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Curs 1 (partea a doua):Sisteme de operare

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The first computers were made withintricategear systems by the Greeks. Thesecomputers turned out to be too delicate forthe technological capabilities of the time

and were abandoned as impractical. TheAntikythera mechanism, discovered in ashipwreck in 1900, is an early mechanicalanalog computer from between 150 BC and100 BC. The Antikythera mechanism usedasystem of 37 gears to compute thepositions of the sun and the moon throughthe zodiac on the Egyptian calendar, andpossibly also the fixed stars and fiveplanets known in Antiquity Mercury,Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) for anytime in the future or past. The system of gears added and subtracted angular

velocities to compute differentials. TheAntikythera mechanism could accuratelypredict eclipses and could draw up accurateastrological charts for important leaders. Itis likely that the Antikythera mechanismwas based on an astrological computercreated by Archimedes of Syracuse in the3rd century BC.

http://www.osdata.com/kind/history.htm

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Knot Computer Code The first modern computers weremadeby the Inca using ropes and pulleys.

Knots in the ropes served the purpose ofbinary digits. The Inca had several of these computers andused them for taxand government records. In addition tokeeping track of taxes, the Incacomputers helddata bases on all of theresources of the Inca empire, allowingfor efficient allocation of resources inresponse to local disasters (storms,

drought, earthquakes, etc.). Spanishsoldiers acting on orders of RomanCatholic priests destroyed all but one ofthe Inca computers in the mistakenbelief that any device that could giveaccurate information about distantconditions must be a divination devicepowered by the Christian Devil.

Complicatedknotted strings of the Inca- decorative objects called khipu - andfound they contain a seven-bit binarycode capable of conveying more than1,500 separate units of information. Ithas long been acknowledged that thekhipu of the Inca were more than justdecorative. In the 1920s, historiansdemonstrated that the knots on thestrings of some khipu were arranged insuch a way that they were a store of calculations, a textile version of anabacus

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In the 1800s, the first computers were programmable devices for controlling theweaving machines in the factories of the Industrial Revolution. Created by CharlesBabbage, these early computers usedPunch cards as data storage (the cards containedthe control codes for the various patterns). These cards were very similiar to the famousHollerinth cards developed later. The first computer programmer was Lady Ada, forwhom the Ada programming language is named.

In the1900s, researchers started experimenting with bothanalog and digital computersusing vacuum tubes. The first modern computer was the German Zuse computer (Z3) in1941. The first modern electronic computer was the ENIAC in 1946, using 18,000vacuum tubes. Thefirst solid-state or transistor) computer was the TRADIC, built at BellLaboratories in1954. The transistor had previously been invented at Bell Labs in 1948.

Building on the technology and math used for telephone and telegraph switchingnetworks, researchers started building the first electronic digital computers. In theearliest days of electronic digital computing, everything was done on the bare hardware.Very few computers existed and those that did exist were experimental in nature. Theresearchers who were making the first computers werealso the programmers and theusers. They worked directly on the bare hardware.There was no operating system. Theexperimenterswrote their programs in assembly language and a running program hadcomplete control of the entire computer. Debugging consisted of a combination offixing both the software and hardware, rewriting the object code and changing theactual computer itself. The lack of any operating system meant that only one personcould use a computer at a time. Even in the research lab, there were many researcherscompeting for limited computing time.

http://www.osdata.com/topic/language/ada.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/topic/language/ada.htm

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http://www.operating-system.org/

Operating systems list 573) Evoluia sistemelor de operare http://www.osdata.com/kind/history.htm 1950s: FORTRAN Monitor System, General Motors Operating System, SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground

Environment, designed to monitor weapons systems, the first real time control system)

early1960s: IBM 1410/1710 OS, SABRE (Semi-Automatic Business Related Environment, developed byIBM and American Airlines)

mid1960s: DOS/360 1968 Microprocessors. Summer 1969 UNIX was developed.December 1969 Linus Torvalds is born. 1970s UNIX:Ken Thompson of AT&T Bell Labs suggested the name Unix for the operating system

that had been under development since 1969. First edition ofUNIX released 11/03/1971. The firstedition of the "UNIX PROGRAMMER'S MANUAL by K. Thompson and D. M. Ritchie" is also dated"November 3, 1971". In1973 the kernel ofUnix was rewritten in the C programming language. Thismade Unix the worlds first portable operating system, capable of being easily ported (moved) to anyhardware. This was a major advantage for Unix and led to itswidespread use in the multi-platformenvironments of colleges and universities. Vendors such as Sun, IBM, HP ,..., modified Unix todifferentiate their products

1978: Apple DOS 3.1 1980s: HP-UX, Macintosh, MS-DOS 1991 Linux:Linus Torvalds, University of Helsinki 1990s: FreeBSD (BSD OS originally developed by the University of California at Berkeley), OS/2, Microsoft

Windows 3.0, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT

2000s: Mac OS X (the most widely used desktop version of UNIX is Apples Mac OS X, combining theground breaking object oriented NeXT with some of the user interface of the Macintosh), Windows 2000,

Windows Server 2003, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7

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http://www.osdata.com/oses/ibm1410s.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/ibm1410s.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/ibm1410s.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/sage.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/gmos.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/gmos.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/gmos.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/gmos.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/gmos.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/gmos.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/gmos.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/fms.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/fms.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/fms.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/fms.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/oses/fms.htmhttp://www.osdata.com/kind/history.htmhttp://www.operating-system.org/http://www.operating-system.org/http://www.operating-system.org/

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Linux is an operating system that was initially created as ahobby by a young student, Linus Torvalds, at theUniversity of Helsinki in Finland. Linus had an interest inMinix, a small UNIX system, and decided to develop asystem that exceeded the Minix standards. He began hiswork in 1991 when he released version 0.02 and workedsteadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernelwas released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems,is developed and released under the GNU General PublicLicense and its source code is freely available to everyone.It is this kernel that forms the base around which a Linuxoperating system is developed. There are now literallyhundreds of companies and organizations and an equalnumber of individuals that have released their ownversions of operating systems based on the Linux kernel.

Through the efforts of developers of desktop management

systems such as KDE and GNOME, office suite projectOpenOffice.org and the Mozilla web browser project, toname only a few, there are now a wide range ofapplications that run on Linux and it can be used byanyone regardless of his/her knowledge of computers.

The official Linux Penguin chosen by Linus Torvalds is theimage shown below, and is now distributed as part of the

Kernel. The penguin was designed by Larry Ewing, and avariety of different images can be found on his web site.

Tux

http://www.linux.org/info/penguin.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/penguin.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/gnu.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/gnu.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/gnu.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/gnu.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/gnu.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/gnu.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/info/penguin.html

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Command Descriptionbg Continues a program running in the background.break Break out of while, for, foreach, or until loop.bye Alias often used for the exit command.cancel Cancels a print job.cat View and/or modify a file.cc C compiler.cd Change directory.chdir Change directory.checkeq Language processors to assist in describing equations.chmod Change the permission of a file.clear Clears screen.cls Alias often used to clear a screen.cmp Compare files.comm Compare files and select or reject lines that are common.

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/ubg.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ubreak.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucancel.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucc.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucd.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uchdir.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ueqn.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uchmod.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uclear.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uclear.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucmp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucomm.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucomm.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucmp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uclear.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uclear.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uchmod.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ueqn.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uchdir.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucd.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucc.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucancel.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ubreak.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ubg.htm

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Command Descriptioncompress Compress files on a computer.continue Break out of while, for, foreach, or until loop.copy Copy files.cp Copy files.csh Execute the C shell command interpreterdate Tells you the date and time in Unix.dircmp Lists the different files when comparing directories.dirname Deliver portions of path names.edit Text editor.env Displays environment variables.eqn Language processors to assist in describing equations.exit Exit from a program, shell or log you out of a Unix network.file Tells you if the object you are looking at is a file or if it is a directory.

findFinds one or more files assuming that you know their approximate

filenames.

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucompres.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ubreak.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucsh.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/udate.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/udircmp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/udirname.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uedit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uenv.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ueqn.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ufile.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ufind.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ufind.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ufile.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ueqn.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uenv.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uedit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/udirname.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/udircmp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/udate.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucsh.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ubreak.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ucompres.htm

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Command Descriptionfsck Check and repair a Linux file system.ftp Enables ftp access to another terminal.groupadd Creates a new group account.groupdel Enables a super user or root to remove a group.groupmod Enables a super user or root to modify a group.gunzip Expand compressed files.gview A programmers text editor.gzip Compress files.halt Stop the computer.

help If computer has online help documentation installed thiscommand will display it.history Display the history of commands typed.ifconfig Sets up network interfaces.jobs List the jobs currently running in the background.

kill Cancels a job.

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/fsck.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/software/ftp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/groupadd.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/groupdel.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/groupmod.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uzcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/vim.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uzcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhalt.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhelp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhistory.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uifconfi.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ujobs.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ukill.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ukill.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ujobs.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uifconfi.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhistory.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhelp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhalt.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uzcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/vim.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uzcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/groupmod.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/groupdel.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/groupadd.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/software/ftp.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/fsck.htm

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Command Descriptionlink Calls the link function to create a link to a file.ln Creates a link to a file.login Signs into a new system.logname Returns users login name.logout Logs out of a system.ls Lists the contents of a directory.mail One of the ways that allows you to read/send E-Mail.make Executes a list of shell commands associated with each target.man Display a manual of a command.mesg Control if non-root users can send text messages to you.mkdir Create a directory.mkfs Build a Linux file system, usually a hard disk partition.more Displays text one screen at a time.mount Disconnects a file systems and remote resources.mv Renames a file or moves it from one directory to another directory.newform Change the format of a text file.

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/link.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uln.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ulogin.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ulogname.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uls.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umail.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umake.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uman.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umesg.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umkdir.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/mkfs.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umore.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umount.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umv.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/unewform.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/unewform.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umv.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umount.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umore.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/mkfs.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umkdir.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umesg.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uman.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umake.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/umail.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uls.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ulogname.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ulogin.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uln.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/link.htm

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Command Descriptionpack Shrinks file into a compressed file.pagesize Display the size of a page of memory in bytes, as returned bygetpagesize.passwd Allows you to change your password.paste Merge corresponding or subsequent lines of files.pcat Compresses file.ping Sends ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packets to network hosts.poweroff Stop the computer.quit Allows you to exit from a program, shell or log you out of a

Unix network.

reboot Stop the computer.rm Deletes a file without confirmation (by default).rmdir Deletes a directory.route Show / manipulate the IP routing table.script Records everything printed on your screen.sdiff Compares two files, side-by-side.sendmail Sends mail over the Internet.

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/upack.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upagesiz.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upasswor.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upaste.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uping.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhalt.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhalt.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/urm.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/urmdir.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/route.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uscript.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usdiff.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usendmai.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usendmai.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usdiff.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uscript.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/route.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/urmdir.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/urm.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhalt.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uexit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uhalt.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uping.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upaste.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upasswor.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upagesiz.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/upack.htm

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Command Descriptionset Set the value of an environment variable.setenv Set the value of an environment variable.settime Change file access and modification time.shutdown Turn off the computer immediately or at a specified time.sleep Waits a x amount of seconds.spell Looks through a text file and reports any words that it finds in

the text file that are not in the dictionary.

split Split a file into pieces.stat Display file or filesystem status.stop Control process execution.talk Talk with other logged in users.tar Create tape archives and add or extract files.uncompress Uncompressed compressed files.unpack Expands a compressed file.untar Create tape archives and add or extract files.

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/uset.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usetenv.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/utouch.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ushutdow.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usleep.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uspell.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usplit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/stat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ustop.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/talk.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/utar.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uuncompr.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uunpack.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/utar.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/utar.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uunpack.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uuncompr.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/utar.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/talk.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ustop.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/stat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usplit.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uspell.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usleep.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/ushutdow.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/utouch.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usetenv.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uset.htm

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Command Descriptionuntil Execute a set of actions while/until conditions are evaluated TRUE.

useradd Create a new user or updates default new user information.userdel Remove a users account.usermod Modify a users account.vacation Reply to mail automatically.

while Repetitively execute a set of actions while/until conditions areevaluated TRUE.

who Displays who is on the system.write Send a message to another user.zcat Compress files.

Lista complet a comenzilor:

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/overview.htm

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/uuntil.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/useradd.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/userdel.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usermod.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uvacatio.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uuntil.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uwho.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/write.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uzcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/overview.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/overview.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uzcat.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/write.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uwho.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uuntil.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uvacatio.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/usermod.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/userdel.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/useradd.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uuntil.htm

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http://www.linux.org/

Learn UNIX in 10 minutes [2001]:

http://freeengineer.org/learnUNIXin10minutes.html

Linux / Unix manual :

http://www.computerhope.com/unix/uman.htm#01 Dezvoltarea Linux: http://www.operating-

system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htm

Comenzi Linux:

http://www.pixelbeat.org/cmdline.html &http://www.perpetualpc.net/srtd_commands_rev.html

Comenzi Unix:http://mally.stanford.edu/~sr/computing/basic-

unix.html

http://www.linux.org/http://freeengineer.org/learnUNIXin10minutes.htmlhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uman.htmhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htmhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htmhttp://www.pixelbeat.org/cmdline.htmlhttp://www.perpetualpc.net/srtd_commands_rev.htmlhttp://mally.stanford.edu/~sr/computing/basic-unix.htmlhttp://mally.stanford.edu/~sr/computing/basic-unix.htmlhttp://mally.stanford.edu/~sr/computing/basic-unix.htmlhttp://mally.stanford.edu/~sr/computing/basic-unix.htmlhttp://mally.stanford.edu/~sr/computing/basic-unix.htmlhttp://www.perpetualpc.net/srtd_commands_rev.htmlhttp://www.pixelbeat.org/cmdline.htmlhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htmhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htmhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htmhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htmhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/unix/uman.htmhttp://freeengineer.org/learnUNIXin10minutes.htmlhttp://www.linux.org/