qualitative research 質性研究 / 定性研究中央大學. 資訊管理系范錚強 mailto:...

Qualitative Research

質性研究 / 定性研究

中央大學 . 資訊管理系范錚強

mailto: [email protected]

2010.05

12

中央資管：范錚強 2

質性研究

研究者本身作為研究的工具 (instrument)

透過其針對研究對象的訪談、觀察、文件分析等，經由資料的詮釋，獲得進一步的瞭解


Why Use Qualitative Research?

“Most of what influences what we say and do occurs below the level of awareness. That’s why we need new techniques: to get at hidden knowledge – to get at what people don’t know they know.”

Jerry Zaltman


Focus Groups


EthnographyEthnography

ObservationObservationData

CollectionTechniques

Data Collection

Techniques

IDIsIDIs

Case Studies

Action ResearchGrounded

Theory

GroupInterviews



Trace EvidenceTrace Evidence

ArtifactsArtifacts

OtherTechniques

OtherTechniques

Behavioral ObservationsBehavioral

Observations

Textual Analysis

Debriefings


Qualitative Research in Business

Job Analysis

Advertising Concept Development

Productivity Enhancement

New Product Development

Benefits Management

Retail Design

Process Understanding

Union Representation

Market Segmentation

Sales Analysis


Data Sources

PeoplePeople

OrganizationsOrganizationsTextsTexts

EnvironmentsEnvironments

Events and happeningsEvents and happenings

Artifacts/ media products

Artifacts/ media products


Distinction between Qualitative & Quantitative

Theory Testing

Theory Building


瞭解研究問題

實質問題我的研究到底做些什麼？ what is my study about?

形式Am I asking a “who,” “what,” “where,” “why,” or “how” question?

研究問題的形式，提供了選擇適當研究策略的提示


研究策略的選擇

研究的最重要的的一步：定義研究問題判定研究問題的類型一般而言：

什麼 (what) ：探索性 (exploratory)

如何 (how) 、為何 (why) ：驗證 (confirmatory)


實徵性 Empirical 研究分類

依研究階段探索性： exploratory

hypothesis building （達爾文）驗證性： confirmatory

hypothesis testing

依實徵資料蒐集方法分類質性研究 Qualitative Research

個案研究，田野調查，參與觀察，歷史探索，行動研究定量研究（數量化研究） Quantitative Research

問卷調查，實驗室實驗，實地實驗，內容分析


構念層次

探索：構念的形成

實質層次

因果、共變關係

推論：因果關係

y測量

誤差

x誤差

測量

X Y抽象化構念化

抽象化構念化


The Roots of Qualitative Research

Psychology

Anthropology

Communication

SociologySemiotics符號學

Economics



社會科學研究哲學

Positivism 實證主義康德 (Comte)the only authentic knowledge is that which is based on sense experience and positive verification.

Interpretivism or Anti- positivism/Hermeneutics 詮釋主義韋伯 (Max Weber) ，黑格爾 (Hegel) ：辯證法the study of the interpretation of written texts (also, verbal and nonverbal forms of communication)non-positivist research is usually qualitative, while positivist research is more quantitative.

Interactionismmeaning is produced through the interactions of individuals..


質性研究的理念分類 1

傳記研究 Biography 研究個人，以及其陳述的經驗

現像學 Phenomenology研究多個個人，以及他們所陳述的經驗

紮根理論 Grounded Theory社會學：針對一個特定情境，試圖從現像中推演理論

民俗誌 Ethnography人類學：針對一個文化的描述和詮釋


質性研究的理念分類 2

個案研究針對一個或多個對象的描述和詮釋

行動研究組織發展：研究者參與到行動中以規劃、實施、監測行動的變化，並利用研究者的理論與經驗服務於被研究對象

歷史研究詮釋事件之間的關連


質性研究的資料蒐集方法

次級資料觀察訪談

個人、群體


質性研究的資料分析方法

程序：Data collection

Data reduction

Data display

Conclusion drawing and Verification


Qualitative

Understanding

Interpretation

Focus of Research

Quantitative

Description

Explanation


Researcher Involvement

Qualitative

High

Participation-based

Quantitative

Limited

Controlled


Research Design

Qualitative

Longitudinal

Multi-method

Quantitative

Cross-sectional or longitudinal

Single method


Sample Design and Size

Qualitative

Non-probability

Purposive

Small sample

Quantitative

Probability

Large sample


Data Type and Preparation

Qualitative

Verbal or pictorial

Reduced to verbal codes

Quantitative

Verbal descriptions

Reduced to numeric codes


TurnaroundQualitative

Shorter turnaround possible 但是，總期程長Insight development ongoing

QuantitativeMay be time-consuming (for a sample)總期程長Insight development follows data entry


Data Analysis

Qualitative

Nonquantitative; human

Judgment mixed with fact

Emphasis on themes

Quantitative

Computerized analysis

Facts distinguished

Emphasis on counts


Qualitative Research and the Research Process


Pretasking Activities

Use product in homeUse product in home

Bring visual stimuliBring visual stimuli

Create collageCreate collage

Keep diariesKeep diaries

Construct a storyConstruct a story

Draw picturesDraw pictures


Choosing a Qualitative Method

Types of participants

Types of participants

Researcher characteristics

Researcher characteristics

FactorsFactors

ScheduleSchedule

Budget

Topics

Project’s purpose


NonProbability Sampling

PurposiveSampling

SnowballSampling

Convenience Sampling


Qualitative Sampling

General sampling rule:

You should keep conducting interviews until no new insights are gained.


The Interview Question Hierarchy


Interviewer Responsibilities

Recommends topics and questions

Controls interview

Plans location and facilities

Proposes criteria for drawing sample

Writes screener

Recruits participants

Develops pretasking activities

Prepares research tools

Supervises transcription

Helps analyze data

Draws insights

Writes report


Elements of a Recruitment Screener

Heading

Screening requirements

Identity information

Introduction

Security questions

Demographic questions

Behavior questions

Lifestyle questions

Attitudinal and knowledge questions

Articulation and creative questions

Offer/ Termination


Interview Formats

Unstructured

Semi-structured

Structured


Requirements for Unstructured Interviews

Distinctions

Developed dialog

Interviewer skill

Probe foranswers

Interviewer creativity


The Interview Mode

GroupIndividual


IDI vs Group

Individual Interview Group InterviewResearch Objective

Explore life of individual in depth

Create case histories: repeated interviews over time

Test a survey

Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and the language of the field

Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and behaviors

Observe a process of consensus and disagreement

Topic Concerns

Detailed individual experiences, choices, biographies

Sensitive issues that might provoke anxiety

Issues of public interest or common concern

Issues where little is known or of a hypothetical nature

Participants

Time-pressed participants or those difficult to recruit (e.g., elite or high-status participants)

Participants with sufficient language skills (e.g., those older than seven)

Participants whose distinctions would inhibit participation

Participants whose backgrounds are similar or not so dissimilar as to generate conflict or discomfort

Participants who can articulate their ideas

Participants who offer a range of positions on issues


Types of Research Using IDIs個人深入訪談

Cultural interviewsCultural

interviews

Sequential interviewingSequential

interviewingTypesTypes

Life historiesLife histories

Critical incident techniques

Oral histories

EthnographyEthnography


METMET

Projective Techniques

Sensory sortsSensory sorts

Semantic Mapping

Semantic Mapping Data

CollectionTechniques

Data Collection

Techniques

Sentence CompletionSentence

Completion

CartoonsCartoons

Thematic Apperception

Thematic Apperception

LadderingLaddering AssociationAssociation

Component SortsComponent Sorts ImaginationExercises

ImaginationExercises


個人深入訪談

雙向對談評估

可獲得深入且大量細節的研究資料，比一其他方法獲得的資料品質更佳可獲得詮釋資料的協助更好的控制：可以因受訪者不同，而調整用語成本高：時間和金錢

可中斷訪談──降低成本但，如果該樣本是關鍵性的…


成功的個人訪談

受訪者具有研究所需的資料受訪者瞭解其所扮演的角色有足夠的誘因使受訪者配合過濾性的問題──資訊層次

確定繼續訪談受訪者訪談者的角色

解釋輔導鼓勵


訪談技巧 (I)

增加受訪者的配合意願相信過程會是愉快和令人滿意的認為回答問題是重要且值得的能達成一些心理滿足感

開始：破冰萬一受訪者正在忙，或是不在…建立良好的關係

愉快信任


訪談技巧 (II)

蒐集資料──刺探簡單的表明瞭解和興趣一個期望的表明、暫停重複問題重複受訪者的答案──確認中性的問題，或評論澄清性問題──追問

訪談的紀錄筆記、錄音、錄影先徵求當事人同意

選擇和訓練訪談人假設這是個大規模的研究，有眾多訪談者


工具（問卷）

是的，訪談也有問卷結構性的問卷非結構性的檢查清單

階段一：發展問卷的設計策略階段二：建構問題和測量方法階段三：草擬問卷和修改問卷


問卷的用語 / 文字使用

問題是否以共通的用語來呈現問卷中使用的用語是否沒有多重意義避免混淆的用語

問題是否隱含一些未被證實或扭曲的假設問題中是否有可能偏誤的用詞該問題是否適當的個人化

不同的受訪者族群，可能需要不同的用語若有選項，選項是否完整涵蓋所有可能性


開始和受訪者的過濾

讓受訪者有配合的誘因適當揭露訪談中問題的大致方向告知所需的時間可能包含過濾性的問題揭露研究單位、委託單位和研究目標建立開始的接觸


終止訪談

問題：當受訪者沒有正確的回答過濾性的問題，是否或如何終止訪談？當受訪者決定停止訪談時，如何終止？


資料的獲取和整理

記錄整理筆記─文稿整理錄音帶─轉錄成文字稿

文字的分析模版比對：找尋特殊 pattern內容分析語幹分析

詮釋Gaining insight


Projective Techniques

需要找出隱藏的意義，無法直接經由問答得到。可採用投射方法

p.173/174


Group Interviews

Dyads

Triads

Mini-Groups

Small Groups

(Focus Group)

Supergroups


Determining the Number of Groups

ScopeScope

Number of distinct segmentsNumber of distinct segments

Desired number of ideasDesired number of ideas

Desired level of detailDesired level of detail

HomogeneityHomogeneity

Level of distinctionLevel of distinction


Group Interview Modes

Telephone

Online

Videoconference

Face-to-Face


Selecting the Data Collection Method


Selecting an Observation Data Collection Approach


觀察研究

定性研究的一環可以和其他方式一起進行

如︰訪談、問卷、二手資料等多為研究的探索性階段


觀察研究

非行為的觀察記錄分析實質狀況分析實質過程分析

行為的觀察非語言的分析語言的分析（包含語言外的分析）空間的分析


優點

有時是唯一可行的方法在事件發生時，即時蒐集資料掌握可能被遺漏的資料

如︰福爾摩斯可在整個事件發生的自然情境下蒐集資料該情境接受觀察的干擾


限制

事件發生的不可預測性緩慢而昂貴只能掌握到「檯面上」的動作和表面的情報主觀的判斷和記錄無法用以了解已經過去的事件


進行觀察研究觀察研究的種類

簡單或有系統性的觀察觀察研究的結構

完全非結構性－－自然情境非結構性－－實驗室結構性－－自然情境完全結構性－－實驗室

內容的規範觀察的目標

觀察者的訓練觀察者間的一致性

資料蒐集 (Who; What; When; How)


選擇觀察者的準則

能在很多干擾的情境下專注能記憶很多經歷事件的細節能在觀察情境下不引起注意能在觀察的資料中萃取最多的 insight—抽象化能力


Research Design

How?How?

Where?Where?

Task DetailsTask Details

What?(event or time)

What?(event or time)

When?

Who?


觀察資料的蒐集

Who

What 事件抽樣時間抽樣

When

How

Where


Content of Observation

Factual InferentialIntroduction/identification of salesperson and customer. Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of customer.

Time and day of week. Convenience for the customer. Welcoming attitude of the customer

Product presented. Customer interest in product.

Selling points presented per product. Customer acceptance of selling points of product.

Number of customer objections raised per product. Customer concerns about features and benefits.

Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection. Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal attempts.

Salesperson’s attempt to restore controls. Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt. Consequences for customer who prefers interaction.

Length of interview. Customer’s/salesperson’s degree of enthusiasm for the interview.

Environmental factors interfering with the interview. Level of distraction for the customer.

Customer purchase decision. General evaluation of sale presentation skill.


非干擾性的量測

反應性的線索非干擾性的測量

間接測量歷史資料搜尋觀察分類

物理現象的痕跡磨損、消耗、風化累積（如︰垃圾學）

其他方法的極佳輔助


Data Collection

WatchingWatching

ListeningListening

TouchingTouching

SmellingSmelling

ReadingReading


Using Observation

Systematic planningSystematic planning

Properly controlledProperly controlled

Consistently dependableConsistently dependable

Accurate account of eventsAccurate account of events


Observation Classification

Nonbehavioral

Physical condition analysis

Process or Activity analysis

Record analysis

Behavioral

Nonverbal

Linguistic

Extralinguistic

Spatial


Nonbehavioral Observation

Record Analysis

Physical Condition Analysis

Physical Process Analysis


Behavioral Observation

“We noticed people scraping the toppings off our pizza crusts. We thought at first there was something wrong, but they said, ‘We love it, we just don’t eat the crust anymore.”

Tom Santor, Donatos Pizza


Systematic Observation

Encoding observation information

Encoding observation information

StructuredStructured

SystematicSystematic

Trained observersTrained

observers

Standardized procedures

Recording schedules


Flowchart for Checklist Design


觀察者和觀察標的的關係

直接或是間接觀察間接例︰單面鏡外的心理學家？

觀察者的身分是否被受觀察者所知道隱瞞或公開

觀察者的角色參與者或純粹觀察

局外觀察者現場觀察者參與觀察者

Participative Observation

局內人觀察


Extralinguistic Observation

Vocal

Temporal

Interaction

Verbal Stylistic


記錄

記憶每天晚上回去整理成筆記

筆記、速記錄音、錄影


Errors Introduced by Observers

Observer DriftHalo Effect


Evaluation of Behavioral Observation

Strengths

Securing information that is otherwise unavailable

Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting

Securing environmental context

Optimizing naturalness

Reducing obtrusiveness

Weaknesses

Enduring long periods

Incurring higher expenses

Having lower reliability of inferences

Quantifying data

Keeping large records

Being limited on knowledge of cognitive processes


Combining Qualitative Methodologies

Action ResearchCase Study


Triangulation: Merging Qualitative and Quantitative

Conduct studies simultaneously

Perform series:Qualitative,

Quantitative, Qualitative

Ongoing qualitative with multiple waves

of quantitative

Quantitative precedes Qualitative

qualitative research 質性研究 / 定性研究 中央大學. 資訊管理系 范錚強 mailto:...

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qualitative research 質性研究 / 定性研究中央大學. 資訊管理系范錚強 mailto:...