that an inner transformation is required, before the external world around us can change. It was an internal-quest that lead Douglas to an international organic growing conference in Japan in 1994. At that conference Douglas learnt about a higher dimension of Organic Farming – spiritual agriculture (Yoko agriculture) – a movement to revive the land, which entails purifying ourselves and the land with Universal Energy or God’s Light, addressing plants and all living things with positive and encouraging words, using organic compost, and preserving traditional seed varieties of plants suitable for organic farming. . This paper explores the reasons why people become organic farmers; the steps to take to become an organic farmer; outlines the questions we all ask along the path to becoming an organic farmer; and learning how to be open enough to work with Nature and apply the practical lessons provided by Nature in our every-day lives. At some time we will also search for answers to the really Big Questions about Life. Firstly we ask, is Organic Farming: A Farming Method; A Business; A Way of Life; A Spiritual Quest, or An Integrated and Intercommunicating combination of all these? In reality and fundamentally is organic farming: One World, One Tree and One Life Force?

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7. POSTERS

Evaluation of Flame Emission Apparatus and Comparison with the Recommended Pre-emergence Herbicides to Control Weed in Faba

Bean

Alaeldin M. Elhassan, Khalifa A. Khalifa & Hassan S. Abbas

College of Agricultural studies, Sudan University of Science and technology

Abstract

Two experiments were conducted for two consecutive seasons (2004-2005) and (2005-2006) at Hudeiba Research Station Farm; Nile River State – Sudan, to evaluate a flame weeding apparatus using liquefied petroleum gas LPG. The other experiment was designed to compare the flame weeding with the recommended pre-emergence herbicides to control weed in faba bean.The performance of the designed apparatus in term of weed control was very satisfactory and gave a promising efficiency and economic feasibility. The best results were obtained under optimum operating conditions which are 4.5 cm inner diameter burner head; 12 cm burner height with 30° angle and 11 m/min walking speed. The mean of weeding efficiency for the two consecutive seasons to control grasses and broad leaved at 4 weeks after sowing was 72.7% and 77.8% respectively in regards to comparing the flame weeding method with the recommended pre-emergence herbicides statistical analysis shows that there was no significant difference in total weeding efficiency in the first season between the two methods. In the contrary there was significant difference in the second season. This difference can be attributed to more number of grasses weed and the difference ability to each method to control grasses as flame weeding appear higher efficiency to control broad leaved than grasses which has sheath works as a protector.In the two experiments the grain yield of faba bean flamed at 4 weeks after sowing was comparable with the yield of pre-emergence herbicide in the two seasons.

31

THE PRODUCTION OF HYTHIEN BEAN

UNDER ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM

Elamin Abdelmagid Elamin and Nafisa Hassan Mohamed Ali Department of Soil and Environment Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture,

Shambat, University of Khartoum - Sudan

Abstract: An experiment was carried out for two consecutive summer seasons (2005 - 2006) in the Demonstration Farm – Faculty of Agriculture - Shambat - University of Khartoum to investigate the effect of organic manure (farmyard (FYM) and chicken (CHM) manures) at different levels on the growth attributes of hyathien bean (Dolicus lablab). The treatments were comprised of FYM at the rate of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 tons/ha; and CHM at the rate of 0; 2 and 4 tons/ha. The design was split-plot design, the main plot was farm yard manure and the sub-plot was chicken manure. The parameters studied included: fresh and dry weight of shoot and root number of branches and nodules per plant, mineral content of plant (Na, K, Ca, Mg, N, and P). The soil chemical characteristics examined before and after the execution of the experiment were: the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (ECe), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and mineral content of the soil (mmol+/L). The results obtained showed that application of FYM significantly increased the shoot dry weight after 8 weeks from sowing and number of branches and nodules after 10 weeks from sowing. Contents of potassium and calcium of the plants and the soil pH, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and the phosphorus content were significantly increased. This increase was achieved with 15 or 20 ton/ha FYM. Application of CHM resulted in a significant increase in shoot dry weight, number of branches and root fresh after 8 weeks from sowing and the number of nodules after 10 weeks from sowing. The nitrogen content of plant, EC and Mg content in the soil were significantly increased. This increase was achieved with 2 tons/ha CHM. The interaction between FYM and CHM gave significant increase in root fresh weight after 8 weeks; shoot dry weight after 10 weeks the number of nodules/plant after 12 week from sowing, nitrogen and phosphorus contents of plant, EC and SAR in the soil were also significantly increased.

32

Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides in Khartoum State - Sudan: Handling, Uses and their Consequences

Fayga H. B. Awad and Mutasim M. M. Elrasheed

dept. of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology, P. O. Box 71 Shambat Sudan.

Abstract:

The world had witnessed intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides (chemical) in agriculture to satisfy the ever growing needs of the fast population growth. The results were irrational handling and uses of those chemicals and negative impact on agricultural production and human health. This study aimed at examining the uses and handling of chemical fertilizers and pesticides between the farmers and distributing companies and their consequences on agricultural production and human health. The study was conducted on season 2007 in the northern part of Khartoum State, particularly Elshihainab and wad Ramely villages.

Both primary and secondary data sources were used. Non probability sampling technique (snow ball) were used to collect the data from 192 farmers from the two villages, representing (10%) of the total population of each of the two villages. Secondary data were collect from the related institutions and books and periodicals. Descriptive statistical technique was used to reach to the stated objectives.

Results revealed that, all farmers in the study area used chemical fertilizers and pesticides in their farming. Further, they handle the chemical fertilizers and pesticides in inappropriate manner; as the majority of them (94%) buy their chemicals directly from the traders without having adequate advice and direction on optimum uses and storage, even if they have, only (45%) of them adopt the corrected advices. On the other hand, most of the farmers in the study areas handle the remaining quantities of fertilizers and/or pesticides incorrectly, as (40%) of them store the rest of their chemicals in their houses without due consideration and about 45% of them store it near drinking water sources. Results also revealed that, there were wide spread of diseases (cancer, asthma, abortion …) that related to inappropriate uses of chemicals in the study areas, and the majority of the farmers believe on chemicals as sources of these diseases. The over all consequences, were poor production and farmers income. the study recommends the uses of organic fertilizers and pesticides on agriculture.

33

Contribution of chicken manure on soil chemical and physical

properties compared with urea and superphosphate fertilizers.

Mohamed Abdalla Abbas1, Saifeldin M. El-Amin2& Elamin Abdelmagid Elamin 3

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Upper Nile1

College of Agricultural studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology2.Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum3.

Abstract: The experiment was conducted at the College of Agricultural Studies Sudan

University of Sciences and Technology farm Shambat. During the growing seasons 2005-

2006, 2006-2007 and 2007-2008.Different levels of chicken manure 10m3 , 15 m3 , 20 m3

chicken manure compared with Urea + super phosphate 125-62.5 Kg respectively. Egg

plant black beauty cultivar was used. The soil chemical analysis showed that chicken

manure at 30cm depth revealed that the value of pH , Ca+, Mg+, K+, P+, total N; NH4-N,

O.C. and O.M, were higher in the chicken manure plots than that of urea +

superphosphate . The moisture content was kept higher in chicken plots than that of urea

+ superphosphate. Clay and silt particles were higher but sand particles were lower in

chicken manure plots compared with urea + superphosphate treatments.

34

The Effect of Heat-treated Compost on Nodulation, Growth, Yield, and Morphological Yield Components of Cluster bean (Guar) Cyamposis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub Grown on Shambat Alkaline Clay Soil.

Salma Fathelrahman and Sami A. M. Hamid *

* Department of Agronomy, Sudan University of Science and Technology

Cluster bean (Guar) Cyamposis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub is a leguminous crop adapted to arid and semi-arid environments. It is known as a multi-purpose crop, that the young pods are eaten as vegetable, the seeds are used as cattle feed in India and Pakistan. The seed flour is exceptionally viscous possessing 5-8 times the thickness power of starch. It used in paper industry, textile, food products eg bakery and dairy products. And recently in petroleum oil industry. It is regarded as a promising summer rotation crop, since it is capable of biological N2-fixation. Generally the degree of nodulation was proved to be hindered when legumes grown on alkaline heavy-textured soils. In order to improve nodulation of guar, a field experiment was carried out at the demonstration farm of the College of Agricultural Studies-Shambat in the summer season of 2009. Heat-treated compost was used to improve the soil aeration, neutralize the soil-pH, and enhance the mobilization of the soil nutrition. A completely randomized block design with three replicates was used for this purpose. The treatments were control, compost, inoculum, and inoculum + compost. The results revealed that very poor nodulation due to inoculation as well as compost application. Further research is strongly recommended with special emphasis on using the proper strain of Rhizobium, and the application of proper-treated organic material.

Samial48@windowslive.com

35

The Impact of Different Sources of Organic Material on Growth, Yield and Components of Forage Sorghum Sorghum biocolor L. Moench cv.

Abu Sabein Grown on Shambat Alkaline Clay Soil.

Nuseiba N. Abddo and Sami A. M. Hamid *

* Department of Agronomy, Sudan University of Science and Technology

Forage Sorghum Sorghum biocolor L. Moench is the most important cereal forage crop in the Sudan. It ranks first; area-wise, in the summer seasons of the Khartoum state. The traditional practice used, is to apply mineral nitrogen fertilizer at the rate of IN (IN: 43Nkg/ha) as urea in most cases. However, the organic fertilizers have the advantage over the minerals in improving the physical properties and enhance the mobilization of the soil nutrients. Accordingly, a field experiment was carried out at the demonstration farm of the College of Agricultural Studies-Shambat in the summer season of 2009. For this purpose a randomized complete block design was used with three replicates. The treatments were composed of two raw manures, heat-treated compost, NPK at the rate containing IN for comparison, and a control treatment. The results showed no statistically significant differences among the characters evaluated except the relative growth rate. Further research in this area is strongly recommended. Emphasis should be put on the application of proper-treated organic materials for increasing the yield.

Samial48@windowslive.com

36

Critical period of weed control in carrot (Daucus carota L.)

Nasr Eldin Khairi Abdalla

Agricultural Research Corporation. Shendi Research Station

Abstract

An experiment was undertaken, at Shendi Research Station, for two consecutive seasons (2008/09 and 2009/10) with objective of determining the critical period of weed/carrot interference. The total umber of weed per m2 in the weedy control was 112 – 226. The dominant weed species were Brachiaria eruciformis, Panicum hygrocharis, Echinochloa. colona, Amaranthus spp., Ipomoea spp., Portulaca oleraceae, Convolvulus arvensis, Peta vulgaris and Chrozophora plicata. Weed population density, weed ground cover and weed biomass increased with the weedy period and decreased with the weed free period. Carrot growth and yield progressively increased with the weed free period and decreased with the weedy period. Unrestricted weed interference reduced crop stand, carrot length, carrot diameter and yield by 81, 77, 61 and 92%, respectively. The crop kept weed free for 2 to 6 weeks after sowing then weedy afterwards displayed crop stand comparable to the full season weedy control. Extending the weed free period to 8 weeks or more resulted in crop stand comparable to the full season weed free control. Carrot kept weedy for the first 2 to 6 WAS then weed free till harvest displayed crop stand comparable to the weed free control. Carrot kept weed free for 2 weeks then weedy afterwards or remained weedy for 8 to 10 weeks exhibited similar diameter to the weedy control. Carrot, kept weed free for 4 to 10 weeks or weedy for 2 to 6 weeks then weed free till harvest displayed a diameter comparable to the weed free control. The crop kept weed free for the first 2 to 4 weeks then weedy afterwards displayed yield comparable to the full season weedy control. On the other hand, the crop kept weed free for the first 6 weeks or more resulted in yield comparable to the weed free control. The crop kept weedy for the first 2 to 6 weeks then weed free till harvest exhibited yield comparable to the weed free control. The crop kept weedy for 8 weeks or more resulted in yield comparable to the weedy control.

37

Effect of organic manures on yield of rain-fed Sorghum in Gedarif area

Ibrahim Elsadig Ibrahim, Elasha A. Elasha and Ali El-Toum Hassan

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Gadarif

Abstract

A field experiment was executed for two consecutive seasons (2007/08 and 2008/09), at the Northern and Southern areas of Gedarif state, to investigate the impact of the addition of organic manures on yield of rain-fed sorghum. The organic fertilizer’s used were farm yard manure (FYM) and chicken manure (CM). Four levels of each manure were applied (5 ton/ha, 10 tons/ha, 15 tons/ha, 20 tons/ha and control. The treatments were arranged in a factorial RCBD with three replications.

The data showed that the addition of organic manures resulted in a significant differences among all measured parameters which were plant height (PH),number of heads/meter square (No. of hds/m2), total grain yield (TGY), 1000 seed weight (1000SW) and straw yield compared to the control.

On conclusion the addition of organic manures resulted in a significant increase in rain-fed sorghum yield. Chicken manures (CD4) scored the maximum sorghum yield (6042.8 and 3986.2 kg/ha) for 2007/08 and 2008/09 seasons, respectively.

38

Producing phytochemicals with high antioxidant activity from three plants as organic food sources

Abdalbasit Adam Mariod, and Yousif Mohamed Ahmed1Food Science & Technology Department, College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan

University of Science & Technology, P.O Box 71 Khartoum North, Sudan.

Plants are considered a good source of important phytochemicals with high antioxidant activity. Wild fruits and seeds are being considered because their constituents have unique nutritional and functional properties, Sclerocarya birrea, Salvadora persica, and Monechma ciliatum are popular Sudanese plants distributed in many states where the leaves, stem bark, root, fruits and seeds are used in food and traditional medicine. The seeds of the three plants were rich in oil and protein. The oils contain oleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acids. The extracts from different plants parts showed high total phenolic compounds and radical scavenging capacities and antioxidant activities. Sclerocarya birrea is widely studied with regard to its antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, and antihypertenisve activities. The fruit of Sclerocarya birrea is rich in ascorbic acid and its fruit juice contains sesquiterpene hydrocarbonThe methanolic extracts of Salvadora persica leaves (SPL), bark (SPB), and seedcake (SPC) in both samples were markedly effective in inhibiting the oxidation of linoleic acid and subsequent bleaching of ß-carotene in comparison with the control. But they were less effective than BHA. The oil and meal from Monechma ciliatum (black mahlab) seeds were characterized for their physico-chemical properties. The oil content was found to be 13.15%. The major fatty acids were palmitic 4.5%, stearic 16.0%, oleic 47.3% and linoleic 31.4% in black mahlab (BMO). A moderate amount of tocopherols were found at 45.2 mg/100 g, in BMO. Protein content was found to be 21% in black. The total amount of amino acids in black was found to be 783.3. The antioxidant potential of phenolic rich fractions (PRFs) and methanolic extract (ME), ethyl acetate extract (EAE), and hexane extract (HE) from Monechma ciliatum leaves (MCL) was evaluated, both the extraction yield and the antioxidant activity were strongly dependent on the solvent. Among the extracts, ME exhibited highest total phenolic content and IC50 values for DPPH, followed by EAE and HE, respectively. As a general trend, increased antioxidant activity was observed for increased extract concentration. The predominant phenolic compounds were identified by HPLC-DAD.

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Producing Phytochemicals with High Antioxidant Activity from Two Edible Insects as Organic Food Source

Abdalbasit A. Mariod*, and Yousif M. Ahmed*Food Science & Technology Department, College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science & Technology, P.O Box 71 Khartoum North, Sudan.

Phytochemicals like amino acid, fatty acid and phenolic compounds were

investigated in two edible insect Aspongubus viduatus (melon bug) and Agonoscelis

pubescens (Sorghum bug). The approximate analysis of Aspongubus viduatus, and

Agonoscelis pubescens adult showed 8.3 and 7.6% moisture, 27.0 and 28.2% crude

protein, 54.2 and 57.3% fat and 3.5 and 2.5% ash on a dry matter basis, respectively. The

bug proteins contained 16 known amino acids, including all of the essential amino acids.

The most predominant fatty acids in melon bug oil were oleic, palmitic, linoleic, and

linolenic acids representing 45.5, 31.3, 4.9 and 0.48%, respectively, while in sorghum

bug oil representing 41.15, 11.41, 35.28 and 1.28%, respectively. The total polyphenol

contents of the polar fraction of the two insects oils obtained by extraction with methanol

showed that melon bug oil has the highest amount of total phenolic compounds followed

by sorghum bug oil. The HPLC was used to detect phenolic compounds in a methanol

extract of melon and sorghum bug oils, t-cinnamic and syringic acids, quercetin and

pelargonin were identified in melon bug oil while in sorghum bug oil vanillic, sinapic

and o-coumaric acid, and quercetin were identified. The antioxidant activity determined

by the DPPH method reveals that the melon bug oil extract had the highest antioxidant

activity on DPPH free radicals followed by sorghum bug oil; only 0.13 mg extract of

melon bug oil was necessary to reach 50% loss in DPPH while in case of SBO 0.8

milligrams were used. Melon bug crude oil and the phenolic compounds-free oil showed

high antibacterial activities against six test species. Differential scanning chromatography

and FTIR were used to study the physical and thermal properties of gelatine extracted

from melon and sorghum bug the obtained gelatine was found to be a good source for

different food products.

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THE ECONOMICS OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN SUDAN

Dr. Saeed Mohamed Suliman

saeedsuliman@hotmail.com

Sudan has great potential for increased organic agricultural production, especially in the traditional rain-fed areas, and along the banks of rivers. This type of organic agricultural production, in which the use of chemicals mainly pesticides and fertilizers is restricted, excludes the high cost of these agricultural inputs, which are necessary to increase the productivity of inorganic agriculture. Eventually, this makes the cost of organic farming relatively low compared to the inorganic agricultural farming. However, organic farming benefits from the recycling of plant and animal by-products as organic fertilizers. In addition, considerable amount of fertile silt is deposited by the annual flooding along the banks of the rivers.

Moreover, it is known that the price of the weight unit of organic agricultural products are higher than that of the same weight of the same product produced in organically. The objective of this study is to calculate and compare the percentage of the same product (tomato) organically produced to that is produced inorganically in the same area (feddan).

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Utilization of Argel (Solenostemma argel Del. Hyne.) and Usher (Calotropis procera Ait.) powders and aqueous extracts for Controlling the Green Pit Scale Insect (Asterolicanium phoenicis Rao.) (Homoptera:

Asterolicaniidae) on Date Palm

Awad K. Taha 1, Khalid O.A.M. Eldoush 1 and Omar A.A. Sidahmed 2

1 Department of Plant Protection, College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Shambat - Sudan. 2 Department of Plant Protection, College of

Agriculture, Omdurman Islamic University, Omdurman - Sudan.

Abstract: A field study was conducted at Alghaba Agricultural Scheme, Northern State, Sudan, to investigate the effects of argel (Solenostemma argel Del.Hyne.) and usher (Calotropis procera Ait.) powders and aqueous extracts on immature stages of the green pit scale insect (Asterolicanium phoenicis Rao.). The experiments were conducted at two sites, Gharb Dongola and Elkinduwa villages. Two applications were made at each site during the date season of 2007 ( in January and in May). Within each site, 4 rows, each containing 5 date palm trees (cv. Barakawi) of similar age, were selected randomly. Each date palm tree represented a replicate. The treatments were laid in a Completely Randomized Design, with 4 replicates. Argel and Usher powders were applied each at three dosage rates (100 g. powder/ tree as a soil dressing, 100 g. powder /10 Liter tap water/ tree for spraying and 100 g. powder as soil dressing + 100 g. powder /10 Liter tap water as spray/ tree). The insecticide Actara 25 W.G. (Thimethoxam, a neonicotinoid) was used as a standard treatment. Counts of immature stages were made at 14 days intervals. From each palm, 2 leaflets were randomly detached from each direction. An area of 1cm² at the base, the middle and the tip of each leaflet was examined under a binocular microscope, and percentage mortality of the immature stages was determined. An average mortality of 50% of the immature stages were obtained with Argel and Usher treatments. The standard insecticide Actara showed an average mortality of 58%. Accordingly, it could be concluded that, Argel and Usher, at 100 g./ tree, applied to soil effected comparable mortality to Actara at 20 g./ tree and could be recommended as an alternative treatment for the control of immature stages of the date palm green pit scale insect.

Key words: Alghaba, Asterolicanium phoenicis, Solenostemma argel, Calotropis procera.

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CHALLENGES FOR TRANSTIONING CONVENTIONAL FARMING IN THE SUDAN TO ORGANIC

Mohamed Ahamed Bushara

Peace University, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies

Abstract: A widely used definition of organic agriculture is the one provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which defines it as a production system which voids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotation, crop residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral supply bearing rocks and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilh, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests. Therefore, organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and to sustain and optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people.

In the terminology of organic agriculture, conversion from conventional farming to organic has a very specific meaning. In order to grasp it one has to keep in mind that organic agriculture, in the modern sense of the term, is a highly regulated form of ecological agriculture as it adheres to legally defined standards and norms of production, processing and labeling. The legalities of organic agriculture are codified in a number of formal standards that define the regimes that producers or processors need to work within in order to claim organic status. These organic standards besides stipulating the prohibition of use of certain inputs also demands strict adherence to a range of practices by the farm.

The paper focuses on the process of conversion from a conventional regime to an organic system which requires complete deterrence from application of chemical inputs, significant changes at the farm level particularly within soil and major changes in the attitudes of the farmers, besides other costs and obstacles that affect transition process. On the otherhand, the paper highlights the chances and prospects in favor of organic farming in the Sudan.

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The impact of the use of some waste on the production of organic potatoes classified Desire

* Omar Hashim ALMohammedi / Faculty of Agriculture, Anbar University Fadel Hussein ALSahaf / Faculty of Agriculture University of Baghdad

Alaa Saleh Ati / Faculty of Agriculture University of Baghdad

An experiment was carried out in the experimental field of Horticulture Dept., College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad for two seasons (Fall 2006 and spring 2007)to produce potato by organic fertilization. In fall season, class A seed tubers while in spring season, class Elite of the cv. Desiree potato was used. Two experiment were designed, first was the use three sources of organic fertilizers (Poultry, cattle and sheep manure)in addition to conventional mineral fertilizer and no fertilization (control) treatment. In second experiment, cattle manure fertilizer in addition to why were used. Results could be summarized as follows: Soil treated with 10% poultry manures hasten the field emergence and was 26.21 and 27.14 days. Cattle manure at 15% with whey had the lowest number of days for field emergence in both seasons (28.97 and 29.68 days respectively).Manure treatment regardless the source and cattle manure 15% +whey all caused 100% emergence for booth seasons. Greatest number of stems was found when 10% poultry manure (4.60 and 4.52 stem/plant) and 15%cattle manure with whey (4.44 and 4.36 stem/plant)for the two seasons respectively ).Total leaf area on the other hand was found in mineral fertilized plants for both seasons (34.30 and 33.30 dm 2/plant respectively ).Greatest dry matter weight was found with 10% poultry manure treatment (56.29 and 55.27 g/plant)and with 15% cattle manure and whey (56.20and 55.16 g/ plant) for the two seasons respectively.

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Introduction of crab and rice farming in China

Dr. Ronggang Li

Team leader of Senior Agricultural Expert of China Administration of Planning and Agriculture Economy Ministry of Agricultural and Forestry, Sudan

Abstract:

In this paper, origination, development, driving force of fish and rice farming is reviewed and analyzed, technology related to crab and rice farming is detailedly described, the methods of how to purchase and transport crabs are summarized, and finally, economic benefit is analyzed, some successful examples are introduced and the problems that farmer commonly meet are discussed. According to archaeological find, China is the earliest country in the world where fish is raised in paddy field and fish and rice farming has existed in China for about 2000 years. Before the heavy application of chemicals, such as chemical fertilizer and pesticide, wild crabs, wild ducks, wild eels are everywhere in the paddy field. The application of chemicals heavily breaks the ecological balance and wild crabs are difficult to find in paddy field. Fortunately, smart human ancestors had started to raise fish in the paddy field, even crabs long before temporary people knew its true ecological and economical value. In view of this point, we modern human being should appreciate our ancestors. Crab (fish) and rice farming is very popular in China now and will be even more popular in the future, which could be explained by its economic, ecological benefits. According to rough estimation, economic income in crab and rice farming per unit area is at least 2 times as much as that in conventional rice field, even more than 4 times in some area. Natural crabs in China come from Yangtze water basin, Liaohe water basin and Oujiang water basin, among which Yangtze crabs are best. How to identify the quality and origination of crabs is described in this paper. According to different aim, farmers could raise crabs in paddy field from matured ones, young un-matured ones for selling commercial crabs and also for selling breeding crabs. Farmers must raise crabs in paddy field scientifically, such as too many circled ditches, putting too many and too few crabs in paddy field. Crab and rice farming is a systematic engineering and details should be considered in order to promote its healthy development.

Key words: crab and rice farming, Jiangsu province, China, ecological balance.

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Potentials for organic meat production

A/Rahmanm M. Mohammed, Isameldin E. Eltahir and Babikir A. Ahmed *

*Animal production research centre

Abstract: The sharp rise in demand for meat and meat product; necessitate an efficient supply chain to exhibit greater competitiveness in the world meat trade. To achieve these goals meat protectionist world-wide created new technologies to enable farmers to be more efficient livestock producer. The modern technologies include genetically modified animal hormones, implantation, irradiated food to increase yield, however chemical and pharmacological drugs pesticides and insecticides usage also increased in addition to feed of animal origin. All these have raised the public concern about the possibility of drugs and chemical residues. The recent European crises about Bovine Spongiform encephaloplhy [BSE], Dioxen, and foot and month diseases in relation to livestock production have frighten the consumers and some learn towards organic production because consumers think organic production practices are better for environment and human health and some claimed that organic food taste better. Organic meat is the product of an organic livestock system. It refers to the way an animal is reared, what foods it eats and what remedies are administered. Animal welfare issues and sustainable land management practices are all taken into account and audited by an approved certification agency.

Generally one of the goals of organic production system is to reduce the use of reliance on chemical growth promotant and feed additives as much as possible without affecting total production and net earnings. Recently organic product without doubt is a growing sector of agricultural production, however organic agriculture only account for small proportion of overall agriculture land, even in the developed world, average about 2% of European Countries, 0.1% for USA and 1.34 for Canada (FAO, 2000). In tropical countries such as Sudan different types of meat are produced on natural pasture based livestock production, without using the wide spread of synthetic, soluble fertilizers and other agro-chemicals emerged in the mid twentieth century, but to ensure that four products is derived from an organic or natural resource should be guaranteed by certifying and this goes beyond simply grass fed or not applying insecticides or giving medicines. It includes a physiological regime prohibiting the use of artificial fertilizer on pasture. Legislation sets the rules for how products must be produced and processed to bear the word Organic or Bio. Products must bear the label of an approved certification agency for the consumer to be assured of its authenticity. Producers not only need to certify their products under resourced, but also they often lack experienced staff who can deal with the variety of farming systems and industries they are asked to certify. Anybody considering certification should allow plenty of time to deal with the papers work which will be faced by illiteracy which is dominant in rural nomadic areas.

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Effect of mixing Glomus mosseae and composts on basal stem rotcaused by Rhizoctonia solani in sweet corn (Zea mays)

Ali A. A. Mustafa, Zainal Abidin. M. A, Radziah Othman* and Ganesan V. Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra

Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia(*) Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra

Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

AbstractMixing the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Glomus mosseae and different levels of compost was investigated for controlling basal stem rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani in sweet corn under glasshouse conditions. Chemical analyses for soil and compost were carried out before the amendment. Soil was amended with different levels of compost (animals waste to plant residues 1:1) in the ratio of 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75 g/kg compost/soil. Soil either inoculated with G. mosseae or uninoculated before sowing. Mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants of 4 weeks were either inoculated with R. solani or uninoculated (control). Plants of 8 weeks age were harvested. Root and shoot dry weight, chlorophyll content and disease severity were measured.Samples of roots were dried under liquid nitrogen conditions for determining peroxidase and chitinase activity levels. Leaves were dried at 85 C and soil samples were prepared⁰ for the analysis of mineral content. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) test using SAS. The results of experiments showed that 45g/kg compost/ soil had increased sweet corn root and shoot dry weight significantly.Chlorophyll content was increased significantly by mixing mycorrhiza and compost. The confirmation mixing mycorrhiza with compost had reduced disease severity and was associated with increase in chitinase and peroxidase activity. The mixture of mycorrhiza and compost therefore has shown potential for suppressing disease caused by R. solani.

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Comparative Analysis of Organic and Inorganic Paddy Cultivation in Indian Punjab

Subhash Sharma1, Anita Gill1, Amita Pandov1 and S K Jindal2

1Punjabi University, Patiala2 Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

1Corresponding author E-mail: subhash2@gmail.com

Abstract

The burgeoning population pressure has forced many countries to use chemicals and fertilizers to increase farm productivity for meeting food requirements. The prolonged and overuse of chemicals has, however, resulted in human and soil health hazard and pollution of the environment. Cost of production is rising, nonetheless land productivity is not increasing in the same proportion. Organic farming can solve almost all aspects of the ecological crisis caused by chemical agriculture. Organic farming excludes the use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and live stock feed additives and relies to a maximal extent, on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off farm organic wastes and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, supply of plant nutrients and pests control. The study was conducted in 32 villages of Punjab India. Four farms from each of the 8 districts were randomly chosen. Farms were further divided, according to size, into small medium and large. In inorganic farming total labour utilization was 237.69, 216.95 and 200.34 hours for small, medium and large sized farms, respectively, whereas, it was 288.76 hours for small sized farms, 264.20 hours for medium sized farms and 241.47 hours for large sized farms in organic farming. In inorganic farming the total machine labour utilization was 100.88, 108.95 and 118.76 hours for small, medium and large sized farms, respectively, whereas, it was 81.64 hours for small sized farms, 88.17 hours for medium sized farms and 96.11 hours for large sized farms in organic farming. The total cost of cultivation of paddy in inorganic farming was Rs. 7655.25, Rs. 7349.04 and Rs. 7128.57 for small, medium and large farms, respectively. In organic farming the total cultivation cost was Rs. 6930.30, Rs. 6653.09 and Rs. 6453.49 for small, medium and large farms, respectively. In case of small farms, yield was 23.95 and 22.56 quintals per acre in inorganic and organic farming, respectively. The corresponding gross returns were Rs. 14373.76 and 16634.27. The net returns were Rs. 6718.51 and 9703.97 for inorganic and organic farming, respectively. In case of medium sized farms, yield was 22.99 and 21.66 quintals per acre for inorganic and organic farming, respectively. The corresponding gross returns were Rs. 13798.81 and 15968.90. The net returns were Rs. 6449.77 and 9315.81 for inorganic and organic farming, respectively. In case of large farms, yield was 22.30 and 21.01 quintals per acre for inorganic and organic farming, respectively. The corresponding gross returns were Rs. 13384.85 and 15489.83. The net returns were Rs. 6256.27 and 9036.34 for inorganic and

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organic farming, respectively. The most important aspects of the present study are that net returns were significantly higher in organic farming as compared to inorganic farming of paddy. The net high returns were due to higher gross returns and lesser cost of production. In the current situation, when farming is no more profitable especially for small and medium farmers, higher returns from organic farming helps to earn more profits.

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