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8/17/2019 00 Linguistic a 2

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Applied Linguistics, Emma Dafouz

APPLIED LINGUISTICS

PART I. General Introduction tothe Discipline of Applied Linguistics

1. An overview of Applied LinguisticsThere are several key terms that should be taken into account:

- arro! definitions: short, specific, restricted, limited, "ust focusing on one

aspect#

- $road definition: unrestricted, non-limited, general# The traditional vision

focuses on a narro! definition, "ust focused on one aspect#

- %roblem-driven discipline: guided by the problems that are given on a conte&t#

- 'nterdisciplinarity

1.1. What is Applied Linguistics?There are several definitions of Applied Linguistics# Applied Linguistics, at least in America,

!as first officially recognized as an independent course at the (niversity of )ichigan in

*+# 'n those early days, the term !as used both in America and in England to refer to

applying a so called .scientific approach/, to teaching foreign languages, including English

for non-native speakers#

*+, end of 0orld 0ar ''# The idea of forming these people in another language, in order to

act undercover, involved investing large amounts of money in learning languages# They

provided them !ith everything necessary for this learning and teaching of a language:

laboratories, dictionaries1

'n Europe, the emergence of Applied Linguistic as an academic discipline !as closely

related to the foundation of A'LA, The Association 'nternationale De Linguisti2ue

Appli2u3e# The creation of A'LA !as agreed upon the international collo2uium of Applied

Linguistics, at the (niversity of ancy 45rance6 in *+# They meet every year in one

country# Each country has its o!n A'LA#

Traditionally, Applied Linguistics is concerned !ith language teaching in mother tongue

education or !ith the teaching and learning of foreign or second language# This is the

narro! definition of this term, given by 0ilkins in *+78, 9aplan in *++ and ;ridhar in

*++

- .Applied Linguistics is essentially a problem-driven discipline, rather than a

theory-driven one/ 4)c?arthy, 8*:6

- 't@s also defined as an activity# .The application of linguistic kno!ledge to

some ob"ect, situation or problem/ 4?order, *+7


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language should be studied: Berman, 5rench, ?hinese, 'talian, Cussian1

8# ;hould everyone learn foreign languages> And if so, !hich one or !hich

ones> 0hich is the best method to do so>

1.2. The development of Applied Linguistics.'n addition to A'LA, there are other national associations:

- The $ritish Association of Applied Linguistics 4$AAL6 in *+7#

- The American Association of Applied Linguistics 4AAAL6 in *+7+#

- The ;panish Association of Applied Linguistics 4AE;LA6 in *+=8#

- The ?ameroon Association of Applied Linguistics 4?A)A'LA6

- and over different associations !orld-!ide1

This is a very !orld-!ide movement# All these associations reflect the good health of the

discipline and its fast gro!th# The topics are very diverse they cover all type of fields:

“To an observer, the most notable change in Applied Linguistics has

been its rapid growth as an interdisciplinary field” 4Cichard Tucker in

the A'LA conference 86

;uccess in the Applied Linguistics enterprise depends on:

*# 'dentifying and defining problems# Everybody has overcome this problem# A

linguist does this because he or she !ants to kno! more#

8# ?onte&tualizing those problems !ithin linguistic study and developing a

theoretical stance# Look more into the problem#


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language in the development and possible solutions of ecological and

environmental problems#

eading 1: Schmitt, N. An Overview of Applied Linguistics.1. What are the “traditional” areas that Applied Linguistics covers

The narro! definition is the teaching and learning of second or foreign languages# The broaddefinition refers to the second language ac2uisition, second language pedagogy and its

interface#

!. List the other areas that "arter and #unan $!%%1&!' include as sub(disciplines of

Applied Linguistics. )ind out what these sub(disciplines study by loo*ing in your

glossary, chec*ing encyclopedias or using the +nternet.

- Literacy: ability to read and !rite, the ability to use language# 't is important in

order to socialize#

- ;peech pathology: study of abnormalities in the development and use of language

in children and adults# 't is a disorder#

- Deaf education: sign language, lip language# %eople that have special needs#

- 'nterpreting: oral part#

- Translating: !ritten part#

- ?ommunication practices: strategies used for communicating purposes#

- Le&icography: !riting dictionary and other kind of reference material#

- 5irst language ac2uisition: study of the development of the process of mother

tongue ac2uisition#

. +n the section entitled “Applied Linguistics during the Twentieth "entury” there are

a number of movements that need special attention due to their influence on language

learning and teaching. Loo* for the following teaching methods and e-plain thembriefly& rammar(translation method, /irect method, 0eading method.

- Grammar-translation method: attempted to make language learning easier through the

use of e&ample sentences instead of !hole te&ts 4vocabulary, * or 8 grammar rules and

translation6# 't doesn@t emphasize on the use of language# Ceading and !riting# o theory of

learning behind it# 't gives you grammar rules, but you don@t get to use them#

- Direct method: e&posure to oral language 4listening and speaking6# 'mitated ho! mother

tongue is naturally learnt, !ith the learning of the first language#

- Reading method: promote the reading skills through vocabulary management, and

changing less fre2uent !ords !ith others that are more fre2uent#

. 2ehaviourism and "homs*y3s "ognitivism are two opposite views of the process of language ac4uisition. "an you e-plain briefly how they oppose one another

As behaviourism says that language is a habit-formation, cognitivism tells that language is

governed by cognitive factors 4rules that are assumed to be innate6#

5. +n what ways does 6alliday3s 7ystemic )unctional rammar differ from "homs*y3s

approach And what are the three types of functions that 6alliday identifies in

language

Language !as not seen as something e&clusively internal to a learner, but as necessary to

function on society# Depending on !hat !e !ant to do on society, there are different

functions:

- 'deational: tell facts or e&periences#

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- 'nterpersonal: maintain personal relationships !ith others#

- Te&tual: connection and organization in a te&t#

Fou use a particular form to have different functions# 5unctional approaches G several types

of forms that e&press lots of functions#

8. +n the 19:%3s a new learning method appeared, *nown as "ommunicative LanguageTeaching $"LT'. What were its main ob;ective

- to focus on learners@ message and fluency rather than their grammatical accuracy#

- teach no-language-related sub"ect, such as history or politics in the L8# The learners !ould

ac2uire the L8 simply by using it to learn the sub"ect matter content, !ithout the L8 being

the focus of e&plicit instruction#


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2. Applied Linguistics and !irst LanguageAc"uisition #L1$

2.1. Theories of %rst language ac"uisition

2.1.1. &ehaviourist approaches' &loor and ()innerEach one is different and opposite to the previous one# Behaviourist Approaches

4$loomfield, Language *+


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Grammar.

“An infinite number of sentence can be produced by what seems to be a

rather small finite number of grammatical rules. A spea*er does not have

to store a large number of ready(made sentences in his head& he ;ust

needs the rules for creating them and undestanding them”

- Language description as the description of the native speaker@s norm

4competence6#

- ;tudy of deep structures grammatical rules#

- Later, after the study, !e have the incorporation of semantic structure meaning#

- %honetics is not so central superficial aspects#

- ;tudy of the universal common characteristics of all languages 4Universal

Grammar6#

- 9no!ledge of language is ac2uired through (niversal Brammar 4(B6#

- The Universal Grammar gives the child advanced kno!ledge of many abstract

and complete properties of language, so that these do not have to be learnt fromlinguistic input or by general learning strategies data you receive#

5or nativist, there is some evidence from this assumption# These are < basic e&planations for

!hy language learning is innate

*# Ac2uisition goes far beyond the actual input received# A child has a capacity

of creating sentences !ithout having heard that sentence before#

8# Degeneracy: input isn@t al!ays perfect# Even thou some sentences are

ungrammatical, the language a child ac2uires is perfect#

A child has an internal capacity# There are not e&plicit rules of

grammatic or ungrammatic, !e "ust tell the kid !hat is !orng and !hat is right#

0ith this, they start to form their o!n rules#

?homsky introduces the distinction bet!een competence and performance in *+ in his

book Aspects of the Theory of 7ynta-:

“Linguistic theory is primarily concerned with an ideal spea*er(listener,

in a completely homogeneous speech community, who *nows its

language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant

conditions as memory, limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and

interest, and errors in applying his *nowledge of language in actual performance” 4?homsky *+:


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Language Ac2uisition Device 4LAD6# ;ee also Ceading 8:

'%(T LAD (T%(T

the verb follo!s production the sub"ect

The child has innate ability to learn a language# To learn better a foreign language 4English,

Berman, ;panish6, the e&posure to that language helps you in the process of L8 ac2uisition#

Ho! often do !e encounter homogeneous community> The idea of a homogeneous

community is not al!ays so# 'n *+78, the challenge is that it@s necessary to take into account

the social and conte&tual aspects of language the intentions and perceptions of the language

use# 0e use language different#

As a result of this challenge, there is a notion of communicative competence 4Hymes6# 5or

Hyme, communicative competence can be defined in terms of components, as the abilityto use language accurately, appropriately and fle&ibly# %ragamatically, they@re not accurate#

Depending on the conte&t, he uses one type of language or another#

- Brammatical ?ompetence: the accurate use of morphology and synta

?hildren can master this competence at a very young age#

- ;ociolinguistics ?ompetence: the ability to ad"ust out utterances to the social

conte&t# )ore important these social principles#

- Discourse ?ompetence: the ability to interpret the larger conte&t and ho! to

construct longer stretches of discourse, so that different parts make a coherent

!hole#

- ;trategic ?ompetence: the ability to organize a message effectively and to

compensate, via strategies, for any difficulty in communication# 't is essential in

a L8 learning# A dictionar !ill be an e&ample of strategic competence#

0e naturally ac2uire these competences in our native language# Even thou in the L8 is

different, !e need to live abroad in order to ac2uire these competences#

The startegic competence compensates the breakdo!n in your language and improves it at

the same time#

Andre!@s Pivot Grammar as given in $raine:

- ?ombinations !ith .all/: all broke, all buttoned, all done, all !et1

- ?ombinations !ith .no/: no be, no fi&, no home, no mama1

- ?ombinations !ith .more/: more car, more cereal, more fish1

- ?alico all done J ;aid after the death of ?alico, the cat#

7

%rimary

linguistic

data 4adult

speech6

Beneral

language

learning

principles

Brammatical

kno!ledge

4rules6

?hild@s

speech


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2.1.3. !unctional approaches' cognition and languagedevelopment #iaget$ and (ocial Interaction.

Functional Approaches aim at accounting for the conte&tual aspects of language#

Louis $loom 4*+7*6 pointed out that telegraphic utterances could mean different things to a

child depending on the social conte&t# ;he found at least < possible underlying relations inthe utterance .mommy sock/:

agent-action: mommy is the one putting the sock on#

agent-ob"ect: mommy sees the sock#

possessor-possessed: mommy@s sock#

These varied meanings !ere inade2uately captured in a Pivot Grammar 4Nativist

Approach6# Like!ise, $ro!n 4*+7


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'nfants mainly make use of senses and motor capabilities to e&perience the

environment# 5or instance, if infants make cannot see or touch an ob"ect, they stop

trying to find it# nce infants develop the capability to recognize that a hiden ob"ect

still continues to e&ist, they start searching for it#

During the later part of this period 4around 8 years old6, children develop a sense

of ob"ect permanence, in !hich they !ill begin to search for ob"ects that they haveseen hidden# At this stage children construct a mental picture of a !orld of ob"ects

that have independent e&istence 4?rystal, *+=7:8


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have both a literal and an intended meaning#

eading 2' Brown, H.D., First Language Acquisition

1. "reative construction is the “pocess in which children gradually reconstruct the

rules for the speech they hear, guided by innate mechanisms” $/ulay and 2urt, 19


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- The *-!ordRholophrastic stage:

$et!een *8-*= months# ;ingle unit utterances for everyday on"ects 4milk, cookie, cat16#

These singles forms are functioning as a phrase or sentence#

- The 8-!ord stage:$et!een *=-8 months# ocabulary increases to R distinct !ords# E&pressions of the

type baby chair, mommy eat, cat bad !ill appear# Adult interpretation of such combination is

tied-to conte&t of utterance# ;o these sentences are multiple depending on the conte&t#

- The telegraphic stage:

$et!een 8R< years old# )ultiple-!ord utterances of the type:

Andre! !ant bat#

This shoe all !et#

?at drink milk1

The child has developed some sentence-building capacity and can order the forms correctly#

Brammatical inflections begin to appear and simple preposition#

5rammatical development morpholog, 7 s,nta8)orphology

$y < years old, incorporation of some inflectional morphemes !hich indicate the

grammatical function of nouns and verbs used:

*# I-ing@ form: cat sitting, mum reading#

8# regular plural: boys, cats1 vergeneralization: foots-footses, boy-boyses

4follo!ing the houses patterns6

8nd stage:

more I!h-@ forms: !hat, !hy#

rising intonation: see my doggie>


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beginning of the sentence: he no bite you#

incorporation of other au&iliaries forms such as: didn@t and !on@t# Later,

the form is added#

"U#S$%!NS N#GA$%S

Stage '

(')-*+

months,

- I!h-@ forms added to the

beginning of the sentence:

where mum

- utter the e&pression, rising

intonation:

sit chair

- InoRnot@ at the beg of any

e&pression:

no sit here

no fall

not a teddy bear

no mitten.

Stage *

(**-

months,

- more I!h-@ forms, more

comple& e&pressions:

why you smiling

- rising intonation, the strategy

continues: see my doggie

- Idon@t@ and Ican@t@

- Ino@ and Inot@ begin to be placed in

front of the verb:

don3t *now

he no bite youthere no s4uirrels

Stage

(*/-/

months,

- inversion sub"ect-verb but

not al!ays in I!h-@ forms:

can + have a piece

how that open

- combined !ith no inversion:

why *itty can3t eat

did + cauight it

what did you do

- incorporation of other au&iliary

forms such as Ididn@t@ and I!on@t@

4dissappearance of the ;tage * forms6

- form Iisn@t@: very late ac2uisition

4some ;tage8 forms still used6

(emantic developmentThe learning of vocabulary is the most noticeable feature of the early months of language

ac2uisition# ?hildren do not learn a !ord !ith its meaning .ready made/# They have to !ork

out for themselves !hat it must mean, and in so doing they make errors# Three types of

errors occur often bet!een 8 and < yeas old#

!vere0tension: children use limited vocabulary to refer to a large number of unrelated

ob"ects# The most common pattern is for the child to overe&tend the meaning of a !ord on

the basis of similarities of shape, sound and size 4to a lesser e&tent of movement andte&ture6# 5or e&ample, the girl in the video uses the !ord .apple/ to refer to all rounf fruits#

;ome other e&amples of overe&tension are:

1ord 'st re2erent Su3se4uent e0tension

2uack duck all bird and insects, flies, coins 4those that have an

eagle in one side of the coin6

tick tock !atch clocks, gas-meter, fire hose on a spool, scale !ith

round dial

candy candy cherries, anything s!eet

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fly fly specks of dirt, dust, small insects, child@s toes,

crumbs of bread

turtle turtle fish, seals

apple apple balls, tomatoes, cherries, onions, bicuits

bo& bo&es elevators

belt belts !atch strap

moon moon half grapefruit, lemon slice, dial on a

dish!asher, vegetables in a picture, a crescent-

shaped piece of paper

cookie cookie any type of cake

kitty cats rabbits, any small and furry animal

Undere0tension: children use the !ord !ith a narro!er meaning than it has in the adult

language# 't@s not so common as overe&tension# An e&ample of this is the use of the !ord

.dog/ only to refer to the family animal, not to the rest of the animals#

5ismatch: children use certain terms !rongly, but there is no apparent basis for the !rong

use# There is usually no !ay of tracing back the association of ideas that has caused such

mismatch# 5or e&ample he uses the !ord .tractor/ to refer to telephone#

+hild Language' +oinage of new words.“All children share the same destination, but no ! follow e-actly the

same path or travel at e-actly the same speed” $3rady !%%5&8'There are < main !ays to create ne! !ords:

*# onversion: use a !ord that already e&ists and use it in a ne! !ay# This is

category change or functional shift:

- butter 4noun6 ' like butter on my toast

butter 4verb6 ' butter my toast

- ink 4verb6 To ink a contract 4to sign a contract6

ink 4noun6 To pencil ink

$ut sometimes they use it !rongly: Sthe !orkers dirtied the floor#

8# Derivation: add an inflection to the original !ord:

- to teach teacher - to !ait !aiter, !aitress

- to cook Scooker 4my father is a cooker6

HeRshe is applying the general rule: teach-teacher


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or instrument nouns# $ecause of this, there is a process of conventionality: abandon

the ne! !ords in favor of the conventional or e&isting forms#

2.9. The +ritical eriod :,pothesis in L1 Ac"uisition'5enie;s stud, #+:$The age factor is important for first language ac2uisition# The notion of a critical period !asfirst used by ethologists studying the origin of species-specific behaviour# 't !as found that

!ith certain species 4e#g# rats6, there !ere periods in !hich a particular kind of stimulus had

to be present if the baby !as to develop normal behaviour# The 2uestion !as, then, raised:

are there critical periods also in human maturation>

't@s in first language ac2uisition !ere there is a critical period# Eric Lenneberg 4*+8*-*+76

American %sycholinguist, argued that such a period e&isted in the area of language

ac2uisition# )ain claim the potential for the language function in humans e&isted in very

young cildren# 0ith increasing age, This linguistic ability deteriorated#

The development of language !as said to be the result of brain maturation: the 8

hemispheres are e2uipotential 4the same capacity6 at birth, !ith language gradually

becoming lateralised in the left hemisphere#

left side linguistic abilities

The process of lateralisation begins at around age 8 and end at puberty 4this period depends

of the race, culture16, !hen the brain is fully developed and lateralization is complete# At

this point, there is no longer any neural .plasticity/ 4cuando puedes moldear algo6, !hich

!ould enable the right hemisphere to take over the language function if the left side !as

damaged#

Arguments in favour:

- patterns of recovery in brain-damaged adults and children# Adults seem to

have less of that ability to recover language if lost, !hereas children sho!ed an

ability to recover over a longer period# They could even make a completerecovery if they !ere very young at the time of the damage#

Arguments against:

- controversial evidence#

- the pathological evidence is mi&ed# ?omparisons of child and adult cases are

difficult to make# %aths of linguistic recovery have not been studied in a

detailed !ay# This is !hat !e call: aphasia 4total lost of speech6 and disphasia

4partial lost of speech6# ;ome people recover vey !ell some part of the speech,

but others don@t# $ut these cases aren@t very reliable because the conditions of

research are limite, due to the fact that !e@re dealing !ith a small number of

sub"ects#

- the evidence of normal language ac2uisition is also mi&ed# Aspects of phonological and grammatical ac2uisition do continue around puberty, but

most of these skills are very !ell established before age # ther aspects

4semantics and pragmatics6 are still developing in young children# 5or

e&ample: children don@t understand ironies#

Benerally speaking, lateralization takes some years befoe its firmly established, and this

overlaps the main period of language ac2uisition in a !ay that is not yet understood# The

relationship bet!een hemiphere specialization and language is a comple& one that prevents a

continuing research challenge#

eading 3: O’Grady, W., How do they do it?

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1. According to the te-t, in which aspects of language ac4uisition is imitation

involved "an the imitation e-planation fully account for the process of language

ac4uisition Bustify your answer.

)ost of the time they imitate!ods# 0ith every !ords they hear, they construct sentences#

'mitation doesn@t simply involve memorizing# They don@t imitate sentences because they

kno! they aren@t very good at it# They can produce sentences that they have never heard#The former instructions of the native language aren@t necessary

!. What are the recasts Are they always effective Why $not'

ot correcting the child, but continuing the conversation using the child@s sentence in the

correct !ay# 't is a partial repetition# The mother retakes the sentence and fomulates it in a

different !ay in order to give them the right input# They can and cannot be effective at the

same time# 't isn@t effective because they don@t start using the the correct form in response to

their parent@s recasts# And it is effective !hen a child has already learn those structures, not

!hen they ac2uire it for the first time# 't is helpful but not absolutely necessary because

sometimes the recast can be !rong#

. What is motherese "an you describe three noticeable features of motherese

0hen the parents speak to their children in a special !ay# 't involves pronunciation

4intonation6, vocabulary and meaning, and sentences#

;ome properties of motherese are:

- %ronunciation:

;lo!er speech !ith longer pauses bet!een utterances and after content

!ords#

Higher overall pitch: greater pitch range#

E&aggerated intonation and stress#

5e!er !ords per minute#- ocabulary and meaning:

)ore restricted vocabulary#

Three times as much paraphrasing#

)ore reference to the here and no!#

- ;entences:

5e!er broken or run-on sentences#

;horter: less comple& utterances 4appro are single !ords or short

statements6

)ore !ell-formed and intelligible sentences#

)ore commands and 2uestions 4appro of total6

)ore repetitions#

. What type of speech is considered a *ey contribution to language ac4uisition

The type of speech that is about !hat they can see or hear, !hat they !ant to kno! about,

and !hat they have "ust e&perienced or are about to it#

5. What evidence is provided in the te-t for the relation between genetic factors and

language capacity

A study !as made for identical t!ins that !ere adopted# 4page *=-*=86

8. What is meant by “the ac4uisition device” =-plain "homs*y3s view $Ciew 1' of

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how the language ac4uisition device wor*s.

;cientists talk of a .black bo&/, a term that they use to describe a device !hose contents

cannot be directly observed# 0ell, in this bo& there is a part concerned !ith language

learning, and this is called the .ac2uisition device/# this device turns e&perience into

kno!ledge#

According to ?homsky, the ac2uisition device includes a pre-made grammar, !hich isgenerally called (niversal Brammar# Thanks to that, the ac2uisition device is going to tell

that all languages are going to have particular categories 4nouns and verbs, for e&ample6 and

it gives them some clues that help them figure our !hich !ords belong to !hich category# 'n

other !ords, the ac2uisition device is something innate, and helps children ac2uire faster a

language and its characteristics# 4*=8-*=6


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1. 6ow many sounds>phonemes are there in human languages* sounds#

!. What do you observe about the way mothers tal* to their little children on the

video

;he uses melodic tones, easy !ords so the baby can process them easily and pay more

atention# E&agerated pitch# . )otherese/: the language a mother use to speak !ith babies#

. What type of sounds are produced during the babbling stage Are these sounds

learnt from the language that children hear around them

$abbling sounds, repeat syllables every time# This is good for them, because they e&ercise

their vocal chords# They don@t learn this from the adults, this techni2ue is already ac2uired

!hen they@re born# 't@s universal, in all places, the babbling sounds are the same# $ut this is

not a form of community#

. According to the video, what is the relationship between production and

comprehension Which one comes first

They first need to comprehend !hat surrounds them, then produce !hatever they !ant# $utthere is also some production !ithout comprehension coming first#

5. /rawing on @iaget3s theory of cognitive development, how would you e-plain that

the baby on the video uses the word “lala” only to refer to a real banana

They don@t understand that one !ord can refer to a group# 5or her, she uses only .lala/ to

refer to those bananas that she can eat, !hen it refers to a tangible, concrete, physical ob"ect#

This occurs during the ;ensorimotor stage 4birth-8 years6#

8. 6ow does the word “apple” seem to be used by children when they are around on

year old What is the name for this type of semantic error

The !ord .apple/ is used to refer to any type of round fruit: peach, plum1 ;he understands

that one !ord can refer to a big group of things that have the same characteristics# This type

of .semantic error/ is called overe&tension of the !ord#


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11. 6ow does the video e-plain the symbolic function of language

Language can refer to things that are not present, each ob"ect has a name# They !ant to

categorize all the ob"ects into groups# ;o they use language to represent ob"ects# This

happens during the %re-operational stage 48-7 years old6#

1!. What process underlies the creation of “mouses” as the plural form for “mouse”;he creates it herself# ;he applies the logical rules for plural form: "ust adding an .s/, until

she is taught the irregular forms of some nouns# This process is called overgeneralization#

1. What type of thought does the recurrent use of “+>De” show With what stage

proposed by @iaget would you relate this reference to +>De

;he thinks that it makes her be a separate person from everybody else# This is called self-

a!areness: they can recognise their image, but they@re not conscious of their self-a!areness#

This takes time to develop, !hen they have * months, they donIt have it, but !hen theyIre

8I years old, they start to develop it# 't occurs during the %re-operational stage#

1. =-plain the relationship between a child3s +E $intelligence 4uantifier' and his>her ability to lie with the e-periment conducted by professor Dichael Lewis.

The higher the 'N of a child, the more they lie# This is a crucial stage# They kno! that if they

tell the truth, they@ll get punished# 7 of the kids that peeked, lied# The ability to lie is a

sign of cognitive development# 4UDe 2u3 va>: se le sienta a un niQo de espaldas a un tren

teledirigido, 2ue va haciendo un recorrido# La supervisora se marcha y le dice 2ue no puede

ver hasta 2ue ella no haya llegado# El 7 de los niQos se da la vuelta y le hecha un vistazo

al "uego# ?uando llega la supervisora, les pregunta si se han dado la vuelta# Ellos mienten y

dicen 2ue no# Al final pueden "ugar con el "uguete6

15. =-plain what the Theory of Dind consists in and at what age it usually ta*es place.

't marks the transition from babyhood to childhood# 't takes place !hen they@re around

years old# 't is a neccessary aspect for social development and interrelations# They start to

understand that there are different !ays of understanding the !orld# This is a big

accomplishment for them because they find out that nobody thinks the same# This is located

in the brain, in the frontal part#

Theory of Evolution: language as a defense mechanism# 't gives us advantage over the

species# The fast!e you speak or understand, the safer you@ll be#


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. 6ow many words did enie learn at first What *ind of words were they

;he learned more than a * !ords that spring# ;he learned them by repetition# This !ords

!ere used to e&press emotions 4sadness, happiness, fear6, shapes and colors# They !ere

different !ords that a child used to learn#

. Which linguistic premises did enie3s investigation follow

?homsky@s Theory of ativism# Also Eric Lenneberg proposal of the ?ritical %eriod of

Hypothesis#

5. There are two ma;or 4uestions that the research could not answer, which ones

- 0as Benie mentally retarded from birth> The sleep spindles proved that she !as

birth-retarded#

- r is she functionally retarded> This !as a result of the severe isolation#

8. enie produced the following *ind of sentences& “What red blue is in” or

“Applesauce buy store”. What does this prove from a linguistic point of viewThis proved that there !as a ?% for language learning and ac2uisition# ;he formed

ungrammatical sentences, negatives in pre-sentences, interrrogatives not !ell-constructed#

Fou can learn isolated !ords, but you don@t kno! ho! to put them together and in order in a

sentence#

3. Applied Linguistics and !oreign/(econdLanguage Ac"uisition/Learning

3.1. Linguistic theories of !oreign/(econg LanguageAc"uisition #(LA$.;econd language is like a second mother language# ;LA refers to the learning of another

language after the native language has been learned# ;ometimes the term refers to the

learning of as


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Long: %nteraction 87pothesis

# ygotsky 4*=+-*+


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learned acts as an editor in situations !here the learner has enough time to edit#

The monitor is responsible for correcting the language !e produce# 't is focused on form,

and kno!s the rules 4such as on a grammar test in a language classroom or !hen carefully

!riting a composition6# This conscious editor is called the monitor#

Fou have to be e&posed to data, but also you need to be a!are of the form you learn# 'f not,

it doesn@t !ork#9rashen 4*++6 e&plains that in order to use a monitor !ell, < factors must be met:

1. Time: not available in normal conversation 4or unplanned linguistic

e&changes6

2. 5ocus on form: a!arenes of form, correctness#

3. 9no!ledge of the rules only partially kno!n 4not internalised6# 'f you

correct yourself it means that you kno! the rules#

Types of learners 4from a monitor perspective6:

1. 5onitor over-users: rely too much on grammatical kno!ledge#

2. 5onitor under-users: rely too little on grammatical kno!ledge#

3. 5onitor optional-users: rely on grammar !hen needed 4not interfering !ith

communication6#

# omprehensi3le %nput 87pothesis

Humans ac2uire language in only one !ay-by understanding messages or by receiving

.comprehensible input/#

The learner improves and progresses along the natural order !hen heRshe receives second

langauge input that is one step beyond hisRher current stage of linguistic competence iX*#

This refers to something ne! but not too compe& to understand, language !hich is slightly

beyond hisRher kno!ledge#

There are < key elements to this hypothesis:

a# Language is ac2uired, not learned, by learner receiving comprehensible input

that has arrangements or structures 4elements, items6 "ust beyond the learners

current level of mastry 4iX*6#

b# He pays a lot of attention to the speaking and listening part# ;peech should be

allo!ed to emerge on its o!n# There is usually a silent period and

“7peech will come when the ac4uirer feels ready. The readiness state

arrives at different times for different people” $Frashen, 199, p.55'

't should not be taught directly and a period of grammatically incorrect speech is

typical but !ith these constant repetition, the learner abandons these utterances

and starts using them in the corect !ay#

c# The input should not deriberately contain grammatically programmed

structures#“+f input is understood, and there is enough of it, iG1 is automatically

provided” $Frashen, 199, p.5


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Affect is defined as:

“ The effect of personality, motivation and other Haffective variables3 on

second language ac4uisition” $Frashen, 199, p.5utput :,pothesis' (wainThe utput Hypothesis: comprehensible second language input is insufficient to ensure all-

round interlanguage development# Fou don@t "ust need to understand !hat you@re listening or

reading, you need to learn to speak and !rite 4output6 in order to have a correct second

language ac2uisition# 'f you listen a german programme for 8 hours, this !ill not help you

to speak and !rite in german because you@re not practicing#

Cesearch: evidence from ?anadian schools# *+s Englis speaking parents demanded their

child to be taught 5rench in schools# The immersion students e&posed to 5rench-medium

instruction 4for e&tended periods of time6 achieved comprehension abilities in 5rench, close

to native speakers# Ho!ever their productive ability !as lo!er#;!ain@s claim: only second language production 4e#g# output6 really forces learners to

22


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undertake complete grammatical processing, and thus drives for!ard most effectively the

development of second language synta& and morphology# $ut they had a lot of synta&

problems, so they had to process the language and realice !hat !ere their mistakes#

'n the (9, for e&ample, they !ant the kids to start producing earlier#

)ost language learning researchers agree that output is necessary to increase fluency, e#g#

learners must practice producing second language utterances if they are to learn to use their interlanguage system# 9rashen didn@t agree !ith this# He thought that a person ac2uires

fluency through the e&posure#

;!ain 4*++:*8=6 proposes < further functions for learner output:

*# The noticingRtriggering function or !hat might be referred to as the

consciousness-raising role# The activity of producing the target language may

push learners to become a!are of gaps and problems in their current second

language system# 'n other !ords, you need to be conscious of !hat you@re

learning and !hat your needs are#

8# The hypothesis-testing function: the activity of prducing the target language

provides learners !ith opportunities to e&periment !ith ne! structures and forms#

%roduction then“may force te learner to move from semantic processing to syntactic

processing” $7wain 19:5&!9'


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- an area of the second language about !hich the learner has little or no

information#

Learning may take place during the interaction or it may be an initial step in learning it# $ut

for learning to occur, there are < re2uirements:

- positive evidence 4input6

- negative evidence 4feedback6 this is like recasts, important but not sufficient because learners need to be conscious of it#

- output

'n a second language teaching conte&t, this hypothesis fosters 4promotes, encourages6:

- pro"ect !ork

- task-based activities

- cooperative learning

Ho!ever, interactionist research has only "ust begun# 't has sho!n interesting findings in

areas such as pronunciation and le&is#

There !as a big improvement in le&is and pronunciation# Ho!ever, in the bilingual schools

of ;pain, the pronunciation hasn@t e&perienced a big rise#5uture research !ill need to determine the long-term effects of interaction on other parts of

language# $ut also e&pand contents of study 4current research in !estern conte&ts, !here

learners value and are taught a second language through conversations6#

PD

't gives the students some help and support for the students to learn better#

The nature, skilled individual is capable of autonomous functioning, that is self-regulation#

Ho!ever, the child or the unskilled individual learns by carrying out tasks an activities under

the guidance of other more skilled individuals 4such as caregivers or teachers6# That is, the

child or learner is inducted into a shared understanding of ho! to do things through

collaborative talk, until eventually they take over 4or appropriate6 ne! kno!ledge or skills

into their o!n individual consciousness# ;o, successful learning involves a shift from

collaborative inter-mental activity to autonomous intra-mental activity#

The process of suppportive dialogue !hich directs the attention of the learner to key features

of the environment, and !hich prompts them trhough successive steps of a problem, has

come to be kno!n as Sca22olding# The domain !here learning can most productively take

place is kno!n as the >one o2 Pro0imal Development, e#g#, the domain of kno!ledge or skill !here the learner is not yet capable of independent functioning, but can achieve the

desired outcome given the relevant scaffolded help#

The >one o2 Pro0imal Development is the time !hen the learner is able to !ork !ithout

help# This !as defined by ygotsky as:

“The difference between the child3s development level as determined by

independent problem solving and the higher level of potential

development as determined through problem solving under adult

guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers”.

3.1.9. The Interlanguage theor,' (elin)er #IL$

The term interlanguage !as coined by ;elinker 4*+786# There are various alternative termsthat have been used to describe basically the same phenomenon:

24

)ore input more output


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- appro&imative system

- transitional competence

- idiosyncratic dialect

- learner language

%nterlanguage is !hen the learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules !hich

dra!s, in part, on the learner@s L* but is also different from it and also from the targetlanguage# This system of rules is vie!ed as a Imental grammar@# The learners create this

language system# They impose structure on the available linguistic data and formulate an

internalized system# The learner@s language is neither the system of the mother tongue, not

that of the second language, but contains elements from both#

L* 'nterlanguage Brammar L8

This interlanguage is not e2ual to your mother tongue nor to your second language# 't@s in

the middle because it@s influenced by both#

+haracteristics of the Interlanguage*# 't is permeable# Cules are not fi&ed but open to alterations and influences#

8# 't is dynamic# The learner@s interlanguage is constantly changing from one time to

another, learners change their grammar 4e#g# they add or delete rules and restructure

the !hole system6# This result is an interlanguage continuum# The changes are

gradual# That is, learners construct a series of mental grammars or interlanguage as

they gradually increase the comple&ity of their second language kno!ledge#

The interlanguage evolves in the direction of the second language as long as the

process of ac2uisition takes place#

'nitial 'L systems J less comple&, developmental continuum vs restructuring

continuum:

- developmental continuum: similar to 'L continuum# Fou construct

different stages of 'L# Fou@re learning rules in different stages, !hich

develops your second language#

- restructuring continuum: !hen learning a second language, you

restructure your mother tongue#

Davies 4*+++:*=6 definition of 'L is: the various stages of the learner@s second

language development#


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because you master the rule and they finally dissappear6#

)any learners do not reach the end of the interlanguage continuum 4e#g#, they fail to reach

target language comptence6

5ossilization is uni2ue to L8 grammars#

'TECLAB(ABE THECF, $TH BEECAT'E AD $EE5'TED 5C)E)%'C'?AL CE;EAC?H 'T ;LA#

Error analysis reveals 8 main types of errors that learners make !hen actively constructing a

system for the L8:

*# %nterlingual errors# Errors due to transferring rules from the mother tongue to

L8#

The influence of L* as a source of error is kno!n as .negative transfer/# 5or

e&ample, there !ould be a .positive transfer/ if you copy some ;panish !ords

!hen talking in 'talian, but not if you do it to Berman or English#

8# %ntralingual errors# These errors sho! that the learner is processing the L8 in itso!n terms# )ost of them are errors of overgeneralisation 4also found in L*

ac2uisition6:

house houses

Smouse mouses

Sfish fishes

3.2. 5eneral stages in !L/L2 ac"uisitionHo! do learners progress on their !ay to target language competence>

BCA))AT'?AL )C%HE)E;: the ac2uisition order for grammatical features has been

found to be more or less the same, irrespective of the sub"ects@ L* backgrounds, of their ageand of !hether the medium is speech or !riting# There are similarities !ith the

developmental order of L* ac2uisition 4fo e&ample, in both cases the ing is the firt form to

be ac2uired6# $ut there are also some differences:

- possessive morpheme s ac2uired later in the L8#

- forms of the verb to be ac2uired earlier in L8 than in L*#

- 48#abril#=6 gradual development#

- overlapping stages#

- sho! replacement of transitional forms#

- individual differenceRpreferences due to the linguistic background and

strategies the learners use#

eading -' Gass and S!in"r, Non language inuences @A0T 1

Wor* with one>two classmates on #= of the following areas mentioned in the article&

( 7ocial distance

;chumann@s 4*+7=6 Accuration 5odel@

- defined as .the process of becoming adapted to a ne! culture/

- socialXaffective variables 4social distance and psychological distance6

- give e&amples of these variables

- evidence>

- link !ith 2uestion 8 4part 86 a key factor> provide reasons

- does this model account for the fact that attitude is not fi&ed and static but

26


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potentially dynamic, fluctuating> o

( Age differences

?ommon assumption: children are better language learners#

There is a dispute# 0hy>

?onsiderable evidence: L8 learners that begin learning as adults are unable toachieve speakers competence in either grammar or pronunciation# $ut there is

some evidence that not all adult learners fail to achieve native speakers#

( Aptitude

atural ability for learning L8#

?omponents:

- phonetic coding ability#

- grammatical sensibility#

- inductive language learning#

( Dotivation

Appears to be the second strongest preeditor of success#

%roblems: no clear definiciYn of it and different bies

)otivation involves aspects (Gardner=s 5odel,:

- a goal#

- effortful behaviour#

- favorable attitude to!ards the activities#

- a desire to attain the goal#

?riticism of Bardner@s )odel for motivation:

- e&clusively based on the ?anadian conte&t#

- cuestionable relliance of .self-reported data/# 9inds:

- 'nterrogative vs# 'nstrumental#

- motivaciYn as .the cause/# $ut it can also be seen as the .result of learning/

4resultive motivation6

- more .intrinsic motivation/, less learning tasks are intrinsically motivating#

Arousal and maintenance of curiosity 4Ellis, *++76

( An-iety

'ntermediate stage bet!een motivaciYn and personality#

Different types depending on the source of an&iety 4e#g# social an&iety, test

an&iety6

Effect on performance> 4for e&ample, of ho! an&iety can affect L8 learning in

a negative !ay6

Lo! levels help, !hereas H'BH level hurt 2uestion 7#

( @ersonality factors

)ost classification schemes base on self-reported data#

;ome of the more commonly discussed personality factors#

E&troversion vs# introversion N#=# Advantages of both for L8 learning#

Cisk taking

“Dany of the strategies associated with good language learners

27

)TRL* L8


28/38


involve a willingness to ta*e ris*s” $p.!8!'

E#g# attempt to use particular grammatical structures#

?onnection !ith success>

Celatively !eak 4more correlation found bet!een risk-taking and a classroom

participation, Ellis, *+=6

5ield independence vs# field dependence 4?B'T'E ;TFLE6 The field independent person tends1

- to be highly analytical#

- to ignore 4potentially confusing6 information in the conte&t#

- to be safe reliant#

The field dependence person tends to pay greater attentionto conte&t#

5ield dependence !ould seen to help in social interactions#

$(T TH'; '; T T ;AF THAT E TCA'T '; BD#

( Learning 7trategies

;ome ;LA studies eal !ith learning strategies in a separate section 4'#e# not as part of individual learner variables6#

0hat are learning strategies>

- steps or actions taken by learners to improve the development of their

language skills 4pg# 86

?lassification 4photocopy6:

- metacognitive strategies#

- cognitive strategies#

- social or affective strategies#

0hat is needed is research to sho! that strategy does really lead to language

improvement# ;till preliminary research#

3.9. The role of formal instruction in !L/(LA learning'+ontent and Language Integrated Learning #+LIL$

?L'L movement: teaching of content, discipline, language through a foreign

language#

To begin1

“)or any pedagogical innovation to be effective, teachers have to be

able to change their mental framewor*”

'. 1hat is L%L

“An educational conte-t in which an additional language is used for the teaching and learning of sub;ects other than the language itself”

$Darsh and LangI'

An e&ample of this is !hen a kid learns biology, math1 in English#

?L'L adopts a dual focus#

“+n a "L+L class, attention is given to both topic $biology, historyJ'

and language. $J' "L+L is an educational approach $set of

methodologies' which provides various forms of educational

development, including language” $Darsh !%%1'

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?L'L encompasses a !ide variety of approaches to integrated learning# ;ome authors identify

up to 8 types 4)arsh 8*6:

Language content

rigins: beginning of the +@s in 5inland, based, in turn, on immersion programmes in?anada 4Benesse and ;!ain, *+=76

ther terms:

- bilingual programmes 4?ataluQa, %aPs asco16

- secciones europeasa

- immersion programmes

- content-based learning

- E)' 4English as the )edium of 'nstruction6

- EAL 4English as an Additional Language-content and Language-

integrated6

'n )adrid, the bilingual schools are gro!ing because its starting to be very urgent# 0hich

classes are given in English depend on the teacher# ;panish languge and )ath aren@t allo!edto be given in English#

*. Rationale 2or L%L@ the < dimensions 4%3rez idal 86:

;ocio-European:

- promotes linguistic diversity 4other countries try to promote minority

languages, also EE((6

- enforces a laryngeal and floricultural approach

- takes into account different cultural perspectives# 5or e&ample, different

perspectives of %hillip ''#

- promotes European citizenship being European entalis speaking foreign

languages 45Ls6#

Linguistic:

- increases e&posure to foreign languages input: more 2uantity 49rashen *+=,

comprehensible input6 X more 2uality> 4Long *++*6# ne doesn@t presuppose

the other# 't@s the teachers task#

- language is the means to learn, not the ob"ect of learning# 't is also to

communicate ideas

- incidental language learning not intentional

- promotes more 2uantity of output 4more chances of production6 and 2uality

4>6# ?hildren have more opportunities to speak other languages#

- authenticity of:a# contents: ne!, useful and meaningful

b# materials: not using te&tbooks for 5Ls

c# skills X strategies

d# interaction modifiedRnegotiated input 4Long *++*6

- natural language ac2uisition 49rashen *+=6: resembles more L* ac2uisition

than L8 learning 4unconscious, unplanned6# ;tudents get involved and learn

2uickly# 5or e&ample, a girl that is studying History in English kno!s that she

is learning History# Even thou she sees her English grades are better, she

doesn@t realize she is learning it during History class#

Educational

- cross-curricular approach 4combination of different sub"ects6 to language

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learning

- learning process becomes important and central per se 4en sP mismo6

- motivation is intrinsic 9EF 5A?TC

- learning in a ?L'L conte&t demans higher concentration and favours creative

thinking

- learning is achieved by .deduction not instruction/ 40olff 86# ?hildrenhave to !ork out several rules

- deeper thinking and more retention of content: “"over less but uncover

more” $Wal4ui !%%8'. Discovering language, but !e might have less facts#

. Results 4!ith empirical evidence6

L* literacy 4reading and !riting6 is not affected by a ?L'L approach# 'f anything,

there are more positive than negative effects 4$ialystok 8, an de ?raen 876# 'f

a children starts to learn English !hen heRshe is < years old, this !ill not affect on the

learning of hisRher mother tongue#

$(T caution must be taken !ith migrant !orker@s children#

Higher levels of motivation, self-esteen among teachers, students X all

stakeholders involved# Language outcomes: 4Dalton-%uffer 876

XXX ')%CE)ET

ocabulary

)orphology

Ceceptive skills 4listeningRreading6

?reativity 4making up !ords6, risk-taking, fluency, 2uatity

;ynta& 4comple&ity6

0riting 4discourse skills - cohesion, coherence6'nformalRnon-technical language

%ronunciation

U%ragmatics>

?ontent outcomes: ?L'L students possess same content kno!ledge as peers#

- 'f tested in L*, immersion students outperform peer controls

- 'f tested in L8, their advantage only sho!s in maths 4DayR;hapson *++, an

de ?raen et al 86

?L'L1 4!!!#clilcompendium#com6

Developes intercultural communication skills %repares for internalisation

%rovides opportunities to study content through different perspectives

4multiculturalism6

Accesses sub"ect-specific target language terminology

'mproves overall target language competence

Developes oral communication skills

Diversifies methods and forms of classroom practice

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PART III. "ther Trends in Applied Linguistics

9. Discourse Anal,sis and Applied Linguistics4Handout of .Bender and Discourse/6

Bender is about seeing biological factors as leading to certain form of behaviour# E#g# the

traditional idea in medicine and early psychology that people !ith !ombs !ere more likely to

become emotionally unstable# 0e can see this connection in the origin of the terms hysteria

and hysterical , !hich come from the Breek hysteri*os, meaning .of the !omb/# Hysterical

behaviour traditionally associated !ith !omen 4biology as a cause6#

The terms masculineR feminine and masculinity>femininity are about e&pected gender

characteristics of !hat !omen and men are spposed to be like#

Bender e&pectations and roles are reflected in language#

Language as a vehicle of meaning 4it e&presses the !ay !e conceptualise the

!orld6#

E&amples of the idea of social roles:

*# The declaration of sentiments

4 E# ?ady ;taton, *==6 e&clusion from public life

8# The la!s that men have made

4E# %anhurst, *+=6


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*# ohesion: a classical approach to te&t analysis# The use of various cohesive ties

to e&plicitly link together all propositions in a te&t results in cohesion of that te&t#

Halliday and Hansan@s 4*+76 model ofr cohesion# 'f a te&t has cohesion elements,

it doesn@t mean it@s coherent# They go hand-in-hand#

;ome cohesion elements are:

- su3stitution: replacement of one element for another: '@ve got a pencil# Do you have one>

0ill !e get there on time> ' think so#

- ellipsis: a piece of structure is omitted and can only be recovered

from the preceding discourse:

0here di you see the car> 'n the street#

Ho! are you> 5ine#

- core2erence: the act of referring to a preceding 4anaphoras6 or

follo!ing 4cataphoras6 element:

;everal people approached# They seemed angy anaphoras

' told the boy, Zohn, that it !as getting late cataphoras- conunction: the use of e&plicit element to relate propositions:

' left early# Ho!ever, )ark stayed till the end#

5irst, !e !ent to the beard# Later to dinner#

- le0ical cohesion: one le&ical item enters into a structure relationship

!ith another:

The flo!ers !ere lovely# He liked the tulips best#

These are e&plicit items introduced to give the te&t cohesion, but it doesn@t

mean that it gives it unity# An e&ample of cohesion but no coherence:

A !eek has seven days# Every day ' fed my cat# ?ats have four legs# The cat is

on the mat# )at has < legs le&ically talking, it is !ell formed, but there is no

coherence#

8# oherence: contributes to the unity of a piece of discourse such that individual

sentences or utterances hang together and relate to each other# This unity is partially

a result of recognisable top-do!n organisational, pattern for the propositions in the

passage#

'n order to understand a te&t, !e need, also, kno!ledge .outside/ the te&t, not "ust

the meaning of it# 'n order to be coherent, there needs to be coherent

communication# The follo!ing e&ample e&emplifies it: A !eek has seven days#

Every day ' fed my cat# ?ats have four legs# The cat is on the mat# )at has < legs#

A te&t has to be coherent in that the concepts and relationships e&pressed should be

relevant to each other, thus enabling us to make plausible inferences about the

underlying meaning#


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pragmatic:

- !hich element of the proposition represents the main topic 4!hat the

clause is about6

- !hich .part of the message/ the speaker considers most important#

- !hich .part of the message/ the speaker treats as kno!n to the hearer

4theme6, and !hich is presented as ne! 4rheme6#- !hat information, if any, is presupposed at any given point in the

discourse: the !aiter brought the 4some6 shots#

- !hich element the speaker chooses as the point of departure of the

message: the !aiter brought the shots, it !as the !aiter that brought that

shots, the shots the !aiter brought, the shots !ere brought#

$heme: the information kno!n already by the speaker# Rheme: the information

that the speaker doesn@t kno!#

# onversation(al, anal7sis: the study of conversational structure that are based

on the techni2ues of the American sociological movement of the *+7s kno!n as

#thnomethodolog7 # The central concern is to determine ho! individualse&perience, make sense of, and report their interactions# 0e@re looking at ho!

people behave in conversations, by seeing his age, social groups, moreRless

po!er1 All of these are seen in a conversation#

The data consists of tape recordings of natural conversation, and their associated

transcription# These are systematically analysed to determine !hat properties

govern the !ay in !hich a conversation proceeds# ideo recordings are also

important because you see your gestures, ho! you sit, your movements1

$ecause conversational discourse varies so much in length and comple&ity, analysis

generally begins by breaking an interaction do!n into the smallest units, then

e&aminig the !ay these units are used in se2uences# The units have been called

.e&changes/ or .interchanges/ of the follo!ing type, each of these utterances are

turns:

- .initiating utterance/: !hat@s the time>

- .response utterance/: ten past three#

The unit of analysis of speech is difficult to e&amine# $ut !e can break it into small

units and e&amine ho! they !ork in different conversations#

An important aim of discourse analysis is to find out !hy conversations are not

al!ays successful# )isunderstandings and mutual recrimination is fairly common#

%articipants often operate !ith different rules and e&pectations, especially if they

come from different cultural backgrounds# ther variables that affect conversation

analysis are: gender 4femaleRmale conversation styles6, age 4youngstersRadults6, profession, education, culture1 The turn-taking is different in other cultures: in

here, the pause is longer# 'f you make it short, you break the pace of the

conversation#

# ritical Discourse Anal7sis (DA,: ?DA is a type of analytical discourse

research that primarily studies the !ay social po!er abuse, dominance and

ine2uality are enacted, reproduced and resisted by te&t and talk in the social and

political conte&t# 'n ;pain, for e&ample, the !ay a ne! is !ritten depends on the

ne!spaper#

?ritical discourse analysis takes e&plicit position, and thus !ants to understand,

e&pose and ultimately to resist social ine2uality# The changes in society are seen indiscourse analysis#

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5airdough and 0odak 4*++7: 87*-8=6 summarize the main tenuets of ?DA as

follo!s:

*# ?DA addresses social problems#

8# %o!er relations are discursive#


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-. +orpus Linguistics and Applied Linguistics -.1. Wh, +orpus Linguistics?

- )ainstream 4important6 approach to linguistic study#

- Celevance in Discourse Analysis research#

- 'nterdisciplinary field: !e mi& it !ith other fields#

- %rovides students !ith practical instruction and first-hand e&perience of naturally

occurring language 4vs# language used for e&emplification, for e&ample synta&6 and the

chance to regard computers as a research tool to analyze language#

- (seful tool for investigating L8 ac2uisition and 5oreign Language learning and

teaching 45Ll6# 't gives us information to see ho! they ac2uire it and ho! is it#

-.2. What is +orpus? What is +orpus Linguistics?Definition of ?orpus:

“ A "orpus is a large, principled $organiKed' collection of naturally(

occurring te-ts that is stored in electronic form $accessible on computer'.

"orpora can include both written and transcribed spo*en te-ts”$"onrad, !%%!&


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pen-ended language banks !hich are limited only by the financial resources and technology

used to maintain them# The ?orpus of CAE is dynamic, because you@re still adding !ords and

its gro!ing at the same time# ;ome types of ?orpora are in page +, reading 7#

!!!#bnc#co#uk

!!!#natcorp#oac#uk only a small part, you don@t have access to the * million

!ords# 'n here, you search in !hich kind of novels do these terms appear#http:RRcorpus#rae#esRcreanet#html &a ver el corpus espaQol

micase

elevant +orpora

!RPUS NU5B#R !F 1!RDS

The 7urvey of =nglish sage $7='

;poken and !ritten $ritish English

* million

The 2rown "orpus0ritten American English

* million

2ritish #ational "orpus $2#"'

;poken and !ritten $ritish English

* million

The +nternational "orpus of Learner =nglish $+"L='

0riting by English learners

< million

The Dichigan "orpus of Academic 7po*en =nglish

$D+"A7='

;poken American English 4by the students of university6

8 million

The Lancaster(slo>2ergen "orpus $L2'0ritten $ritish English

* million

The 2ergen "orpus of London Teenage Language $"LT'

;poken $ritish English 4teenager@s speech6

The Longman>Lancaster "orpus

0ritten English


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%ossible e&am 2uestion

- Ho! does the ?%H relate to a nativist approach of language ac2uisition> And to a

social functional approach of language ac2uisition>

ativist, ?homsky: LAD, innate language ac2uistion device, biological

predisposition to language# o need for ?%H# 0ithout e&posure to the language4or linguistic input6, there !ouldn@t be no output or it is very much affected# There

is a pre-disposition of the language, because !e have a biological capacity, but !e

need to be e&posed to the language#

;ocial-functional, %iaget: !e need a linguistic input during ?%H to produce

output, in order to be a successful learning of the language#

There are #= languages in the !orld:

- all languages have consonants and vo!els

- not all languages have nouns and sintactic elements#

There are more things in common bet!een the different languages#

00 linguistic a 2

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